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64-642: Négritude inspired the birth of many movements across the Afro-Diasporic world, including Afro-Surrealism , Créolité in the Caribbean, and black is beautiful in the United States. Frantz Fanon often made reference to Négritude in his writing. Négritude is a constructed noun from the 1930s based upon the French word nègre , which, like its English counterpart, was derogatory and had

128-450: A "black aesthetic" and a sense of pride in the racial identity. One of the key issues faced by the periodical was that it positioned itself as " apolitical ." This was mainly the result of two considerations. Firstly, it was intended to keep the periodical from drawing the attention of potential colonial authorities. Secondly, this was a practical concern intended to make funding easier to access. Despite Paulette Nardal's claims that

192-442: A "seat at the give and take of the [French] table as equals". However, the French eventually granted Senegal and its other African colonies independence. Poet and later the first president of Sénégal, Senghor used Négritude to work toward a universal valuation of African people. He advocated a modern incorporation of the expression and celebration of traditional African customs and ideas. This interpretation of Négritude tended to be

256-443: A black mythological lyricism, strange yet ethnically familiar! Africa, the southern U.S., black life and custom are motif, mood and light, rhythm, and implied history. Dumas, therefore, was—"despite his mythological elegance and deep signification"—still "part of the wave of African American writers at the forefront of the '60s Black Arts Movement". Precisely because of its strangeness and its deformation of reality, Dumas work bears

320-488: A counter-narrative surrounding the events of the Zong massacre . Utilizing the words from the legal decision to build her poetry, Philip rejects the idea of an archival past. Instead, Philip looks to the present moment to understand how to read this legal decision and understand the case. Following the footsteps of Morrison's Beloved , Philip presupposes the notion of a past that is not past allowing these past artifacts to haunt

384-422: A deep political truth: "The very broken quality, almost to abstraction, is a function of change and transition." Unlike Afro-Futurism which speculates on possibilities in the future, Afro-surrealism, as Miller describes, is about the present. "Rather than speculate on the coming of the four horseman, Afrosurrealists understand that they rode through too long ago. Through Afro-surrealism, artists expose this form of

448-708: A different meaning from "black man". The movement's use of the word Négritude was a way of re-imagining the word as an emic form of empowerment. The term was first used in its present sense by Aimé Césaire, in the third issue (May–June 1935) of L'Étudiant noir , a magazine that he had started in Paris with fellow students Léopold Senghor and Léon Damas, as well as Gilbert Gratiant  [ fr ] , Leonard Sainville , Louis T. Achille , Aristide Maugée , and Paulette Nardal . The word appears in Césaire's first published work, "Conscience Raciale et Révolution Sociale", with

512-582: A distinct cultural identification. In 1948, Jean-Paul Sartre analyzed the Négritude philosophy in an essay called "Orphée Noir" (" Black Orpheus ") that served as the introduction to a volume of francophone poetry named Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache , compiled by Léopold Senghor. In this essay, Sartre characterizes négritude as the opposite of colonial racism in a Hegelian dialectic and with it he helped to introduce Négritude issues to French intellectuals. In his opinion, négritude

576-605: A great justice, and the explanation which it finds for the forces antagonistic to progress?" In his work, Alexis is seen to have an acute sense of reality that is not unlike that of traditional surrealism, and his coining of the term "Marvelous Realism" reflects his influence by the earlier works of the Négritude/Black Surrealist Movement. The term "Afro-surreal Expressionism" was coined by Amiri Baraka in his 1974 essay on Black Arts Movement avant-garde writer Henry Dumas . Baraka notes that Dumas

640-479: A group of people which had historically been silenced and ignored. Several of the key people in this movement also contributed to " La Revue Du Monde Noir" notably including Claude Mac Kay. Bringing together French thinkers at the time and American writers participating in the Harlem Renaissance , the journal furthered the development of both perspectives. These thinkers worked together to develop

704-438: A movement historically and presently credited to Césaire, Senghor, and Damas. The name Nardal belongs in that list. Each of the initiators had his own ideas about the purpose and styles of Négritude , the philosophy was characterized generally by opposition to colonialism, denunciation of Europe's alleged inhumanity, and rejection of Western domination and ideas. The movement also appears to have had some Heideggerian strands in

