This is an accepted version of this page
112-402: Anti-Black racism , also called anti-Black sentiment , anti-Blackness , colourphobia or Negrophobia , is characterised by prejudice, collective hatred, and discrimination or extreme aversion towards people who are racialised as Black people , especially those people from sub-Saharan Africa and its diasporas , as well as a loathing of Black culture worldwide. Such sentiment includes, but
224-633: A Pew Research Center survey found that negative views concerning Jews were most common in the three predominantly Arab nations which were polled, with 97% of Lebanese having an unfavorable opinion of Jews, 95% of Egyptians and 96% of Jordanians. The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohammed Mahdi Akef has denounced what he called "the myth of the Holocaust " in defense of the former-Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 's denial of it. In an article in October 2000 columnist Adel Hammoda alleged in
336-486: A cultural genocide . A number of discriminatory laws against Chinese Indonesians were enacted by the government of Indonesia . In 1959, President Sukarno approved PP 10/1959 that forced Chinese Indonesians to close their businesses in rural areas and relocate into urban areas. Moreover, political pressures in the 1970s and 1980s restricted the role of the Chinese Indonesian in politics, academics, and
448-634: A " slow-motion genocide " in West Papua . Hostility towards the LGBT community has been recently reported, especially in Aceh . Japan had successfully isolated itself from the outside world, allowing anti-foreign sentiments and myths to multiply unchecked by actual observation. In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and it also stated that the government's recognition of
560-544: A 2010–2014 World Values Survey , 44.2% of South Koreans reported they would not want an immigrant or foreign worker as a neighbor. Racist attitudes are more commonly expressed towards immigrants from other Asian countries and Africa, and less so towards European and white North American immigrants who can occasionally receive what has been described as "overly kind treatment". Related discrimination have also been reported with regards to mixed-race children, Chinese Korean , and North Korean immigrants. There are no laws within
672-463: A band of Maderista soldiers entered Torreón, Mexico , and massacred 303 Chinese and five Japanese . Historian Larissa Schwartz argues that Kang Youwei had successfully organized the prosperous Chinese businessmen there, making them a visible target for class antagonism made extreme by xenophobia. The Chinese were easy to identify in northern cities and were frequent targets especially in Sonora in
784-531: A complaint by a religious Jew who was denied entry by stating that security concerns required that travelers who are entering the Hashemite Kingdom should not do so with prayer shawls ( Tallit ) and phylacteries ( Tefillin ). Jordanian authorities state that the policy is to ensure the Jewish tourists' safety. In July 2009, six Breslov Hasidim were deported after attempting to enter Jordan to visit
896-471: A complex xenophobic discourse. Given ancient Egypt's long history, Egyptians encountered a number of different peoples. Peoples living in present-day Greece , Sudan , and Turkey , for instance, were referred to by various names in Egyptian . According to one source, "...all the names have at the end the same hieroglyphic sign– a determinative or taxogram– indicating the word-group. This is the hieroglyph for
1008-402: A continuation of xenophobic attacks on Chinese Americans for 150 years. In 1991–92, Bhutan is said to have deported between 10,000 and 100,000 ethnic Nepalis ( Lhotshampa ). The actual number of refugees who were initially deported is debated by both sides. In March 2008, this population began a multiyear resettlement in third countries including the U.S., Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Denmark,
1120-868: A form of self-defence based on their perception of the victim as a threat because of their Blackness. This approach focusses on the personal culpability of the individual defendant, and their state of mind. Armour critiques this view as equating anti-Black sentiment with insanity and allowing a person's racial fear to legally justify and even excuse violent behaviour. In response to Black Lives Matter organising contemporary scholars of education, human resource development, and critical management studies have begun focusing on anti-Blackness in schools and places of business. These efforts build on established critical race discourses in their respective fields and incorporate concepts from Afropessimism . Slavery in Mauritania persists despite its abolition in 1980 and mostly affects
1232-446: A hilly country or the desert– indicating 'foreign land' (khaset)...By contrast, Egypt (Kemet/Black land) is written with the determinative for a town. This indicates that Egyptians regarded their part of the world as cultivated, ordered and civilized, while the other countries were not." This indicates an early example of a xenophobic attitude towards other peoples. In addition, ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics indicate xenophobic ideas about
SECTION 10
#17327878448341344-773: A long history. Historically, Mexicans with light skin tones had absolute control over dark skinned Amerindians due to the structure of the Spanish colonial caste system. When a Mexican of a darker-skinned tone marries one of a lighter skinned-tone, it is common for them say that they are " 'making the race better' ( mejorando la raza )". This can be interpreted as a self-attack on their ethnicity. Despite improving economic and social conditions of indigenous Mexicans, discrimination against them continues to this day and there are few laws to protect indigenous Mexicans from discrimination. Violent attacks against indigenous Mexicans are moderately common and many times go unpunished. On 15 March 1911,
1456-669: A mass sounding board for what otherwise might have been rather arid denunciations of imperialists. It is well to remember that both Nationalists and Communists have struck this note. In China, xenophobia against non-Chinese residents has been inflamed by the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China , with foreigners being described as "foreign garbage" and targeted for "disposal". Some black people in China were evicted from their homes by police and told to leave China within 24 hours, due to disinformation that they and other foreigners were spreading
