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127-531: The c. 350 BCE Neiye (內業; translated as Inward Training ) is the oldest Chinese received text describing Daoist breath meditation techniques and qi circulation. After the Guanzi , a political and philosophical compendium, included the Neiye around the 2nd century BCE, it was seldom mentioned by Chinese scholars until the 20th century, when it was reevaluated as a "proto-Daoist" text that clearly influenced

254-487: A dependent clause from the independent clause if the dependent clause comes first: After I fed the cat, I brushed my clothes. (Compare this with I brushed my clothes after I fed the cat. ) A relative clause takes commas if it is non- restrictive , as in I cut down all the trees, which were over six feet tall. (Without the comma, this would mean that only the trees more than six feet tall were cut down.) Some style guides prescribe that two independent clauses joined by

381-581: A part of speech , because: In other West Germanic languages like German and Dutch, the word order after a subordinating conjunction is different from that in an independent clause, e.g. in Dutch want ('for') is coordinating, but omdat ('because') is subordinating. The clause after the coordinating conjunction has normal word order, but the clause after the subordinating conjunction has verb-final word order. Compare: Similarly, in German, denn ('for')

508-499: A semantic gap in the English lexicon, there is no standard word denoting the ancient Chinese Neiye worldview that spiritual life involves activities that also have physical components. Suggested protologisms include "biospiritual" (Kirkland 1997), "physio-spiritual" (Harper 1998),"psychophysiological" (Roth 1991), and "psychospiritual" (Roth 1999). According to the Neiye , there is a set of elusive life forces that enter and leave

635-652: A "seamless web … connecting the psychological, physiological, and spiritual aspects of the human being" (Roth 1999: 106). It is the earliest known text that explains self-cultivation through daily, practiced regulation of a group of life forces. Namely, qi "vital energy" (the universal force that gives life to all things), jing "vital essence" (one's innate reservoir of qi ), xin "heart-mind", shen "spirit; spiritual consciousness", dao "the Way", and de "inner power". These terms later became keywords in Chinese philosophy, but

762-431: A comma and no conjunction (as in "It is nearly half past five, we cannot reach town before dark." ) is known as a comma splice and is sometimes considered an error in English; in most cases a semicolon should be used instead. A comma splice should not be confused, though, with the literary device called asyndeton , in which coordinating conjunctions are purposely omitted for a specific stylistic effect. Beginning in

889-496: A concrete connotation of not just the physical "heart" but also the entire sphere of vital energy that flows through it (1999: 42). The xin is described as the ruling agency in an individual's "biospiritual nexus, i.e., in the entire personal complex of body/mind/heart/spirit" (Kirkland 1997: 6). The xin can become agitated by excessive thought or emotion, which leads to dissipation of one's jing 精 "vital essence", and can result in sickness and death. To preserve health and vitality,

1016-484: A coordinating conjunction ( for , and , nor , but , or , yet , so ) must be separated by a comma placed before the conjunction. In the following sentences, where the second clause is independent (because it can stand alone as a sentence), the comma is considered by those guides to be necessary: In the following sentences, where the second half of the sentence is not an independent clause (because it does not contain an explicit subject ), those guides prescribe that

1143-423: A device that is properly tuned . Figuratively, we are all radios that were originally fully operational, but now are experiencing electromagnetic interference caused by excessive heart/mind activity, and we need to retune ourselves to eliminate the disturbance and begin functioning properly again (1997: 14). The Neiye acclaims a variety of practices and techniques for acquiring, or metaphorically "tuning in" to,

1270-684: A dozen manuscripts, including Codex Bezae and Regius , additionally making use of the Complutensian Polyglot . Stephanus' edition of the Textus receptus became one of the two "standard" texts of the Textus receptus alongside those of Theodore Beza . Like Stephanus, Beza had access to a larger manuscript pool than Erasmus, including Codex Claromontanus and the Codex Bezae, however he made very little use of them in his editions. Although sometimes contested by some defenders of

1397-574: A large number of ancient manuscripts, and this I am doing at enormous personal expense." He included the Greek text to defend the superiority of his Latin version over the Vulgate. He wrote, "There remains the New Testament translated by me, with the Greek facing, and notes on it by me." He further demonstrated the reason for the inclusion of the Greek text when defending his work: "But one thing

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1524-508: A lodging place for the vital essence [可以為精舍]. The vital essence: it is the essence of the vital energy. When the vital energy is guided, it [the vital essence] is generated, But when it is generated, there is thought, When there is thought, there is knowledge, But when there is knowledge, then you must stop. Whenever the forms of the mind have excessive knowledge, You lose your vitality. (tr. Roth 1999: 60) In both these verses, being aligned precedes being tranquil, and thus developing

1651-408: A mountain peak [屺 * kiəɣ ]. Therefore this vital energy Cannot be halted by force, [力 * liək ] Yet can be secured by inner power [德 * tək ]. Cannot be summoned by speech, Yet can be welcomed by the awareness [意 * ˑiəɣ ]. Reverently hold onto it and do not lose it: This is called "developing inner power" [德 * tək ]. When inner power develops and wisdom emerges, The myriad things will, to

1778-572: A number of minor changes of their own. Complutensian Polyglot Bible is the name given to the first printed polyglot of the entire Bible . The edition was initiated and financed by Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros (1436–1517). It is not usually named as part of the Textus receptus , however it influenced the Textus receptus and was utilized by editors of the Textus Receptus , including Colinaeus, Stephanus and Erasmus himself. Robert Estienne , known as Stephanus (1503–1559),

1905-554: A period of time before the compiler assembled and wrote them down. (1978: 148) Although extant editions of the Neiye text have only two or three general divisions, it is possible to identify distinct units based on semantic, syntactic, and phonological criteria. Some different proposed textual separations are: fifteen separate verses with some subdivisions (Ma Feibai 馬非百, W. Allyn Rickett 1985–98); eighteen verses plus four subdivisions ( Gustav Haloun and Jeffrey Riegel 1978); and twenty-six separate verses (Roth 1999: 14). The date when

2032-717: A printer from Paris, edited the Greek New Testament four times, in 1546, 1549, 1550 and 1551, the last in Geneva. The edition of 1551 contains the Latin translation of Erasmus and the Vulgate . Estienne's version was re-issued with minor revisions of the Greek by Genevan leader Theodore Beza in 1565, 1582, 1588–89, 1598 and 1611. Simon de Colines (1480 – 1546) printed an edition of the Textus Receptus, which