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768-427: A narrative of a formerly enslaved woman grieving the death of her baby daughter, Beloved. With no trace of a past, Beloved reappears on the steps of her mother's home, confused and looking for her mother. Following this moment, the novel crafts a haunting tale of a woman seeking to understand the sudden reappearance of her daughter and the scars left behind from slavery. In Beloved , Morrison attempts to come to grip with

832-478: A pejorative sense. Césaire deliberately incorporated this derogatory word into the name of his philosophy. Césaire's choice of the -itude suffix has been criticized, with Senghor noting that "the term négritude has often been contested as a word before being contested as a concept", but the suffix allows Césaire to trope the vocabulary of racist science. In 1885, Haitian anthropologist Anténor Firmin published an early work De l'égalité des races humaines (On

896-476: A periodical created and edited by Paulette and Jane Nardal in 1931, France .   The publication ran for a course of six months and contained a wide variety of content including essays, short stories, and poems.   A great deal of the articles were situated in the anti-imperialist , negritude , and Harlem Renaissance movements. As such, some of the primary focuses included anti-colonial politics and promoting black consciousness .   This ultimately

960-510: A relationship to life's breadth: If we are to embrace all the dimensions of the movement, its symbiotic potential through an Afro-surrealist lens, then there must be room for black joy, black virtuosity, black mediocrity, space to fail upwards. The autonomy to define our stories, to operate within and beyond frameworks that already exist should lie in our hands. Storytelling is power. It is cultural currency. The elasticity of Afro-surrealism gives room for every facet of blackness to be explored. In

1024-601: A sense of community as one of their primary goals. " La Revue Du Monde Noir" also took place as the Negritude movement began to take root. The Negritude movement occurred throughout the 1930s among communities of displaced black and African people primarily throughout Europe. Combining artistic and political approaches, the Negritude movement responded to the realities of what life under colonialism looked like. Where black voices were historically devalued and silenced,

1088-659: A strange, seemingly otherworldly version of the Atlanta rap scene, examining racism, whiteness, existentialism and modern African-American culture through Afro-Surrealism. It also stars LaKeith Stanfield and Zazie Beetz . Sorry to Bother You is a 2018 American surrealist, urban fantasy , science fiction , black-comedy film written and directed by Boots Riley , in his directorial debut. It stars LaKeith Stanfield , Tessa Thompson , Jermaine Fowler , Omari Hardwick , Terry Crews , Patton Oswalt , David Cross , Danny Glover , Steven Yeun , and Armie Hammer . The film follows

1152-400: A young black telemarketer who adopts a " white accent " to succeed at his job. Swept into a corporate conspiracy, he must choose between profit and joining his activist friends to organize labor . Random Acts of Flyness (2018–present) is a late night sketch comedy series created by American artist Terence Nance for HBO . La Revue du Monde Noir La Revue Du Monde Noir was

1216-493: Is a genre or school of art and literature. In 1974, Amiri Baraka used the term to describe the work of Henry Dumas . D. Scot Miller in 2009 wrote "The Afro-surreal Manifesto" in which he says: "Afro-Surrealism sees that all 'others' who create from their actual, lived experience are surrealist ...." The manifesto delineates Afro-Surrealism from Surrealism and Afro-Futurism . The manifesto lists ten tenets that Afro-Surrealism follows including how "Afro-Surrealists restore

1280-415: Is able to write about ancient mysteries that were simultaneously relevant to the present day. Comparing Dumas' writing to "Toni Morrison's wild, emotional 'places'," Baraka writes that "[b]oth utilize high poetic description—language of exquisite metaphorical elegance, even as narrative precision". But, for Baraka, this "language tells as well as decorates": The world of Ark of Bones , for instance, shares

1344-455: The Harlem Renaissance , Négritude , and Black Radical Imagination as described by Robin D. G. Kelley in his book Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination , and further with his Afro-surreal historical anthology, Black, Brown, & Beige: Surrealist Writings from Africa and the Diaspora (2009). Aspects of Afro-Surrealism can be traced to Martiniquan Suzanne Césaire's discussion of