1568-596: A mixed-race descent that can include African , Asian , and European ethnic heritage. The term "Coloured" is considered neutral in South African society and is commonly used to refer to individuals who self-identify as such. However, in some Western countries , such as the United Kingdom and the United States , the term "Coloured" has a negative connotation and can be seen as derogatory because it
1680-566: A mob in the city of Bangalore . In 2020, in Uttarakhand's Roorkee Institute of Technology , 2 African students, Ibrahim a Nigerian-Guinean and Benjamin a Ghanaian were attacked by a group of security guards, with Ibrahim being dragged from the second to the ground floor and Benjamin being hit by bamboo sticks. This incident led to the arrest of the Director of the institution along with 7 other individuals. Following incidents of violence,
1792-666: A necessity to conquer non-Egyptians, with Hittites in particular being referred to as "vile". An early example of xenophobic sentiment in Western culture is the Ancient Greek denigration of foreigners as " barbarians ", the belief that the Greek people and culture were superior to all other peoples and cultures , and the subsequent conclusion that barbarians were naturally meant to be enslaved . Ancient Romans also held notions of superiority over other peoples. such as in
1904-501: A product of colonialism. Despite this, the description of negrophobia as an emotional disorder or involuntary reflex has been used as a legal defense to justify violent crimes against Black people, including murder, as a form of self-defense or involuntary reaction. Psychiatrist Frantz Fanon introduced the concept of internalised racism , or internalised negrophobia , pointing to the hatred of Black people and Black culture by Black people themselves . He asserts that anti-Black sentiment
2016-559: A proponent of raciation, pointed out that the concept of racialization is often misidentified as relating to races or what constitutes a race, leading race-skeptic scholars in academia to discourage its use, while it actually pertains to how races are systemically and socially grouped for marginalization. Based on "what it does," the outcome of such marginalization is explained by systemic racism . Xenophobia Xenophobia (from Ancient Greek : ξένος ( xénos ), "strange, foreign, or alien", and φόβος ( phóbos ), "fear")
2128-761: A psychiatrist, Fanon explored negrophobia as an individual and societal "neurosis", although he saw it as the psychological structure underpinning colonial racism. By the middle of the 20th century, the term "Black" came to be preferred over "Negro", and so related terms became outdated. However, negrophobia is still sometimes used to distinguish anti-Black racism from racism more generally. In this sense, Negrophobia may mean an especially strong, violent or transmissible form of anti-Black racism. In France, Une Autre Histoire describes negrophobia as meaning "the most virulent form of racism targeting those who are perceived as 'blacks' by people considering themselves different from 'blacks'" (translation). Adia A. Brooks, who developed
2240-532: A psychodynamic perspective, arguing that negrophobia requires psychological projection , and reveals "a certain psychic dependence of the European upon the black". He also points out that negrophobia, though it can be described as an emotional disorder, is theorised to come from the same "psychodynamic mechanism" as antisemitism , and stresses the importance, in Fanon's account, of negrophobia as inherently racist and
2352-446: A rejection of their native or ethnic language in favour of European languages , a marked preference for European cultures over Black cultures, and a tendency to surround themselves with lighter-skinned people rather than darker-skinned ones. Similarly, the pattern further includes attributing negative characteristics to Black people, culture, and things. Toni Morrison 's novel The Bluest Eye (1970) stands as an illustrative work on
SECTION 20
#17327878448342464-455: A result, Coloureds or Cape Coloureds, as a group of mixed-race descent individuals, also have Black African ancestry and can be considered part of the broader African diaspora . The racial category of Coloureds is a multifaceted and heterogeneous group that exhibits great diversity. Analogously, they can be compared to Black Americans , whose population is composed of approximately 75% West African and 25% Northern European ancestry. However,
2576-577: A severe drought, Boxer violence spread across Shandong and the North China Plain , destroying foreign property, attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians . In June 1900, Boxer fighters, convinced that they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing , and their slogan was "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners." Diplomats, missionaries, soldiers and some Chinese Christians took refuge in
2688-671: A society. Constructs for racialization are centered on erroneous generalizations about racial aspects of distinct groups, leading to the denial of equal societal engagement. It is a fallacy of groupism and a process of racial dominance that has lasting harmful or damaging outcomes for racialized groups. An associated term is self-racialization, which refers to the practice by dominant groups to justify and defend their dominant status or to deny its existence. Individually, self-racialization may not be consistent throughout one's lifetime. The process of racialization can affect newly arriving immigrants as well as their second-generation children in
2800-522: A speech attributed to Manius Acilius : There, as you know, there were Macedonians and Thracians and Illyrians, all most warlike nations, here Syrians and Asiatic Greeks, the most worthless peoples among mankind and born for slavery. Black Africans were considered especially exotic, and perhaps they were considered threateningly alien, so they are seldom if ever mentioned in Roman literature without some negative connotations. The historian Appian claims that
2912-1131: A well documented phenomenon in Brazil. Ellis Monk, Professor of sociology at Harvard University, found that one unit of darkness in a student's skin corresponds to a 26 percent lower chance of the student receiving more education as compared to lighter-skinned students. Further, a study on racial bias in teacher evaluations in Brazil found that Brazilian math teachers gave better grading assessments of white students than equally proficient and equivalently well-behaved black students. Quality of Life Indicators vs. Race Though anti-Black racism specifically refers to people of Black African descent, there are other groups who are identified as Black and whose experiences of racism may share similarities to those of Black Africans. These groups include Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) and Melanesians. Indigenous peoples of Australia , comprising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders peoples, have lived in Australia for at least 65,000 years before