2159-447: A printing business at Leiden. The preface reads, Textum ergo habes, nunc ab omnibus receptum: in quo nihil immutatum aut corruptum damus ("so you hold the text, now received by all, in which [is] nothing corrupt"). The two words textum and receptum were modified from the accusative to the nominative case to render textus receptus . Over time, that term has been retroactively applied even to Erasmus's editions, as his work served as

2286-467: A psychological condition of "focused and balanced awareness from which the adept is able to respond spontaneously and harmoniously to whatever arises" (Roth 1999: 126). "Neiye" physiological concepts developed in the intellectual background of the 4th century BCE, a period when Chinese philosophers, notably the ethical egoist Yang Zhu , first considered the question of maintaining one's own physical wellbeing (Harper 1998: 120). The chief innovation made in

2413-424: A sage ruler can apply the meditation techniques to governing—is considered the latest work in the group. Three types of evidence support the antiquity of the Neiye . First, its distinctive literary structure as a composition of originally independent, rhythmic and rhymed verse is a sign of oral transmission before literacy became widespread in the latter half of the 4th century BCE. Second, the Neiye does not contain

2540-513: A scholarly level (such as Terence H. Brown and D. A. Waite ). Those who still advocate the use of the Textus receptus often rely upon a theological stance of providential preservation, arguing that a reliance upon naturalism to establish the text of the New Testament is contrary to divine revelation. Thus, they have cited passages such as Psalm 12:6–7, Psalm 119:89, Matthew 5:18, Psalm 117:2, Matthew 24:35 and 1 Peter 1:25 as evidence that God would miraculously preserve every single true reading of

2667-490: A sentence: marking the higher rank of the independent clause and transiting between the two clauses’ ideas by indicating the nexus of time, place, or cause. Subordinators therefore structure the relationship between the clauses. In many verb-final languages , subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend. The equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of non-verb-final languages such as English are either Such languages often lack conjunctions as

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2794-628: A stabilized mind. Neiye "alignment" apparently refers to sitting in a steady posture with the limbs aligned or squared up with one another, comparable to the vajrasana posture in Buddhist meditation (Roth 1999: 110). This Neiye metaphor of "make a lodging place for the vital essence" refers to the primary mystical praxis, which Verse 13 (above) symbolically describes, "Diligently clean out its [the bodily shen' s] lodging place [敬除其舍] / And its vital essence will naturally arrive [精將自來]". The method of "cleaning out [ chú 除 "eliminate; remove; clean out"]

2921-443: A total of 1,622 characters, and the verses are written almost exclusively in rhymed prose. Most of the lines of verse are tetrasyllabic , that is, they contain four syllables each of which is represented by one character, but other patterns of five or more syllables sometimes occur. The rhymes occur most often at the end of every second line (Roth 1999: 12). Both the Neiye' s rhymed literary form and philosophical content are similar to

3048-514: A wellspring of vitality (Harper 1998: 119). The "Neiye" introduced the physiological theory that one could transform oneself into a sage through heartmind training that cultivates qi vital breath/energy, jing vital essence, and shen spirit/numen in the body (Harper 1998: 78, 112). From a modern perspective, these 2500-year-old Neiye concepts seem enigmatic; qi "vital breath" constitutes both matter and energy , while xin "body/heart/mind" or bodymind circumvents Cartesian dualism . Owing to

3175-415: Is a compound of two common Chinese words: nèi 内 meaning "inside; inner; internal" and yè 業 "work; deed; achievement; production". In ancient Old Chinese that was used when the Neiye was compiled, the two titular component words had complex meanings. Bernhard Karlgren 's classic Grammata Serica Recensa dictionary translates nèi 內 as "enter; to bring in, to present; take to heart"; and says

3302-458: Is a central concept in the Neiye , with meanings that span from the universal life-giving essence contained in all creatures to the particular physiological substrate that allows sages to achieve profound tranquility. Within each person, qi energy is centered in the jing essence, which Roth describes as "the source of the vital energy in human beings [and] the basis of our health, vitality, and psychological well-being" (1999: 42). Verse 8 provides

3429-488: Is a distinct quality of mental concentration that arises naturally, along with tranquility, through the practice of proper posture and breathing meditation (Roth 1999: 105). When your body is not aligned [形不正], The inner power will not come. When you are not tranquil within [中不靜], Your mind will not be well ordered. Align your body, assist the inner power [正形攝德], Then it will gradually come on its own. (Verse 11, tr. Roth 1999: 66) This inner power can be thought of as

3556-444: Is able to conceive of it. If you lose it you are inevitably disordered; If you attain it you are inevitably well ordered. Diligently clean out its lodging place [敬除其舍] And its vital essence will naturally arrive [精將自來]. Still your attempts to imagine and conceive of it. Relax your efforts to reflect on and control it. Be reverent and diligent And its vital essence will naturally stabilize. Grasp it and don't let go Then

3683-508: Is apparently the most common English title, owing to Roth's Neiye articles and translation (1991, 1994, 1996, 1997, and 1999). The Neiye 內業 is a collection of poetic verses describing a method of guided breathing meditation and the underlying cosmology of the Dao on which it is based. Roth calls the mystical method "inner cultivation", the goal of which is to directly apprehend this "all-pervading cosmic force" (1999: 11). The text contains

3810-424: Is classified by scholars as a late Byzantine text, it differs in nearly 2,000 readings from the standard form of that text-type, as represented by the " Majority Text " of Hodges and Farstad (Wallace, 1989). The edition was a sell-out commercial success and was reprinted in 1519, with most but not all of the typographical errors corrected. Erasmus had been studying Greek New Testament manuscripts for many years, in

3937-451: Is coordinating, but weil ('because') is subordinating: It is now generally agreed that a sentence may begin with a coordinating conjunction like and , but, or yet . While some people consider this usage improper, Follett's Modern American Usage labels its prohibition a "supposed rule without foundation" and a "prejudice [that] lingers from a bygone time." Some associate this belief with their early school days. One conjecture