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1408-512: The Négritude movement was a result of Aimé Césaire 's, Leopold Senghor 's, and Leon Damas 's dissatisfaction, disgust, and personal conflict over the state of the Afro-French experience in France. All three shared a personal sense of revolt for the racism and colonial injustices that plagued their world and their French education. Senghor refused to believe that the purpose of his education

1472-640: The "revolutionary impetus of surrealism" in the 1940s. Suzanne Césaire , a surrealist thinker and partner of Aimé Césaire , was an important figure in the history of the Afro-surreal aesthetic. Her quest for "The Marvelous" over the "miserablism" expressed in the usual arts of protest inspired the Tropiques surrealist group, and especially René Ménil . Ménil says in "Introduction to the Marvelous" (1930s): The true task of mankind consists solely in

1536-625: The 1790s. Césaire spoke, thus, of Haiti as being "where négritude stood up for the first time". The Harlem Renaissance , a literary style developed in Harlem in Manhattan during the 1920s and 1930s, influenced the Négritude philosophy. The Harlem Renaissance 's writers, including Langston Hughes , Richard Wright , Claude McKay , Alain Locke and W.E.B. Du Bois addressed the themes of "noireism", race relations and "double-consciousness". During

1600-528: The 1920s and 1930s, young black students and scholars primarily from France's colonies and territories assembled in Paris, where they were introduced to writers of the Harlem Renaissance , namely Langston Hughes and Claude McKay , by Paulette Nardal and her sister Jane . The Nardal sisters contributed to the Négritude discussions in their writings and also owned the Clamart Salon, a tea-shop venue of

1664-515: The Afro-French intelligentsia where the philosophy of Négritude was often discussed and where the concept for La Revue du Monde Noir was conceived. Paulette Nardal and the Haitian Dr. Leo Sajou initiated La Revue du Monde Noir (1931–32), a literary journal published in English and French, which attempted to appeal to African and Caribbean intellectuals in Paris. This Harlem inspiration

1728-678: The Afro-Surrealist, the Tasers are here. The Four Horsemen rode through too long ago to recall. What is the future? The future has been around so long it is now the past." As "The Afro-Surreal Manifesto" and Afrofuturism come to the fore in artistic, commercial and academic circles, the struggle between the specific and "the scent" of present-day manifestations of black absurdity has come with it, posing interesting challenges to both movements. For Afrofuturists, this challenge has been met by inserting Afrocentric elements into its growing pantheon,

1792-697: The Equality of Human Races), which was published as a rebuttal to French writer Count Arthur de Gobineau 's Essai sur l'inégalité des Races Humaines ( An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races ). Firmin influenced Jean Price-Mars , the initiator of Haitian ethnology and developer of the concept of Indigenism , and 20th-century American anthropologist Melville Herskovits . Black intellectuals have historically been proud of Haiti due to its slave revolution commanded by Toussaint Louverture during

1856-404: The Negritude movement did exactly the opposite. Exalting the numerous political, cultural, artistic, and philosophic perspectives of black people was one of the key focuses of the movement at large. Notably, some of the founders of the movement ( Léon Damas , Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire ) would go on to mention the journal as an influential piece of how they developed their thinking. At

1920-823: The US. Novelist Norman Mailer used the term to describe boxer George Foreman 's physical and psychological presence in his book The Fight , a journalistic treatment of the legendary Ali vs. Foreman " Rumble in the Jungle " bout in Kinshasa , Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo ) in October 1974. The word is also used by the rapper Youssoupha in his eponymous album "Négritude" but also before this one. Original texts Secondary literature Afro-Surrealism Afro-Surrealism (also Afro-surrealism , AfroSurrealism )

1984-403: The attempt to bring the marvelous into real life, so that life can become more encompassing. So long as the mythic imagination is not able to overcome each and every boring mediocrity, human life will amount to nothing but useless, dull experiences, just killing time, as they say. Suzanne Césaire's proclamation, "Be in permanent readiness for The Marvelous", quickly became a credo of the movement;

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2048-740: The cult of the past", and how "Afro-Surreal presupposes that beyond this visible world, there is an invisible world striving to manifest, and it is our job to uncover it". Afro-Surrealism, is practiced and embodied in music, photography, film, the visual arts and poetry. Notable practitioners and inspirations of Afro-Surrealism include Ted Joans , Bob Kaufman , Krista Franklin , Aimé Césaire , Suzanne Césaire , Léopold Sédar Senghor , René Ménil , Kool Keith , Terence Nance , Will Alexander , Kara Walker , Samuel R. Delany , and Romare Bearden . D. Scot Miller penned "The Afro-surreal Manifesto" for The San Francisco Bay Guardian in May, 2009. Until that time,