3024-603: A wide range of other protection risks, including racism, discrimination and xenophobia". Since the start of the migrant crisis, media outlets and state officials have raised concerns about increasing discrimination against migrants in the country, especially xenophobia and violence against the migrants. There have been racial tension between the Indo-Guyanese people and the Afro-Guyanese . Racism in Mexico has
3136-414: Is "an element of a political struggle about who has the right to be cared for by the state and society: a fight for the collective good of the modern state." According to Italian sociologist Guido Bolaffi, xenophobia can also be exhibited as an "uncritical exaltation of another culture" which is ascribed "an unreal, stereotyped and exotic quality". In Ancient Egypt , foreigners were conceived of through
3248-468: Is a form of "trauma for white people of the Negro". Equivalent to internalised racism caused by the trauma of living in a culture defining Black people as inherently evil, Fanon emphasises the slight existing cultural intricacies caused by the vast diversity of Black people and cultures, as well as the nature of their colonisation by White Europeans. The symptoms of such internalised anti-Black sentiment include
3360-410: Is a hierarchy of skin color: where blacks, mixed race and dark skinned people are expected to know their place in society." Although 54% of the population is black or has black ancestry, they represented only 24% of the 513 chosen representatives the legislature as of 2018. For many decades, discussions of inequality in Brazil largely ignored the disproportionate correlation between race and class. Under
3472-492: Is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life." A 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center suggested that 76% of black and Asian respondents had experienced some form of discrimination, at least from time to time. Studies which have been conducted by
Anti-Black racism - Misplaced Pages Continue
3584-479: Is largely organized along the lines of race. The racial hierarchy in the United States is pervasive in many aspects of life including housing, education, and employment. The racialized incorporation perspective argues that regardless of the ethnic and cultural differences across immigrant groups, racial identification is the ultimate and primary principle of social organization in the United States. Because
3696-451: Is most dramatically seen in the near absence of non-whites from the upper levels of Brazil's income bracket. According to sociologist Edward Telles , whites are five times more likely to be earning in the highest income bracket (more than $ 2,000/month). Overall, The salary of Whites in Brazil are, on average, 46% over the salary of Blacks. Additionally, racial discrimination in education is
3808-433: Is not limited to: the attribution of negative characteristics to Black people; the fear, strong dislike or dehumanization of Black men; and the objectification (including sexual objectification ) of Black women. Coined by Canadian scholar Dr. Akua Benjamin, the term anti-Black racism (or ABR) applies specifically to racism towards Black people of African descent, as shaped by slavery and European colonialism. However,
3920-457: Is often associated with Haitian migrants and a lower class status. Those who possess more African-like phenotypic features are often victims of discrimination, and are seen as foreigners. In the context of racism in the United States , racism against African Americans dates back to the colonial era , and it continues to be a persistent issue in American society in the 21st century. From
4032-418: Is said to produce a hierarchical arrangement which limits employee agency and mobility based on their race. The process of racialization is reinforced through presupposed, stereotypical qualities which are imposed upon the racialized person by the racializer. Members of the dominant race in a society benefit from various privileges, such as white privilege in societies where people classified as white make up
4144-477: Is scarce and typically relegated for musicians/their shows. In the case of telenovelas , Brazilians of darker skin tone are typically depicted as housekeepers or in positions of lower socioeconomic standing. Muslim and Sikh Canadians have faced racism and discrimination in recent years, especially since the 2001 terrorist attacks on the U.S. and the spillover effect of the United States' War on Terror . An increase in hate crimes targeting Ontario Muslims
4256-489: Is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group that is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity. A 1997 review article on xenophobia holds that it
4368-707: Is towards foreign labourers, who normally came from Indonesia, Bangladesh and Africa. There is also a significant degree of xenophobia towards neighbouring Singaporeans and Indonesians. Xenophobia in South Korea has been recognized by scholars and the United Nations as a widespread social problem. An increase in immigration to South Korea since the 2000s catalyzed more overt expressions of racism, as well as criticism of those expressions. Newspapers have frequently reported on and criticized discrimination against immigrants, in forms such as being paid lower than
4480-527: The PNAS and Nature have found that during traffic stops, officers spoke to black men in a less respectful tone than they spoke to white men and those same studies have also found that black drivers are more likely to be pulled over and searched by police than white drivers. Black people are also reportedly overrepresented as criminals in the media. In 2020 the COVID-19 epidemic was often blamed on China, leading to attacks on Chinese Americans. This represents
4592-635: The Delhi police in 2017 created a special helpline for Africans residing in the National Capital Region as part of their outreach program to assure them of their safety and security. In April 2012, the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet reported that tens of thousands of refugees and African migrant workers who have come to Israel in dangerous smuggling routes, live in southern Tel Aviv's Levinsky Park. SvD reported that some Africans in