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4064-466: Is far more likely that the scribe had encountered other variants in the verse than the Johannine comma, which is not attested in Greek manuscripts until the 14th century. Conjunction (grammar) In general, a conjunction is an invariant (non- inflecting ) grammatical particle that stands between conjuncts. A conjunction may be placed at the beginning of a sentence, but some superstition about

4191-629: Is from the Greek version of the Acts of the Lateran Council in 1215. It subsequently appears in the writings of Emmanuel Calecas (died 1410), Joseph Bryennius (1350 – 1431/38) and in the Orthodox Confession of Moglas (1643). While there are no comprehensive Patristic Greek references to the comma, F.H.A. Scrivener notes potential allusions to it somewhere around the 5th century in two Greek texts: Synopsis of Holy Scripture and

4318-530: Is identified with it by its followers. However, in addition, over many years, Erasmus had extensively annotated New Testament citations in early Fathers , such as Augustine and Ambrose , whose biblical quotations more frequently conformed to the Western text-type ; and he drew extensively on these citations (and also on the Vulgate) in support of his choice of Greek readings. The Textus receptus differs from

4445-453: Is not separated from us; When people accord with it they are harmonious. Therefore: Concentrated! as though you could be roped together with it. Indiscernible! as though beyond all locations. The true state of that Way: How could it be conceived of and pronounced upon? Cultivate your mind, make your thoughts tranquil [修心靜意], And the Way can thereby be attained. (tr. Roth 1999: 54) Although constantly moving in and out of one's mind,

4572-528: Is subordinating conjunction that introduces a content clause (that is, a clause that is a complement of the verb phrase, instead of the more typical nominal subject or object): e.g. "I wonder whether he'll be late. I hope that he'll be on time". Some subordinating conjunctions, when used to introduce a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings. Relativizers are subordinators that introduce relative clauses. The subordinating conjunction performs two important functions within

4699-460: Is that it results from young children's being taught to avoid simple sentences starting with and and are encouraged to use more complex structures with subordinating conjunctions. In the words of Bryan A. Garner , the "widespread belief ... that it is an error to begin a sentence with a conjunction such as and , but , or so has no historical or grammatical foundation", and good writers have frequently started sentences with conjunctions. There

4826-416: Is the source of life. Then the text identifies the mind as the "lodging place for the vital essence", defines vital essence as the "essence of vital breath/energy", and links jing with the indwelling shen "spirit". De "inner power; virtue" serves as the mechanism by which the triad of vital energy, vital essence, and spirit are drawn to the body where they must be stored and concentrated in order to create

4953-532: Is the source of the universe" ( OED ), but the ancient Neiye sometimes used it as an equivalent of the qi , jing , and shen that a practitioner works to cultivate (Kirkland 1997: 7–9). The Neiye describes the Way as a force that can enter or leave a person, and by engaging in specific self-cultivation practices one can make it come into direct experience or can keep it from going away (Roth 1999: 43). Clear! as though right by your side. Vague! as though it will not be attained. Indiscernible! as though beyond

5080-629: The Daode jing , Zhuangzi , and other classics. Neiye traditions also influenced Chinese thought and culture . For instance, it had the first references to cultivating the life forces jing "essence", qi "vital energy", and shen "spirit", which later became a fundamental concept in Daoist Neidan "internal alchemy", as well as the Three Treasures in traditional Chinese medicine . The sinologist A. C. Graham regards

5207-643: The Book of Revelation , Erasmus' text primarily follows the Andreas text-type , named after the Andreas of Caesarea, (563–614) who used it in his widely influential commentary on Revelation. Erasmus at the start of his work had around 8 Greek manuscripts, although he used Manuscript 2105 mainly for his separately published textual commentary. The Greek manuscripts used in the creation of the Erasmus' first edition are

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5334-550: The Comma Johanneum was included because "Erasmus chose to avoid any occasion for slander rather than persisting in philological accuracy" even though he remained "convinced that it did not belong to the original text of l John." Popular demand for Greek New Testaments led to a flurry of further authorized and unauthorized editions in the early sixteenth century, almost all of which were based on Erasmus's work and incorporated his particular readings but typically also making

5461-601: The Comma Johanneum , Confession of the Ethiopian eunuch , the long ending of Mark , the Pericope Adulterae , the reading "God" in 1 Timothy 3:16 and the reading "book of life" in Revelation 22:19. The Comma Johanneum is a Trinitarian text included in 1 John 5:7 within the Textus receptus , however the comma is seen as an interpolation by almost all textual critics. The comma is mainly only attested in

5588-512: The Daodejing , yet it has a much more tangible presence in the Neiye (Roth 1999: 102). Verse 5 says the Way is a constantly moving power that seems to come and go within the human mind. The Way has no fixed position; It abides within the excellent mind [善心]. When the mind is tranquil and the vital breath is regular [心靜氣理], The Way can thereby be halted. That Way is not distant from us; When people attain it they are sustained That Way

5715-510: The Editio Regia , but in the index he enumerated 30,000 textual variants. Shortly after Mill published his edition, Daniel Whitby (1638–1725) attacked his work by asserting that the text of the New Testament had never been corrupted and thus equated autographs with the Textus receptus . He considered the 30,000 variants in Mill's edition a danger to Holy Scripture and called for defending

5842-689: The Jixia Academy in the Qi capital of Linzi , but many disagree over the dating of the texts and identity of the redactors. After analyzing the structure and rhetorical characteristics of the Daode jing , Neiye , Xinshu I , and Baixin , The Chinese linguist William H. Baxter proposed that they constitute a specific literary genre , which emerged from "a distinctive tradition of philosophical verse with strong oral elements and little concept of individual authorship" (1998: 240–243, 249). In order to estimate

5969-551: The Latin manuscripts of the New Testament, being absent from the vast majority of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, the earliest Greek manuscript being from the 14th century. It is also totally absent in the Ethiopic , Aramaic , Syriac , Georgian , Arabic and from the early pre-12th century Armenian witnesses to the New Testament. And as a result, modern translations as a whole, both Catholic and Protestant, do not include

6096-486: The Neiye as "possibly the oldest 'mystical' text in China" (1989: 100). The professor of religious studies Harold D. Roth describes it as "a manual on the theory and practice of meditation that contains the earliest references to breath control and the earliest discussion of the physiological basis of self-cultivation in the Chinese tradition" (1991: 611–2), and perhaps the oldest extant text of Daoism (1994: 37). The title