2112-603: The defensive. Chinua Achebe wrote: "A tiger doesn't proclaim its tigerness; it jumps on its prey." Soyinka in turn wrote in a 1960 essay for the Horn , "the duiker will not paint 'duiker' on his beautiful back to proclaim his duikeritude; you'll know him by his elegant leap." After a long period of silence there has been a renaissance of Négritude developed by scholars such as Souleymane Bachir Diagne ( Columbia University ), Donna Jones ( University of California, Berkeley ), and Cheikh Thiam ( Ohio State University ) who all continue

2176-424: The future past that is right now." According to Terri Francis: "Afro-surrealism is art with skin on it where the texture of the object tells its story, how it weathered burial below consciousness, and how it emerged somewhat mysteriously from oceans of forgotten memories and discarded keepsakes. This photograph figures Afro-surrealism as bluesy, kinky-spooky." Irensonen Okojie wrote of the genre's flexibility have

2240-530: The genre: Afro-surrealism, which couples the bizarre with ideas of black identity and power, allows for more expansive explorations of blackness. If blackness shrinks or feels limited under the crushing, often insidiously damaging weight of western systems of oppression, specifically the endemic tolls of structural racism, then the extraordinary provides space to construct new realities and absurdist visions that reconfigure what blackness as an aesthetic can be. Afro-Surrealism more specifically incorporates aspects of

2304-500: The heading "Les Idées" and the rubric "Négreries", which is notable for its disavowal of assimilation as a valid strategy for resistance and for its use of the word nègre as a positive term. The problem with assimilation was that one assimilated into a culture that considered African culture to be barbaric and unworthy of being seen as "civilized". The assimilation into this culture would have been seen as an implicit acceptance of this view. Nègre previously had been used mainly in

2368-458: The history and culture, and of black people. It is important to note that for Césaire, this emphasis on the acceptance of the fact of "blackness" was the means by which the "decolonization of the mind" could be achieved. According to him, western imperialism was responsible for the inferiority complex of black people. He sought to recognize the collective colonial experience of black individuals —the slave trade and plantation system. Césaire's ideology

2432-574: The intention being to centralize Afrofuturist focus back on the continent of Africa to enhance its specificity. For the Afro-surrealists, the focus has been set at the "here and now" of contemporary Black arts and situations in the Americas, Antilles, and beyond, searching for the nuanced "scent" of those current manifestations. Toni Morrison 's Beloved: A Novel remains an important milestone for Afro-surrealists. Here, Morrison imagines

2496-437: The legacies left by slavery, challenging the notion that these exist only in the past. From the epigraph, "Sixty Million and more", Morrison presupposes there is no way to count those affected from slavery and additionally, that the number is ever-growing into the present. In her award-winning novel, Morrison expands on the idea of the past, attempting to demonstrate the past is ever present. In Zong! , M. Nourbese Philip crafts

2560-503: The manifesto from which present day Afro-surrealism is based, writer D. Scot Miller states in a response to Afrofuturism: "Afro-Futurism is a diaspora intellectual and artistic movement that turns to science, technology, and science fiction to speculate on black possibilities in the future. Afro-Surrealism is about the present. There is no need for tomorrow's-tongue speculation about the future. Concentration camps, bombed-out cities, famines, and enforced sterilization have already happened. To

2624-574: The mid-1920s, in that an aspect of it Négritude came after André Breton wrote the Surrealist Manifesto , but as Leopold Senghor points out in Miller's manifesto, "European Surrealism is empirical. African Surrealism is mystical and metaphorical." Afro-Surrealism is directly connected to black history, experience, and aesthetics, particularly as affected by Western culture . British-Nigerian short story writer Irenosen Okojie describes

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2688-523: The most common, particularly during later years. Leon Damas Damas was a French Guianese poet and National Assembly member. He had a militant style of defending "black qualities" and rejected any kind of reconciliation with Caucasians. Two particular anthologies were pivotal to the movement; one was published by Damas in 1946, Poètes d'expression française 1900–1945 . Senghor would then go on to publish Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française in 1948. Damas's introduction to