Anti-Black racism - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-648: The European Network Against Racism (ENAR). Others use Afrophobia to describe racism and xenophobia against all or some people of African descent, and especially indigenous Africans , for their perceived Africanness. This may also include prejudice against African traditions and culture . For example, Afrophobia is used to describe xenophobia in South Africa against people of other African nationalities for being too racially Black, too culturally African , or both. Anti-Black racism
4816-645: The Northern Territory Intervention which failed to produce a single child abuse conviction, cashless welfare cards trialled almost exclusively in Aboriginal communities, the Community Development Program that has seen Indigenous participants fined at a substantially higher rate than non-Indigenous participants in equivalent work-for-the-dole schemes, and calls to shut down remote Indigenous communities despite
4928-443: The civil rights movement , formal racial discrimination was gradually outlawed by the federal government , and gradually came to be perceived as socially and morally unacceptable by large elements of American society. Despite this, racism against Black Americans remains widespread in the U.S., as does socioeconomic inequality between black and white Americans. In 1863, two years prior to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of
5040-455: The minimum wage , having their wages withheld, unsafe work conditions, physical abuse, or general denigration. After 2010, xenophobia became increasingly prevalent in the widely used social media. Jiyeon Kang reports a common pattern scapegoating dark-skinned migrants by gender, race and class. They are presented as accomplices and beneficiaries of the elite coalition allegedly taking traditional rights away from South Korean male citizens. In
5152-483: The psychological field. In the book Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism , legal scholar Jody David Armour describes the term Involuntary Negrophobia as the legal precedent of defendants using a victim's Blackness as justification for violent crimes against them. Typically, such arguments rest on the idea that racist revulsion and violence directed at Black people is an involuntary reaction, such as with PTSD, and thus not an intentional criminal act; or that it constitutes
5264-577: The 1930s. Systematic persecution resulted from economic, political, and psychological fears of the Chinese, and the government showed little interest in protecting them. Theresa Alfaro-Velcamp argues that the Porfiriato, 1876–1910 promoted immigration from the Middle East. However the revolution of 1910–20 saw a surge in xenophobia and nationalism based on "mestizaje." The community divided into
5376-406: The 1973 household survey and compares the income and occupations of father-son pairs. Based on his findings, he concluded that the level of economic mobility in Brazil should have been enough to overcome inequality left from slavery had opportunities been available equally. Racial inequality is seen primarily through lower levels of education and income for non-whites than whites. Economic inequality
5488-549: The 21st century. Nevertheless, negrophobia had a clinical and satirical edge that made it popular with abolitionists. In 1856, abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe published Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp , a novel which explored the fear of Blackness within negrophobia via the titular character Dred, a Black revolutionary Maroon . After abolition, negrophobia continued to be used to refer to anti-Black racism, but terms based on race also appeared around
5600-577: The COVID-19 pandemic. Since 2017, China has come under intense international criticism for its treatment of one million Muslims (the majority of them are Uyghurs , a Turkic ethnic minority mostly in Xinjiang ) who are being held in detention camps without any legal process. Critics of the policy have described it as the Sinicization of Xinjiang and some have also called it an ethnocide or
5712-1109: The Cape Coloureds possess an even greater level of complexity due to the presence of Bantu ancestry in their genetic makeup , which is closely linked to the predominantly West African heritage of Black Americans. While Coloureds in South Africa do have Black African ancestry, it is important to recognize that they have a distinct identity and experiences that differ from those of Black South Africans. Despite this, there are instances where Coloureds may face discrimination and prejudice based on their mixed-race descent and Black African ancestry. Furthermore, some individuals who hold prejudiced attitudes towards Black people may also hold negative attitudes towards Coloureds, viewing them as inferior or less desirable due to their mixed-race heritage. Incidents of violence against African students in India are widespread with some being widely covered by local, national and international media. These include
SECTION 50
#17327878448345824-621: The Jardin du Luxembourg in Paris during the 2011 and 2013 abolition of slavery commemorations. Black immigrants who arrived in Britain from the Caribbean in the 1950s faced racism . For many Caribbean immigrants, their first experience of discrimination came when trying to find private accommodation. They were generally ineligible for council housing because only people who had been resident in
5936-613: The Kingdom of Thailand which criminalize racial discrimination and the use of racist cliches. Unlike neighboring nations which were colonized , Thailand's history as an uncolonized state further shaped its existing laws. Anti-refugee sentiment has been significant in Thailand, with a 2016 Amnesty International survey indicating that 74% of surveyed Thais do not believe (to varying degrees) that people should be able to take refuge in other countries to escape war or persecution. In 2008,
6048-449: The Middle East, and Africa. The term racism is not attested before the 20th century, but negrophobia (first recorded between 1810–1820; often capitalised), and later colourphobia (first recorded in 1834), likely originated within the abolitionist movement , where it was used as an analogy to rabies (then called hydrophobia ) to describe the "mad dog" mindset behind the pro-slavery cause and its apparently contagious nature. In 1819,