6223-516: The Neiye says that jing 靜 "stabilizing; calming" the xin will draw in the external realities of shen and dao (Kirkland 2008: 771). Shen is usually translated as English "spirit; spiritual", but in order to avoid the connotative ambiguities of spirit , Roth uses " numen ; numinous " in reference to a layer of mystical awareness that lies within the human body (1999: 43). Shen comprises perception, cognition, and higher forms of awareness. The original meaning of shen "god; spirit; deity"

6350-425: The Neiye sometimes used them idiosyncratically, for instance, dao was effectively interchangeable with shen and qi (Kirkland 2008: 771). Qi , which Roth translates as "vital energy" or "vital breath", integrates the physical with the psychological. Kirkland describes qi "life-energy" in the Neiye as "a powerful salubrious reality" that is present everywhere and within all things (1997: 5). According to

6477-509: The Neiye was compiled is uncertain. Rickett dated the text to the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE, Graham to the 4th century BCE, and Roth to the mid-4th century BCE (Kirkland 1997: 3); it is thus generally dated to around 350–300 BCE (Kirkland 2008: 771). Campany rejects Roth's arguments for dating the Neiye to the 4th century BCE because they are based on his "speculative and wishful assumption" that political considerations were added only later to an "original Dao" (2005: 26). The problem of

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6604-421: The Neiye , human beings are made up of systems containing various manifestations of qi ; the wǔzàng 五臟 Five Orbs/Viscera system includes not only the physical organs (lungs, kidneys, liver, gallbladder, and spleen), but also the psychological range of mental and emotional states—presciently similar to the contemporary idea of neural correlates for consciousness (Roth 1999: 41–42). Jing "vital essence"

6731-419: The Neiye' s exclusively verse format and absence of political thought would support a date of mid-4th century at the latest. The first part of Xinshu I contains verses that are almost as old, but since they begin to advocate applying inner cultivation techniques to the task of governing and show evidence of interaction with rival intellectual positions, he dates them to about 300 BCE. The commentary contained in

6858-405: The Textus receptus against these variants. Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687–1752) edited in 1725 Prodromus Novi Testamenti Graeci Rectè Cautèque Adornandi and in 1734 Novum Testamentum Graecum . Bengel divided manuscripts into families and subfamilies and favoured the principle of lectio difficilior potior ("the more difficult reading is the stronger"). Johann Jakob Wettstein 's apparatus

6985-441: The Textus receptus have been proposed as possible sources for Erasmus' readings in the book of Revelation. However, critical scholarship today views these manuscripts as being more likely being influenced by the printed Textus receptus editions, instead of them being a source for the readings of Erasmus. Erasmus had been working for years making philological notes on scriptural and patristic texts. In 1512, he began his work on

7112-553: The Textus receptus was to be preferred to the Alexandrian Text, it still required to be corrected in certain readings against the manuscript tradition of the Byzantine text. In that judgement, they are criticised by Edward F. Hills , who argues that the principle that God provides truth through scriptural revelation also must imply that God must ensure a preserved transmission of the correct revealed text, continuing into

7239-531: The Textus receptus , it is a commonly accepted fact that because the manuscript which Erasmus used lacked the last six verses of Revelation, he used the Latin Vulgate to backtranslate the last verses of Revelation into Greek. However, he also used the notes of Valla , such as in the reading "Amen. Even so, come Lord Jesus" in Revelation 22:20, which does not completely agree with the Latin Vulgate. In this process, Erasmus introduced many distinct readings into

7366-803: The mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the most commonly used coordinators : for , and , nor , but , or , yet , and so . These are not the only coordinating conjunctions; various others are used, including: "and nor" (British), "but nor" (British), "neither" ("They don't gamble, neither do they smoke"), "no more" ("They don't gamble, no more do they smoke"), and "only" ("I would go, only I don't have time"). Types of coordinating conjunctions include cumulative conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, alternative conjunctions, and illative conjunctions. Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions in English and what they do: Only and , or , nor are actual coordinating logical operators connecting atomic propositions or syntactic multiple units of

7493-438: The "Neiye" is equating jing vital essence and qi vital breath/energy, which unites vital energy and essence with shen spirit/numen—thus naturalizing the old religious connotations of jing and shen into new physical meanings. This inventive physiological theory merged a person's physical and spiritual components, and made vital breath/energy the source of each. The "Neiye" opens with the statement that jing "vital essence"

7620-537: The "acquisitional agency" through which one can receive qi , jing , shen , and dao (Kirkland 1997: 6). Thus, de "inner power" (which is cognate with de 得 "get; acquire"), is something that we "acquire" when all elements of the body/heart/mind are peaceful and aligned. Unlike other Daoist classics such as the Daodejing and Zhuangzi that describe de as intrinsic to everyone, the Neiye says one should practice daily self-control of thoughts and actions in order to build up one's de (Kirkland 1997: 7). Inner power

7747-497: The 16th century), 636 (16th century) and possibly 635 (11th century, added later into the margin). The Codex Vaticanus in some places contains umlauts to indicate knowledge of variants. Although there has been some debate on the age of these umlauts and if they were added at a later date, according to a paper made by Philip B. Payne, the ink seems to match that of the original scribe. The Codex Vaticanus contains these dots around 1 John 5:7, however according to McDonald, G. R, it

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7874-594: The 17th century, an element of a conjunction was known as a conjunct . A conjunction itself was then called a connective . That archaic term, however, diminished in usage during the early 20th century. In its place, the terms coordinating conjunction (coined in the mid-19th century) and correlative conjunction (coined in the early 19th century) became more commonly used. Coordinating conjunctions , also called coordinators , are conjunctions that join, or coordinate , two or more items (such as words, main clauses, or sentences) of equal syntactic importance. In English,

8001-433: The 26 verses and jing "still; quiet; calm; tranquil" in 11. "Fourfold Aligning" is the basic method of Neiye practice: zhengxing 正形 "aligning the body", zhengsiti[zhi] 正四體[肢] "aligning the four limbs", zhengqi 正氣 "aligning the vital energy", and zhengxin 正心 "aligning the mind" (Roth 1999: 109). Since the human body is believed to be imbued with qi vital energy, the term zhengxing refers to aligning or harmonizing