2752-423: The periodical. The three aims included: creating a space for black voices and publications, popularizing interests and concerns of the black race, and, finally, creating bonds of solidarity and fidelity. "Our motto is and will continue to be: For PEACE, WORK, and JUSTICE By LIBERTY, EQUALITY, and FRATERNITY. Thus, the two hundred million individuals which constitute one Negro race, even though scattered among

2816-399: The philosophical foundation for the Négritude movement. The Nardal sisters, for all their ideas and the importance of their Clamart Salon, have been minimized in the development of Négritude by the masculinist domination of the movement. Paulette even wrote as much in 1960 when she "bitterly complained" about the lack of acknowledgment to her and her sister Jane regarding their importance to

2880-658: The present moment. Rather than organize the fragments, Philip allows the fragments to tell themselves. This is not to say that Philip gives the fragments voices, but instead gives them space. The space in the poem allows Philip's audience to hear the silence of these voices, to truly understand the missing narratives form the past and the role that has on the present. Atlanta is an American comedy-drama television series created by Donald Glover that premiered on September 6, 2016, on FX . The series centers on college dropout and music manager Earnest "Earn" Marks (played by Glover) and rapper Paper Boi (Brian Tyree Henry) as they navigate

2944-402: The pride these writers would take when a white person could read their whole book and would not be able to tell the author's complexion. Aimé Césaire Césaire was a poet, playwright, and politician from Martinique . He studied in Paris, where he discovered the black community and "rediscovered Africa". He saw Négritude as the fact of being black, acceptance of this fact, and appreciation of

3008-404: The project was cultural and not political, the contents included some articles which were controversy politically subversive. An example of this would be an article put forth by Etienne Lero and René Menil wherein they condemned both French Colonialism and the "Caribbean bourgeoisie of color." Ultimately, all of this controversy led to a loss of funding which is why after only six months,

3072-580: The same time, the Harlem Renaissance was occurring in the United States, primarily in the city of Harlem. As slavery came to an end, many black people migrated to cities further North seeking greater rights and freedoms than those which were possible in the South. This movement is often known as the "Great Migration." Much like the Negritude movement in Europe, the Harlem Renaissance gave voice to

3136-443: The sense that its goal was to achieve black people's' "being-in-the-world", to emphasize that black individuals did have a history and a worthy culture capable of standing alongside the cultures of other countries as equals. Also important was the acceptance of and pride in being black and a celebration of African history, traditions, and beliefs. Their literary style was surrealistic and they cherished Marxist ideas. Motivation for

3200-560: The term " Negritude" to imagine a rhetorical "disease" that he said was a mild form of leprosy, the only cure for which was to become white. But this attribution has been disputed as a misreading of secondary sources. If there was such use, it might not have been known by the Afro-Francophones who developed the philosophy of Négritude during the 20th century. Still, Léopold Sédar Senghor did claim that he and Aimé Césaire were aware of discourse surrounding race and revolution from

3264-399: The term "Afro-surreal Expressionism" was used solely by Amiri Baraka to describe the writings of Henry Dumas. Later that year, Miller spoke with Baraka about extending the term by shortening the description. It was agreed by the two of them that "Afro-surreal" without the "expressionism" would allow further exploration of the term. Afro-surrealism may have some similar origins to surrealism in

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3328-427: The various nations, will form over and above the latter a great Brotherhood, the forerunner of universal Democracy." Throughout 1919–1935 significant shifts were beginning to happen around ideas about race and cultural differences. It was in this climate of change and renewal that " La Revue Du Monde Noir" was in publication. Sometimes termed as a " diasporic " journal, the publication was intended to draw together

3392-427: The voices of black people around the globe. In the first journal, Louis-Jean Finot wrote an article titled "Race Equality." After some consideration of the problems facing different countries across the world, he called for a "solidarity between nations" and wrote "at the present time, selfishness is not only stupid, it is criminal. " This focus is in fitting with the periodical's aims which explicitly situated creating