6160-491: The Multidimensional Negrophobia Index (MNI) to measure anti-Black racism, describes it as a " thought system, or ideology " and "the profound fear or hatred of black people and black culture". Psychologists and sociologists have explored the individual and social psychology of anti-Black racism, often in reference to Fanon's work on negrophobia . Jock McCulloch explores Fanon's conception from
6272-584: The Negroes ), a monthly anti-colonialist newspaper. The term became more widespread outside of North America and the English-speaking world when French Caribbean psychologist and philosopher Frantz Fanon included it in his works Peaux noires masques blancs ( Black Skin, White Masks ) and Les Damnés de la Terre ( The Wretched of the Earth ), again drawing on the rhetoric of racism as disease. As
6384-534: The Netherlands and Australia. At present, the United States is working towards resettling more than 60,000 of these refugees in the US in accordance with its third country settlement program. Brunei law permits positive discrimination in favor of ethnic Malays . The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian , and anti-imperialist uprising which occurred in China between 1899 and 1901. It
6496-693: The Sikh religion favourably. 45% of respondents believed Islam encourages violence. In Quebec in particular, only 17% of respondents had a favourable view of Islam. According to the UNHCR , by June 2019, 1.3 million of the 4 million Venezuelan refugees were in Colombia . Because of their urgent situation, many migrants from Venezuela crossed the border illegally, indicating they had few opportunities to gain "access to legal and other rights or basic services and are exposed to exploitation, abuse, manipulation and
6608-505: The UK for a minimum of five years qualified for it. At the time, there was no anti-discrimination legislation to prevent landlords from refusing to accept black tenants. A survey undertaken in Birmingham in 1956 found that only 15 of a total of 1,000 white people surveyed would let a room to a black tenant. As a result, many black immigrants were forced to live in slum areas of cities, where
6720-636: The UNHCR. New Zealand, which is 30 times smaller than Japan, accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999. Just 305 persons were recognized as refugees by Japan from 1981, when Japan ratified the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees , to 2002. Former Prime Minister Taro Aso called Japan a "one race" nation. A 2019 Ipsos poll also suggested that Japanese respondents had a relatively lower sympathy for refugees compared to most other countries in
6832-538: The United Nation's Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples specifying governments must facilitate the rights of Indigenous people to live on traditional land. Tens of thousands of South Sea Islanders were kidnapped from islands nearby to Australia and sold as slaves to work on the colony's agricultural plantations through a process known as blackbirding . This trade in what were then known as Kanakas
SECTION 60
#17327878448346944-643: The United States brought in large numbers of laborers from the Caribbean—called " Afro-Panamanians "—to build the Panama Canal (1905–1914), xenophobia emerged. The local elite in Panama felt its culture was threatened: they cried out, "La Patria es el Recuerdo." ("The Homeland is the Memory") and developed a Hispanophile elitist identity through an artistic literary movement known as "Hispanismo." Another result
7056-576: The United States, and it extends to all communities of color ." Discrimination against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities is widely acknowledged, especially in the case of [African Americans] and African Diasporic peoples in the United States], as well as other ethnic groups. Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority group have perceived discrimination in their dealings with members of other minority racial and religious groups. Philosopher Cornel West has argued that "racism
7168-409: The United States. According to sociologist Ali R. Chaudhary, the concept of racialized incorporation bridges the idea of assimilation with critical race studies in general and the concept of racialization in particular. While immigrants may possess specific ethnic and cultural identities associated with their countries of origin, once they arrive in the U.S., they are incorporated into a society that
7280-468: The White and her own community. While the latter theoretical framework is academically debated, Fanon insists on the nature of anti-Black sentiment as a socio-diagnosis, thus characterising not individuals but rather entire societies and their patterns. Fanon thereby implies that anti-Black sentiment is a cross-disciplinary area of research, justifying that its analysis and understanding may not be confined to
7392-745: The ancient divide remains. The ruling bidanes are descendants of the Sanhaja Berbers and Beni Ḥassān Arab tribes who emigrated to northwest Africa and present-day Western Sahara and Mauritania during the Middle Ages . Many descendants of the Beni Ḥassān tribes today still adhere to the supremacist ideology of their ancestors, which has caused the oppression, discrimination and even enslavement of other groups in Mauritania. Mixed-race people in South Africa are referred to as Coloureds or Cape Coloureds . This term includes individuals with
7504-615: The arrival of the First Fleet in 1788. The colonisation of Australia and development into a modern nation, saw explicit and implicit racial discrimination against Indigenous Australians. Indigenous Australians continue to be subjected to racist government policy and community attitudes. Racist community attitudes towards Aboriginal people have been confirmed as continuing both by surveys of Indigenous Australians and self-disclosure of racist attitudes by non-Indigenous Australians. Since 2007, government policy considered to be racist include
7616-526: The arrival of the first Africans in early colonial times until after the American Civil War , most African Americans were enslaved . Even free African Americans have faced restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms, being subjected to lynchings , segregation , Black Codes , Jim Crow laws , and other forms of discrimination, both before and after the Civil War. Thanks to
7728-570: The bitterness and hatred which existed towards Americans and Europeans in the decades before the Communist takeover in 1949 , she argues: The crude fear of the white peril that the last imperial dynasty had been able to exploit in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 had been submerged but not overcome, and expanding special privileges of foreigners were irritants in increasingly wide spheres of Chinese life. These fears and irritations provided