8128-563: The Bible. This interpretation, however, has been challenged by critics of the Textus receptus who often assert that these scriptural passages pertain to God's oral communication with humanity rather than the written scriptures or to a more general preservation in the New Testament manuscripts as a whole. The Textus receptus was mainly established on a basis of manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type , also called 'Majority text', and usually

8255-579: The Byzantine text-type, but form a minority therein. This includes the reading "through his blood" in Colossians 1:14, which is contained in around 40% of the Byzantine manuscripts of Colossians, being omitted from the Byzantine critical edition of Robinson and Pierpont and that of Hodges and Farstad. F. H. A. Scrivener (1813–1891) remarked that at Matt. 22:28; 23:25; 27:52; 28:3 , 4, 19, 20; Mark 7:18, 19, 26; 10:1; 12:22; 15:46; Luke 1:16, 61; 2:43; 9:1, 15; 11:49; John 1:28; 10:8; 13:20, Erasmus followed

8382-576: The Byzantine text. However Erasmus sometimes followed the Minuscule 1 (part of the proposed Caesarean text-type in the Gospels) in a small number of verses, additionally following the Latin Vulgate translated by Jerome in the 4th century in a few verses, including Acts 9:6 and in placing the doxology of Romans into chapter 16 instead of after chapter 14 as in most Byzantine manuscripts. In

8509-563: The Complutensian Polyglot and the Latin Vulgate itself. This resulted in a Greek text that, while rooted in the tradition of the Textus receptus , uniquely aligned with the particular readings of the King James Version. John Mill (1645–1707) collated textual variants from 82 Greek manuscripts. In his Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS (Oxford 1707) he reprinted the unchanged text of

8636-487: The Disputation with Arius from Pseudo-Athanasius. It is only found in a few later Greek manuscripts: 61 ( c.  1520 ), 629 (14th), 918 (16th century), 2318 (18th century), 2473 (17th century), and in the margins of 88 (11th century with margins added at the 16th century), 177 (BSB Cod. graec. 211), 221 (10th century with margins added at the 15th/16th century), 429 (14th century with margins added at

8763-739: The Gothic, the Armenian, and the Philoxenian . Griesbach distinguished a Western, an Alexandrian, and a Byzantine Recension. Christian Frederick Matthaei (1744–1811) was a Griesbach opponent. Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) was the first who broke with the Textus receptus . His object was to restore the text to the form in which it had been read in the Ancient Church in about AD 380. He used the oldest known Greek and Latin manuscripts. Constantin von Tischendorf 's Editio Octava Critica Maior

8890-479: The Latin New Testament. He consulted all the Vulgate manuscripts that he could find to create an edition without scribal corruptions and with better Latin. In the earlier phases of the project, he never mentioned a Greek text: "My mind is so excited at the thought of emending Jerome's text, with notes, that I seem to myself inspired by some god. I have already almost finished emending him by collating

9017-484: The Majority Text edition of Robinson and Pierpont in 1,838 Greek readings, of which 1,005 represent "translatable" differences. Most of these variants are minor, however Byzantine manuscripts usually exclude the Comma Johanneum and Acts 8:37 , which are present in the Textus receptus . Despite these differences, printed editions based on the Byzantine text agree far more closely with the Textus Receptus than with

9144-521: The Netherlands, France, England and Switzerland, noting their many variants, but had only six Greek manuscripts immediately accessible to him in Basel. They all dated from the 12th century or later, and only one came from outside the mainstream Byzantine tradition. Consequently, most modern scholars consider his Greek text to be of dubious quality. With the third edition of Erasmus's Greek text (1522)

9271-578: The Reformation era of biblical translation and printing. For Hills, the task of biblical scholarship is to identify the particular line of preserved transmission through which God is acting; a line that he sees in the specific succession of manuscript copying, textual correction and printing, which culminated in the Textus receptus and the King James Bible. Hills argues that the principle of providentially-preserved transmission guarantees that

9398-836: The Textual Criticism of the New Testament (1886). Burgon supported his arguments with the opinion that the Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi were older than the Sinaiticus and the Vaticanus ; and also that the Peshitta translation into Syriac (which supports the Byzantine Text) originated in the 2nd century. Miller's arguments in favour of readings in the Textus Receptus were of the same kind. However, both Burgon and Miller believed that although

9525-428: The Way can stay within it when one cultivates tranquility through the regular and systematic practice of breathing meditation. While the Way is always present, one is aware of this presence within the mind only when it is properly cultivated (Roth 1999: 103). De "inner power" is a basic concept in traditional Daoism meaning "inherent character; inner moral power; virtue; integrity", but the Neiye used de to mean

9652-459: The Way to generate all things is manifested as the vital essence, which is the procreative principle within all phenomena (Roth 1999: 101). The first lines of the text compare heavenly and earthly jing . The vital essence of all things: It is this that brings them to life. It generates the five grains below And becomes the constellated stars above. When flowing amid the heavens and earth, We call it ghostly and numinous. When stored within

9779-464: The [Greek] New Testament were wholly destitute of plan in selecting those manuscripts, out of which they were to form the text of their printed editions. In the sequel it will appear, that they were not altogether ignorant of two classes of manuscripts; one of which contains the text which we have adopted from them; and the other that text which has been adopted by M. Griesbach. Regarding Erasmus, Nolan stated: Nor let it be conceived in disparagement of

9906-498: The basis of the others. In 1894, Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener produced a significant Greek edition of the Textus receptus , based on the textual variants that the translators of the King James Version (KJV) had utilized. The translators of the King James Version did not rely on a single edition of the Textus receptus but instead they incorporated readings from multiple editions of the Textus receptus , including those by Erasmus, Stephanus, and Beza. Additionally, they consulted

10033-420: The chests of human beings, We call them sages. (Verse 1, tr. Roth 1999: 46) By storing jing within the heart/mind, one can become sagely. The sage's cultivation does not occur only at the spiritual level but rather sets into motion physiological changes, causing the human body to become thoroughly transformed and renewed (Yang 2003: 102). Xin "heart; mind" is regularly translated by Roth as "mind" with

10160-424: The comma be omitted: However, such guides permit the comma to be omitted if the second independent clause is very short, typically when the second independent clause is an imperative , as in: The above guidance is not universally accepted or applied. Long coordinate clauses are nonetheless usually separated by commas: A comma between clauses may change the connotation, reducing or eliminating ambiguity . In