3456-459: The word "marvelous" has since become recontextualized with regard to contemporary black arts and interventions. In his 1956 essay for Présence Africaine , Haitian novelist Jacques Stephen Alexis wrote: "What, then, is the Marvellous, except the imagery in which a people wraps its experience, reflects its conception of the world and of life, its faith, its hope, its confidence in man, in

3520-456: The work and the poetic anthology was meant to be a sort of manifesto for the movement, but Senghor's own anthology eventually took that role. Though it would be the "Preface" written by French philosopher and public intellectual Jean-Paul Sartre for the anthology that would propel Négritude into the broader intellectual conversation. Damas' introduction was more political and cultural in nature. A distinctive feature of his anthology and beliefs

3584-530: The work of Abiola Irele (1936–2017). Cheikh Thiam's book is the only book-length study of Négritude as philosophy. It develops Diagne's reading of Négritude as a philosophy of art, and Jones' presentation of Négritude as a lebensphilosophie . American physician Benjamin Rush , a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and early abolitionist, is often said to have used

3648-423: The work. He says, "Poverty, illiteracy, exploitation of man by man, social and political racism suffered by the black or the yellow, forced labor, inequalities, lies, resignation, swindles, prejudices, complacencies, cowardice, failure, crimes committed in the name of liberty, of equality, of fraternity, that is the theme of this indigenous poetry in French." Damas' introduction was indeed a calling and affirmation for

3712-597: The years 1929–34 through Mademoiselle Paulette Nardall...kept a literary salon where African Negroestrans, West Indians, and American Negroes used to get together." Jane Nardal's 1929 article "Internationalisme noir" predates Senghor's first critical theory piece "What the Black Man Contributes", itself published in 1939. This essay, "Internationalisme noir", focuses on race consciousness in the African diaspora and cultural metissage, double-apparentance; seen as

3776-514: Was "to build Christianity and civilization in his soul where there was only paganism and barbarism before". Césaire's disgust came as embarrassment when he was accused by some of the people of the Caribbean as having nothing to do with the people of Africa—whom they saw as savages. They separated themselves from Africa and proclaimed themselves as civilized. He denounced the writers from the Caribbean as "intellectually... corrupt and literarily nourished with white decadence". Damas believed this because of

3840-406: Was a source of controversy which led to a loss of funding and the end of the periodical. Including a wide variety of prominent thinkers from around the world La Revue Du Monde Noir concerns itself with a wide range of issues such as economics and farming (Senateur Price-Mars), art ( Louis Th. Achille ), eugenics (Georges Gregory) and more. The inaugural volume began by detailing the goals of

3904-689: Was an "anti-racist racism" ( racisme antiraciste ), a strategy with a final goal of racial unity. Négritude was criticized by some Black writers during the 1960s as insufficiently militant. Keorapetse Kgositsile said that the term Négritude was based too much on Blackness according to a European aesthetic, and was unable to define a new kind of perception of African-ness that would free Black people and Black art from Caucasian conceptualizations altogether. The Nigerian dramatist, poet, and novelists Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka opposed Négritude . They believed that by deliberately and outspokenly being proud of their ethnicity, Black people were automatically on

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3968-826: Was especially important during the early years of Négritude . Neither Césaire—who after returning to Martinique after his studies was elected mayor of Fort de France , the capital, and a representative of Martinique in France's Parliament—nor Senghor in Senegal, envisaged political independence from France. Césaire called for France's political assimilation of Martinique with the Loi de départementalisation  [ fr ] (the Departmentalization Law), which did not entail an abandonment of Martinique's distinct culture. Leopold Senghor Négritude would, according to Senghor, enable black people in French lands to have

4032-538: Was shared by the parallel development of negrismo and acceptance of "double-apparantence", double-consciousness, in the Spanish -speaking Caribbean region. The Nardal sisters were responsible for the introduction of the Harlem Renaissance and its ideas to Césaire, Senghor, and Damas. In a letter from February 1960, Senghor admits the importance of the Nardal sisters, "We were in contact with these black Americans during

4096-399: Was that Damas felt his message was one for the colonized in general, and included poets from Indochina and Madagascar. This is sharply in contrast to Senghor's anthology. In the introduction, Damas proclaimed that now was the age where "the colonized man becomes aware of his rights and of his duties as a writer, as a novelist or a storyteller, an essayist or a poet." Damas outlines the themes of

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