7840-399: The category of "Coloured persons" was used to refer to all people of mixed race. This included various ethnicities, such as Khoikhoi , San , Cape Malays , Griquas , Korannas , Creoles , Negroes , and Cape Coloureds. What is particularly noteworthy about the classification of "Coloured persons" is that it included individuals of Black African descent, who were commonly known as Negroes. As
7952-406: The country's Arab citizens." The 2005 US Department of State report on Israel wrote: "[T]he government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas, including... institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens ." The 2010 U.S. State Department Country Report stated that Israeli law prohibits discrimination on
8064-589: The depth of the problem was not total. The author of the report, Doudou Diène ( Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights ), concluded after a nine-day investigation that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affected three groups: national minorities , Latin Americans of Japanese descent , mainly Japanese Brazilians , and foreigners from poor countries. Surveys conducted in 2017 and 2019 have shown that 40 to nearly 50% of
8176-625: The descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery who now live in Mauritania as "black Moors " or haratin and who partially still serve the "white Moors", or bidhan , as slaves. The practice of slavery in Mauritania is most dominant within the traditional upper class of the Moors. For centuries, the haratin lower class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been considered natural slaves by these Moors. Social attitudes have changed among most urban Moors, but in rural areas,
8288-456: The destroying effects of anti-Black sentiment among the Black community on themselves. The main character, Pecola Breedlove, through her non-reconciliation with her Black identity, her Black societal indifference, and her craving for symbolic blue eyes, presents all the signs of an internalised anti-Black sentiment. She develops an anti-Black neurosis due to her feeling of non-existence both within
8400-644: The diplomatic Legation Quarter . They were besieged for 55 days by the Imperial Army of the Chinese government and the Boxers. George Makari says that the Boxers, "promoted a violent hatred of all those from other lands and made no effort to distinguish the beneficent from the rapacious ones.... They were unabashedly xenophobic." The Boxers were overthrown by an Eight Nation Alliance of American, Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian troops—20,000 in all—that invaded China to lift
8512-524: The dominant racial group, whether these are material or psychological, and are maintained and reproduced within social systems. Furthermore, research by Edna Bonacich, Sabrina Alimahomed Jake B. Wilson, 2008 regarding the effects of race and criminal background on employment concluded that "dominant racialized labor groups (mainly White/European workers) are in general afforded more privileges than subordinate racialized labor groups (workers of color)" Additionally, According to Chetty, Hendren, Kline, and Saez,
8624-448: The economically prosperous Lebanese Mexicans who took pride in a distinct Lebanese-Mexican identity, while the downscale remainder often merged into the mestizo community. Racism against indigenous people has been a current problem in Mexico. Domestic workers, many of whom are indigenous women who have moved from rural villages to cities, often face discrimination including verbal, physical or sexual abuse. Peter Szok argues that when
8736-496: The effect of race segregation impacts the labor market, saying "upward income mobility is significantly lower in areas with larger African American Populations". Racialization and gender can often intersect. Racialized gender-specific categories can emerge in the process of racialization. For example, an African woman who immigrates to the United States may be viewed through stereotypes pertaining to African-American women. In Canadian politics, conservative representatives view
8848-457: The foreigners who were surveyed have experienced some form of discrimination. Another report has also noted differences in how the media and some Japanese treat visitors from the West as compared to those from East Asia, with the latter being viewed much less positively than the former. Japan accepted just 16 refugees in 1999, while the United States took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to
8960-550: The housing was of poor quality and there were problems of crime, violence and prostitution. One of the most notorious slum landlords was Peter Rachman , who owned around 100 properties in the Notting Hill area of London. Black tenants sometimes paid twice the rent of white tenants, and lived in conditions of extreme overcrowding. In a 2013 survey of 80 countries by the World Values Survey , Canada ranked among
9072-685: The late 1970s to the early 1990s, a number of unarmed Black Canadian men in Toronto were shot or killed by Toronto Police officers. In response, the Black Action Defence Committee (BADC) was founded in 1988. BADC's executive director, Dudley Laws , stated that Toronto had the "most murderous" police force in North America, and that police bias against blacks in Toronto was worse than in Los Angeles . In 1990, BADC
9184-412: The lived experiences of Whites and Blacks in U.S. society diverge in most areas of social life, the racialized category that immigrants and their children are incorporated into will largely determine their experiences and opportunities in the United States. The process of racialization and involuntary incorporation is a topic of research interest in the United States. Religious groups can also go through
9296-522: The local economy, some of protesters were seen throwing eggs at African immigrants In Europe, anti-Black sentiment finds its roots in the 17th century due to its extensive historical colonisation and slavery . In 2005, an anti-negrophobia brigade (BAN) was created in France to protest against increasing numbers of targeted acts and occurrences of police violence against Black people. The latter protest movements notably underwent severe police violence in
9408-663: The military commander Marcus Junius Brutus , before the battle of Philippi in 42BC, met an 'Ethiopian' outside the gates of his camp: his soldiers instantly hacked the man to pieces, taking his appearance for a bad omen—to the superstitious Roman, black was the colour of death." The COVID-19 pandemic , which was first reported in the city of Wuhan , Hubei, China, in December 2019, has led to an increase in acts and displays of Sinophobia , as well as prejudice , xenophobia, discrimination, violence , and racism against people of East Asian and Southeast Asian descent and appearance around