10287-819: The comma in the main body of the text. The text (with the comma in italics and enclosed by brackets) in the King James Bible reads: For there are three that beare record [ in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one. ] [ And there are three that beare witnesse in earth ], the Spirit, and the Water, and the Blood, and these three agree in one. In the Greek Textus Receptus (TR),

10414-558: The critical text, as the Majority Text disagrees with the critical text 6,577 times in contrast to the 1,838 times it disagrees with the Textus receptus . Additionally, multiple of the agreements between the Textus receptus and the Byzantine text are very significant, such as the reading of "God" in 1 Timothy 3:16 and the inclusion of the Story of the Adulteress . Sometimes the Textus receptus contains readings which are present within

10541-466: The dates of compilation for these Guanzi writings about breath circulation techniques, Roth analyzed the linguistic features of the Neiye , Xinshu I and II , and Baixin ; and concluded that the Neiye is a genuine 4th-century BCE text while the others are derived from it (1999: 23–25). The first three works have close conceptual and textual parallels, but the Baixin —which is a mostly prose essay on how

10668-572: The dating of the Neiye is connected to some other texts within the Guanzi . Four chapters ( piān 篇) have descriptions of meditation practices: Xinshu 心術 "Techniques of the Mind I and II" (chapters 36 and 37), Baixin 白心 "The Purified Mind" (38), and Neiye 內業 "Inward Training" (49). The Guanzi is a heterogenous collection of writings by diverse Legalist , Confucianist , and Daoist authors; compilation probably began around 300 BCE and material may have been added until 26 BCE when Liu Xiang edited

10795-410: The early characters for yè 業 depicted a "horizontal board of a bell stand or frame", which was used as a phonetic loan character for "initiate; work; action; deed; profession; fortune, inheritance; strong; terrible" (1957: 695e, 640a) While many English-language authors transliterate the 內業 title as Neiye or Nei-yeh , some translate it as: A. C. Graham 's and Harold D. Roth's Inward Training

10922-510: The eyes and ears won't overflow And the mind will have nothing else to seek. When a properly aligned mind resides within you [正心在中], The myriad things will be seen in their proper perspective. (tr. Roth 1999: 70) Verse 14 describes this shen "numinous [mind]" as a nondual awareness of the Way: "Within the mind there is yet another mind. / That mind within the mind: it is an awareness that precedes words." (tr. Roth 1999: 72). This statement means

11049-415: The facts cry out, and it can be clear, as they say, even to a blind man, that often through the translator's clumsiness or inattention the Greek has been wrongly rendered; often the true and genuine reading has been corrupted by ignorant scribes, which we see happen every day, or altered by scribes who are half-taught and half-asleep." Erasmus's new work was published by Froben of Basel in 1516, becoming

11176-686: The first published Greek New Testament, the Novum Instrumentum omne , diligenter ab Erasmo Rot. Recognitum et Emendatum . For the Greek text, he used manuscripts: 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , 4 , 7 , 817 . In his research in England and Brabant for annotations on particular words, he had already consulted several other manuscripts and was particularly interested in patristic quotations as evidence of early readings. For subsequent editions he used more manuscripts, and consulted with his vast network of correspondents. Typographical errors, attributed to

11303-529: The flow of vital energy within the physical form ( xing 形 literally means "form; shape"), while zhengxin refers to aligning the flow of vital energy within the mind (Roth 1991: 612). "Aligning the body" and "aligning the four limbs" are closely related. The former appears in Verse 11 (above): "When your body is not aligned [形不正], / The inner power will not come. / When you are not tranquil within [中不靜], / Your mind will not be well ordered. / "Align your body, assist

11430-475: The following clear equation: "The vital essence [ jing 精]: it is the essence [精] of the vital energy [ qi 氣]." Thus, it is concentrated and subtle form of vital energy (Roth 1999: 101). The original meaning of jing (written 精 with the " rice radical " 米) "finest and purest rice" was a religious concept (Harper 1998: 119). Pure and refined things were considered as the "stuff of spirits; quintessence; essence", referring either to sacrificial offerings suitable for

11557-678: The following examples, the thing in the first sentence that is very relaxing is the cool day, whereas in the second sentence it is the walk, since the introduction of commas makes "on a cool day" parenthetical: If another prepositional phrase is introduced, ambiguity increases, but when commas separate each clause and phrase, the restrictive clause can remain a modifier of the walk : In some languages, such as German and Polish , stricter rules apply on comma use between clauses, with dependent clauses always being set off with commas, and commas being generally proscribed before certain coordinating conjunctions. The joining of two independent sentences with

11684-399: The following: Even though Erasmus had only one manuscript of Revelation when he created the Textus receptus , F.H.A Scrivener notes that in a few places such as Revelation 1:4 and Revelation 8:13, Erasmus refers to manuscripts which he had seen earlier during his travels. Other manuscripts were available to later editors of the Textus receptus . Robert Stephanus had access to over

11811-401: The gods/spirits or the potency of the spirits themselves. In later usage jing came to mean "germinal essence; energy that nourishes the human body; vitality". Harper translates this term both as "essence" and "specter, spectral" in the Neiye (1998: 155). The two most important philosophical concepts in the "Neiye" are the closely related notions of the vital essence and the Way. The power of

11938-399: The great undertaking of Erasmus, that he was merely fortuitously right. Had he barely undertaken to perpetuate the tradition on which he received the sacred text he would have done as much as could be required of him, and more than sufficient to put to shame the puny efforts of those who have vainly labored to improve upon his design. [...] With respect to Manuscripts, it is indisputable that he

12065-465: The human body, but will only remain within a person who has transformed him/herself into an efficient receptacle. For instance, "Cultivate your mind, make your thoughts tranquil, / And the Way can thereby be attained." (Verse 5), and "Diligently clean out [spirit's] lodging place / And its vital essence will naturally arrive." (13). Kirkland says a good analogy for these forces might be radio waves that continually flow through us but can only be utilized by

12192-430: The inner power [正形攝德], / Then it will gradually come on its own." The latter alignment of arms and legs creates a figurative she 舍 "guest-house; lodging" for jing "vital essence" in Verse 8. If you can be aligned and be tranquil [能正能靜], Only then can you be stable. With a stable mind at your core [定心在中], With the eyes and ears acute and clear, And with the four limbs firm and fixed [四枝堅固], You can thereby make

12319-483: The kind of sustained argumentation typically found in 3rd-century BCE philosophical essays, and it shows only a loose principle of organization between its verses. Third, the absence of the correlative cosmology of yin and yang and the Five Phases , characteristic of 3rd-century BCE texts. Using redaction criticism – analyzing the production a text from how the redactors (editors, compilers) combined and arranged

12446-519: The last one, be grasped [得 * tək ]. (tr. Roth 1999: 48–49) Scholars infer two kinds of contextual evidence that the redactor of an initial written Neiye edition brought together a series of originally distinct verses: the variety of meter and rhyme in the lines, and the two usages of the conjunction shìgù 是故 “therefore" (Roth 1999: 14). Riegel proposes that these poetic features of the Neiye would have facilitated memorization and recitation, suggesting that they might have been transmitted orally for

12573-568: The limitless. The test of this is not far off: Daily we make use of its inner power [ de 德]. The Way is what infuses the body, Yet people are unable to fix it in place. It goes forth but does not return, It comes back but does not stay. Silent! none can hear its sound. Suddenly stopping! it abides within the mind. Obscure! we do not see its form. Surging forth! it arises with us. We do not see its form, We do not hear its sound, Yet we can perceive an order to its accomplishments. We call it "the Way." (4, tr. Roth 1999: 52) Thus,

12700-418: The lodging place of the numinous" is essentially an apophatic process in which one "gradually and systematically removes the normal feelings, desires, thoughts, and perceptions that commonly occupy consciousness" (Roth 1999: 134). Xinshu I repeats this Neiye metaphor: "The Tao is not far off, but it is hard to reach its limit. It rests together with man, but it is hard to grasp. Empty out your desires, and

12827-1075: The manner of: 1. The use of whether paired with or , as well as if paired with then as conditional conjunctions, e.g. - 2. A nominal phrase headed by a negating determiner paired with an ensuing nominal phrase headed by nor , e.g., "The suites convey neither corporate coldness nor warmth." 3. An adjective (or adjectival phrase ) or an adverb (or an adverbial phrase ) paired with an ensuing conjunction , e.g. - Examples: Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that introduce content , relative , and adverbial clauses as subordinate ones, and join them to other clauses, whether independent or dependent. The most common subordinating conjunctions in English include after , although , as , as far as , as if , as long as , as soon as , as though , because , before , even if , even though , every time , if , in order that , since , so , so that , than , that , though , unless , until , when , whenever , where , whereas , wherever , and while . A complementizer

12954-444: The mind can be divided into two levels: empirical and transcendent. The former awaits transformation by the latter (Yang 2003: 104). The Neiye' s privately practiced meditation, in which the shen settles into the practitioner's body, directly descends from the trance of the professional wu "shaman; spirit medium" (Graham 1989: 101). Dao "the Way" is a well-known Chinese loanword in English meaning "an absolute entity which

13081-470: The more renowned Daode jing , which is about three times longer (Kirkland 2008: 771). Take for example, Verse 2 (with rhyme words shown in Old Chinese reconstruction) discussing jing "vital energy": Therefore this vital energy is: Bright!—as if ascending the heavens [天 * ten ]; Dark!—as if entering an abyss [淵 * wen ]; Vast!—as if dwelling in an ocean [海 * xməɣ ]; Lofty!—as if dwelling on

13208-410: The numen will enter its abode. If the abode is not thoroughly swept clean, the numen will not remain there." (tr. Roth 1991: 623). It also adds recommendations to "open its doors" (the senses), "relinquish selfishness", and "stop talking" in order to give the practitioner shenming 神明 "numinous clarity" (Roth 1991: 625). Received text Textus Receptus ( Latin : "received text") refers to

13335-414: The practice persists. The definition may be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit and perform the same function, e.g. "as well as", "provided that". A simple literary example of a conjunction is "the truth of nature, and the power of giving interest" ( Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Biographia Literaria ). Commas are often used to separate clauses . In English, a comma is used to separate

13462-547: The printed Textus receptus must be the closest text to the Greek autographs and so he rejects readings in the Byzantine Majority Text where they are not maintained in the Textus receptus . He goes so far as to conclude that Erasmus must have been providentially guided when he introduced Latin Vulgate readings into his Greek text; and even argues for the authenticity of the Comma Johanneum. Hence

13589-595: The readings of Minuscule 1 ( Caesarean text-type ). For Revelation, Erasmus used Minuscule 2814 , which follows the Andreas text-type. The Andreas text-type has been called a subtype of the Majority Text in Revelation, which is divided into the Koine form of Revelation and the Andreas type of Revelation. Dean Burgon , an influential supporter of the Textus receptus declared that it needs correction. He suggested 150 corrections in its Gospel of Matthew alone. The Textus receptus contains many well known variants, such as

13716-573: The received text (Roth 1999: 18). Since these four texts are the only Guanzi chapters to mention the significance of breath meditation, researchers tend to consider them together (Roth 1999: 18). Furthermore, all four exhibit the irregular rhyme patterns thought to be characteristic of the Chu region variety of Chinese (Roth 1994: 11). Many scholars have debated over the relationship between Neiye , Xinshu I and II , and Baixin . Most concur that these texts were written by Huang-Lao Daoist philosophers at

13843-531: The rush to print the first edition, abounded in the published text. Erasmus also lacked a complete copy of the Book of Revelation and translated the last six verses back into Greek from the Latin Vulgate to finish his edition. Erasmus adjusted the text in many places to correspond with readings found in the Vulgate or as quoted in the Church Fathers ; consequently, although the Textus receptus

13970-441: The same type (subject, objects, predicative, attributive expressions, etc.) within a sentence. The cause and consequence (illative) conjunctions are pseudo-coordinators, being expressible as antecedent or consequent to logical implications or grammatically as subordinate conditional clauses . Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions within a syntax that aggregates or contrasts correlated actions, characteristics, or items in

14097-408: The second part of Xinshu I shows the influence of the Daodejing and so must be dated to a later time after this work became influential in intellectual circles about 250 BCE (1999: 26–27). A 45-character inscription on a Warring States era jade artifact may possibly be an earlier record of breath meditation than the Neiye (Harper 1999: 881). This rhymed passage entitled xingqi 行氣 "circulating