9520-426: The military. As a result, they were thereafter constrained professionally to becoming entrepreneurs and professional managers in trade, manufacturing, and banking. In 1998, Indonesia riots over higher food prices and rumors of hoarding by merchants and shopkeepers often degenerated into anti-Chinese attacks. Native Papuans in the country have faced racism, and several reports have accused Indonesia of committing
9632-464: The most racially tolerant societies in the world. Nevertheless, according to Statistics Canada 's Ethnic Diversity Survey, released in September 2003, when asked about the five-year period from 1998 to 2002 nearly one-third (32 per cent) of respondents who identified as Black reported that they had been subjected to some form of racial discrimination or unfair treatment "sometimes" or "often". From
9744-772: The murder of a 29 year old Congolese national, Masonda Ketada Olivier, in May 2016, who was beaten to death by 3 men in South Delhi over a fight about hiring an auto rickshaw . This incident triggered widespread condemnation from African students in India, the African Heads of Mission in New Delhi, along with local backlash against Indian minorities in the Congo . In March 2015, 4 men from the Ivory Coast were assaulted by
9856-459: The national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent. Many Brazilians still think that race impacts life in their country. A research article published in 2011 indicated that 63.7% of Brazilians believe that race interferes with the quality of life , 59% believe it makes a difference at work, and 68.3% in questions related to police justice. According to Ivanir dos Santos (the former Justice Ministry's specialist on race affairs), "There
9968-645: The park sleep on cardboard boxes under the stars, others crowd in dark hovels. Also was noted a situation with African refugees, such as Sudanese from Darfur, Eritreans, Ethiopians and other African nationalities, who stand in queue to the soup kitchen, organized by Israeli volunteers. The interior minister reportedly "wants everyone to be deported". In May 2012, disgruntlement toward Africans and calls for deportation and "blacks out" in Tel Aviv boiled over into death threats, fire bombings, rioting, and property destruction. Protesters blamed immigrants for worsening crime and
10080-479: The process of racialization. Adherents of Judaism , Islam , and Sikhism can be racialized when they are portrayed as possessing certain physical characteristics, despite the fact that many individual adherents of those religions do not possess any of those physical characteristics. Marta Maria Maldonado has identified the racialization of labor to involve the segregation and appointment of workers based on perceived ethnic differences. This racialization of labor
10192-438: The racial democracy thesis, it was assumed that any disparity in wealth between white and non-white Brazilians was due to the legacy of slavery and broader issues of inequality and lack of economic mobility in the country. The general consensus was that the problem would fix itself given enough time. This hypothesis was examined in 1982 by sociologist José Pastore in his book Social Mobility in Brazil . In his book, Pastore examines
10304-537: The siege in August 1900. The allies imposed the Boxer Protocol in 1901, with a massive annual cash indemnity to be paid by the Chinese government. The episode generated worldwide attention and denunciation of xenophobia. Historian Mary C. Wright has argued that the combination of Chinese nationalism and xenophobia had a major impact on the Chinese worldview in the first half of the 20th century. Examining
10416-467: The sociological concept as patchy. Maxime Bernier described it as "awful jargon" and argued that it contradicts the goal of creating a color-blind society. In response, liberal representatives contended that the realities of racism are more pervasive. They argued that "denying the very real experiences of people who live with racism every day" only supports the status quo and avoids the responsibility of actively working to eradicate racism. In 2019, Hochman,
10528-434: The state-owned Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram that Jews make Matza from the blood of non-Jewish children (see Blood libel ). Mohammed Salmawy, the editor of Al-Ahram Hebdo , "defended the use of old European myths like the blood libel against Jews" in his newspapers. Jordan does not allow entry to Jews who have visible signs of Judaism or possess personal religious items. The Jordanian ambassador to Israel replied to
10640-435: The survey. Sharon Yoon and Yuki Asahina argue that Zaitokukai , a right-wing organization, succeeded in framing Korean minorities as undeserving recipients of Japanese welfare benefits. Even as Zaitokukai declined, the perceptions of a Korean internal threat powerfully influences public fears. The racial tension between the dominant poor Malay Muslims and the minority wealthier Chinese has long characterized Malaysia. It
10752-536: The term Black itself can apply more widely to other groups. Some scholars have called for more recognition of the shared experiences of Blackness for Pacific and non-Atlantic Blacks (or Blaks ), such as Indigenous Australians and Melanesians , although this usage may be controversial. The related terms Negrophobia and colourphobia were terms created by abolitionists in America to refer specifically to racism towards people of Black African descent, who were known at
10864-570: The term was used in U.S. Congressional debates to refer to a "violent aversion or hatred of Negroes". The term negrophobia may also have been inspired by the word nigrophilism , itself first appearing in 1802 in Baudry des Lozières's Les égarements du nigrophilisme . Noting the shift of -phobia terms to cover prejudice and hatred rather than mere fear or aversion, J. L. A. Garcia refers to negrophobia as "the granddaddy of these ‘-phobia’ terms", preceding both xenophobia and homophobia . Both at
10976-492: The time as Negroes or Coloured . Anti-Black racism , sometimes called negrophobia or colourphobia , is discriminatory sentiment towards people racialised as Black , often because the person believes that their race is superior to the Black race. The terms Afrophobia (or Afriphobia) and melanophobia have also been used. Afrophobia, or Afriphobia, is often used to describe racism (particularly systemic racism ) against Black people of African descent , such as by