14224-507: The source materials – Roth found that the Xinshu II is an original prose essay in which the redactor deliberately extracted and rearranged Neiye verses for the purpose of advocating the political benefits of inner cultivation methods (1994: 34). It thus complements Xinshu I and accounts for the Guanzi labeling them as parts of one essay (1999: 26). More specifically, Roth proposes that

14351-441: The subtle forces of the Way. Basic daily practices include proper alignment of one's body/heart/mind, breath meditation, and moderation in thinking and eating. Practicing zhèng 正 '"alignment" of bodymind in order to attain jìng 靜 "tranquility" (cf. later jingzuo "tranquil sitting" meditation) is one of the most important aims in the Neiye , where the word zheng "to rectify; to square up; to center; to align" appears in 9 of

14478-517: The succession of printed Greek New Testament texts starting with Erasmus' Novum Instrumentum omne (1516) and including the editions of Stephanus , Beza , Elzevir , Colinaeus and Scrivener . Additionally, although not being derived from the work of Erasmus, some such as the Trinitarian Bible Society also associate the Complutensian Polyglot with the Textus receptus tradition. The Textus receptus constituted

14605-403: The term dao refers to a transient reality that a person needs to attract and to retain (Kirkland 1997: 13). The Neiye warns that forceful efforts cannot make the dao arrive or stay, only one's de "inner power" (see below) can attract it and other life forces (Kirkland 2008: 772). Neiye verse 4 above depicts the Way as the ineffable cosmic power familiar from other early Daoist texts like

14732-518: The text of Revelation. Some of these readings were later edited out by Stephanus in his editions of the Textus receptus , but some distinct Erasmian readings remained, such as the words "book of life" instead of "tree of life" in Revelation 22 :19. Some defenders of the Textus receptus have argued that Erasmus used other Greek manuscripts for the last six verses of Revelation. Manuscripts such as 2049, 2067 and 296 which contain similar readings to

14859-491: The text of the New Testament by many modern textual critics, some Conservative Christians still view it as the most authentic text of the New Testament. This view is generally based upon a theological doctrine of the providential preservation of scripture and a rejection of naturalism in constructing the original text of the New Testament. The Textus receptus most strongly resembles the Byzantine text-type , as its editor Erasmus mainly based his work on manuscripts following

14986-902: The translation-base for the original German Luther Bible , the translation of the New Testament into English by William Tyndale , the King James Version , the Spanish Reina-Valera translation, the Czech Bible of Kralice , the Portuguese Almeida Recebida , the Dutch Statenvertaling , the Russian Synodal Bible and many other Reformation-era New Testament translations throughout Western, Northern and Central Europe. Despite being viewed as an inferior form of

15113-592: The true text is found not only in the text of the majority of the New Testament manuscripts but more especially in the Textus Receptus and in faithful translations of the Textus Receptus, such as the King James Version. In short, the Textus Receptus represents the God-guided revision of the majority text. Hills was the first textual critic to defend the Textus receptus . Although others have defended it per se, they are not acknowledged textual critics (such as Theodore Letis and David Hocking) or their works are not on

15240-478: The verse reads thus: ὅτι τρεῖς εἰσιν οἱ μαρτυροῦντες εν τῷ οὐρανῷ, ὁ πατήρ, ὁ λόγος, καὶ τὸ Ἅγιον Πνεῦμα· καὶ οὗτοι οἱ τρεῖς ἕν εἰσι. The earliest surviving Latin manuscripts containing the comma date back to the 5th to 7th centuries. These include the Freisinger fragment (6th-7th century), León palimpsest (7th century), besides the younger Codex Speculum (5th century). Its first full appearance in Greek

15367-460: The vital breath" was inscribed on a dodecagonal block of jade, with nine trisyllabic phrases describing the stages of breath cultivation. While the dating is uncertain, estimates range from earlier than 400 BCE ( Joseph Needham ), 380 BCE ( Guo Moruo ), to late 4th century BCE (Harper). In any case, scholars agree that this is the earliest Chinese epigraphical evidence on the practice of breath meditation (Roth 1999: 162). The ancient Neiye presents

15494-556: Was acquainted with every variety which is known to us, having distributed them into two principal classes, one of which corresponds with the Complutensian edition, the other with the Vatican manuscript. And he has specified the positive grounds on which he received the one and rejected the other. The Textus Receptus was defended by John William Burgon in his The Revision Revised (1881) and also by Edward Miller in A Guide to

15621-400: Was also a religious concept. External spirits were believed to occasionally descend to human beings (particularly shamans), or humans could draw them down with the power of de "inner power; virtue" (Harper 1998: 119). Verse 13 describes the aspects of shen "numen; numinous": There is a numinous [mind] naturally residing within [有神自在身]; One moment it goes, the next it comes, And no one

15748-403: Was an ardent advocate of the supremacy of the Textus receptus over all other editions of the Greek New Testament, and he argued that the first editors of the printed Greek New Testament intentionally selected those texts because of their superiority and disregarded other texts, which represented other text-types because of their inferiority. It is not to be conceived that the original editors of

15875-557: Was based on Codex Sinaiticus . Westcott and Hort published The New Testament in the Original Greek in 1881 in which they rejected what they considered to be the dated and inadequate Textus receptus . Their text is based mainly on Codex Vaticanus in the Gospels. Frederick von Nolan , a 19th-century historian and Greek and Latin scholar, spent 28 years attempting to trace the Textus receptus to apostolic origins. He

16002-621: Was fuller than that of any previous editor. He introduced the practice of indicating the ancient manuscripts by capital Roman letters and the later manuscripts by Arabic numerals. He published in Basel Prolegomena ad Novi Testamenti Graeci (1731). J. J. Griesbach (1745–1812) combined the principles of Bengel and Wettstein. He enlarged the Apparatus by considering more citations from the Fathers , and various versions, such as

16129-419: Was primarily based upon the work of Erasmus and the Complutensian Polyglot. This edition of the Textus receptus began to be printed in 1534, however its influence was minimal and it was not used by later editors of the Textus Receptus. The origin of the term Textus receptus comes from the publisher's preface to the 1633 edition produced by Bonaventure and his nephew Abraham Elzevir who were partners in

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