11088-402: The time, and since, critics of the terms negrophobia and colourphobia have argued that, although their use of -phobia is rhetorical, if taken literally they could be used to excuse or justify the behaviour of racists as mental illness or disease. John Dick, publisher of The North Star , voiced such concerns as early as 1848 while legal scholar Jody David Armour has voiced similar concerns in
11200-601: The tomb of Aaron / Sheikh Harun on Mount Hor , near Petra . The group had taken a ferry from Sinai , Egypt because they understood that Jordanian authorities were making it hard for visible Jews to enter their country from Israel. According to the 2004 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Israel and the Occupied Territories, the Israeli government had done "little to reduce institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against
11312-796: The turn of the 20th century. Racism first appeared in print in 1903. In December 1921, the terms negrophobia and race hatred were used to describe an outbreak of anti-Black violence in the Dominican Republic by John Sydney de Bourg, a spokesman for the local chapter of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in San Pedro de Macorís . Negrophobia further reappeared in January 1927 in Lamine Senghor 's La voix des nègres ( The Voice of
11424-482: The virus. Expressions of Chinese xenophobia and discriminatory practices, such as the exclusion of black customers from restaurants, were criticized by foreign governments and members of the diplomatic corps. Black people in Hong Kong have experienced negative comments and instances of discrimination in the job market and on public transport. Expats and South Asian minorities have faced increased xenophobia during
11536-518: The world. With the spread of the pandemic and the formation of COVID-19 hotspots, such as those in Asia, Europe, and the Americas, discrimination against people from these hotspots has been reported. Despite the majority of the country's population being of mixed ( Pardo ), African, or indigenous heritage, depictions of non-European Brazilians on the programming of most national television networks
11648-561: The years, high-profile cases of racism against Black Canadians have occurred in Nova Scotia . The province continues to champion human rights and battle against racism, in part by an annual march to end racism against people of African descent. Racism in the Dominican Republic exists due to the after-effects of African slavery and the subjugation of black people throughout history. In the Dominican Republic , "blackness"
11760-473: Was a major factor in the separation of Singapore in 1965 to become an independent, primarily Chinese nation. Amy L. Freedman points to the electoral system, the centrality of ethnic parties, gerrymandering, and systematic discrimination against the Chinese in education and jobs as critical factors in xenophobia. Recently the goal of creating a more inclusive national identity has been emphasized. In Malaysia, xenophobia occurs regardless of race. Most xenophobia
11872-640: Was a term first used by Canadian scholar Dr. Akua Benjamin in a 1992 report on Ontario race relations . It is defined as follows: Anti-Black racism is a specific manifestation of racism rooted in European colonialism, slavery and oppression of Black people since the sixteenth century. It is a structure of iniquities in power, resources and opportunities that systematically disadvantages people of African descent. Melanophobia has been used to refer to both anti-Black racism and colourism (prejudice against people with darker skin), especially in Latin America,
11984-647: Was historically used as a means of categorising Black individuals and reinforcing racial hierarchies . The word persists as a neutral descriptor in the names of some older organizations, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in the United States. The 1911 South African census played a significant role in shaping the country's racial identities. The enumeration process involved specific instructions for classifying individuals into different racial categories, and
12096-667: Was in operation from 1863 to 1908, a period of 45 years. Some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought to Australia, most being recruited or blackbirded from islands in Melanesia , such as the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu ), the Solomon Islands and the islands around New Guinea . Racialization Racialization or ethnicization is a sociological concept used to describe the intent and processes by which ethnic or racial identities are systematically constructed within
12208-626: Was led by a new group, the "Militia United in Righteousness', the group was popularly known as the Boxers because many of its members had practiced Chinese martial arts , at the time, these martial arts were popularly referred to as Chinese Boxing. After China's defeat in war by Japan in 1895, villagers in North China feared the expansion of foreign spheres of influence and resented the extension of privileges to Christian missionaries. In
12320-502: Was primarily responsible for the creation of Ontario's Special Investigations Unit , which investigates police misconduct . Since the early 1990s, the relationship between Toronto Police and the city's black community has improved; in 2015, Mark Saunders became the first black police chief in the city's history. Carding remained an issue as of 2016; restrictions against arbitrary carding came into effect in Ontario in 2017. Throughout
12432-504: Was reported after ISIS took responsibility for the November 2015 Paris attacks . A 2016 survey from The Environics Institute, which was a follow-up to a study conducted 10 years prior, found that there may be discriminating attitudes that may be a residual of the effects of the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States. A poll in 2009 by Maclean's revealed that only 28% of Canadians view Islam favourably, and only 30% viewed
12544-527: Was the election of the "overtly nationalist and anti-imperialist" Arnulfo Arias as president in 1940. In Venezuela, like other South American countries, economic inequality often breaks along ethnic and racial lines. A 2013 Swedish academic study stated that Venezuela was the most racist country in the Americas, followed by the Dominican Republic . In a 2010 report, a network of more than 300 US-based civil rights and human rights organizations stated that " Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in
#833166