The History of the Britons ( Latin : Historia Brittonum ) is a purported history of early Britain written around 828 that survives in numerous recensions from after the 11th century. The Historia Brittonum is commonly attributed to Nennius , as some recensions have a preface written in that name. Some experts have dismissed the Nennian preface as a late forgery and argued that the work was actually an anonymous compilation.
89-492: Nennius – or Nemnius or Nemnivus – was a Welsh monk of the 9th century. He has traditionally been attributed with the authorship of the Historia Brittonum , based on the prologue affixed to that work. This attribution is widely considered a secondary (10th-century) tradition. Nennius was a student of Elvodugus, commonly identified with the bishop Elfodd of Bangor who convinced British ecclesiastics to accept
178-608: A "deliberate spoof", although this is based on misidentifying Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, as Walter Map , a satirical writer who lived a century later. It continues to have an influence on popular culture. For example, Mary Stewart's Merlin Trilogy and the TV miniseries Merlin both contain large elements taken from the Historia . Two hundred and fifteen medieval manuscripts of the Historia survive, dozens of them copied before
267-543: A Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law and regains the kingdom. Leir rules for three years and then dies; Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters' sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia; grief-stricken, she kills herself. Marganus and Cunedagius divide the kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains
356-514: A MS. of the twelfth century;' under ordinary conditions, the chapter would unhesitatingly be set aside as a forgery." He counters Zimmer's argument by reasoning that the Irishman responsible for the "superior" Irish translations might have added his own touches, further claiming that if a Latin version of the Historia had been available in the 12th century, it would have been replicated in that language, not translated. David N. Dumville argues that
445-406: A copy of Historia Regum Britanniae , which both Robert and Henry used uncritically as authentic history and subsequently used in their own works, by which means some of Geoffrey's fictions became embedded in popular history. The history of Geoffrey forms the basis for much British lore and literature as well as being a rich source of material for Welsh bards . It became tremendously popular during
534-553: A dedication to Robert, Earl of Gloucester and Waleran, Count of Meulan , whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale. The work of the History of Kings which was complied by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century has since been cited by medieval English and Welsh kings to assert the claim to a kingdom as its ruler. The legend began 3,000 years ago after the Trojan War ( c. 1184 BC ). It
623-583: A detailed list of the Kings of Wales with his ancestry going back to Brutus of Troy. However, Gruffudd's descent was from Locrinus of Scotland and not his brother King Camber of Wales. Otherwise, it is said that in the 8th century, the Welsh monk Nennius wrote the now questioned ancestry list, and that it was Geoffrey who published the king list accepted to date. In an exchange of manuscript material for their own histories, Robert of Torigny gave Henry of Huntington
712-596: A dog in it. When Cabal, who was the dog of Arthur the soldier, was hunting the boar Troynt, he impressed his print in the stone, and afterwards Arthur assembled a stone mound under the stone with the print of his dog, and it is called the Carn Cabal. And men come and remove the stone in their hands for the length of a day and a night; and on the next day it is found on top of its mound. The second concerns Arthur's son Anir or Amr ( Amhar in Welsh) and his sepulchre: There
801-487: A few marvels of Anglesey ( Menand insulae or Mona) and of Ireland. The Mirabilia section is thought to not be part of the original work, but to have been composed shortly after (early 9th cent.). Two of the marvels are Arthurian lore (Chapter 73 of the Historia ). Old editions give "Troynt" as the name of the great boar and "Anir" as the name of Arthur's tragic son in the Harleian manuscript, but Fletcher suggested
890-622: A fleet to Britain, but he is overwhelmed by Cassivellaunus's army and forced to retreat to Gaul. Two years later he makes another attempt, but is again pushed back. Then Cassivellaunus quarrels with one of his dukes, Androgeus, who sends a letter to Caesar asking him to help avenge the duke's honour. Caesar invades once more and besieges Cassivellaunus on a hill. After several days Cassivellaunus offers to make peace with Caesar, and Androgeus, filled with remorse, goes to Caesar to plead with him for mercy. Cassivellaunus pays tribute and makes peace with Caesar, who then returns to Gaul. Cassivelaunus dies and
979-541: A fragment of a story about the battle preserved in manuscript Peniarth 98B states that the battle had an alternate name, Cad Achren , which suggests a connection with the Caer Ochren raided by Arthur in the earlier poem Preiddeu Annwfn . Various writers have asserted that this chapter supports a historical basis for King Arthur and have tried to identify the twelve battles with historical feuds or locales (see Sites and places associated with Arthurian legend ). On
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#17327825794001068-597: A great scourge of the Saxons immediately prior. Of the other battles, only the Battle of Tribruit is generally agreed to be associated with Arthur in another early Welsh source. Tribruit appears as Tryfrwyd in the Old Welsh poem Pa Gur? , dating to perhaps the mid-ninth century. This poem follows the story of a battle against cinbin , or dogheads , whom Arthur's men fought in the mountains of Eidyn (Edinburgh); in
1157-458: A king in his own right, and also includes other characters such as Vortimer and Bishop Germanus of Auxerre . Chapter 56 discusses twelve battles fought and won by Arthur , here called dux bellorum (war leader) rather than king: At that time, the Saxons grew strong by virtue of their large number and increased in power in Britain. Hengist having died, however, his son Octha crossed from
1246-609: A late forgery, and believes that the work underwent several anonymous revisions before reaching the forms that now survive in the various families of manuscripts. Dumville's view is largely accepted by current scholarship, though not without dissent. Peter Field in particular has argued for the authenticity of the preface, suggesting that it was left out of many recensions because it was seen as derogatory to British scholarship. However, Field believes Liebermann's earlier argument for Nennius's authorship still bears consideration. Various introductory notes to this work invoke Nennius's (or
1335-548: A paragraph about the beginnings of Welsh literature At that time, Talhaiarn Cataguen was famed for poetry, and Neirin , and Taliesin and Bluchbard, and Cian, who is called Guenith Guaut, were all famous at the same time in British poetry. A number of works that are frequently associated with the Historia Brittonum , in part because some of them first appear with the Harleian manuscript, and partly because when
1424-414: A physician and poison Ambrosius. When the king dies, a comet taking the form of a dragon's head ( pendragon ) appears in the night sky, which Merlin interprets as a sign that Ambrosius is dead and that Uther will be victorious and succeed him. So after defeating his latest enemies, Uther adds "Pendragon" to his name and is crowned king. But another enemy strikes, forcing Uther to make war again. This time he
1513-468: A second time you will not find it to have the same length—and I myself have put this to the test. Chapters relating events in the life of Saint Germanus of Auxerre claim to be excerpts from a (now lost) biography of the saint. The document includes a collection of traditions about Saint Patrick , as well as a section describing events in the North of England in the sixth and seventh centuries, starting with
1602-476: A story of the king Vortigern , who allowed the Saxons to settle in the island of Britain in return for the hand of Hengist 's daughter. One legend about Vortigern says he tried to build a stronghold near Snowdon called Dinas Emrys , only to have his building materials disappear every time he tried. His advisers told him to sprinkle the blood of a fatherless boy on the site to lift the curse. Vortigern found such
1691-472: A valuable piece of medieval literature, which contains the earliest known version of the story of King Lear and his three daughters, and helped popularise the legend of King Arthur . Geoffrey starts the book with a statement of his purpose in writing the history: "I have not been able to discover anything at all on the kings who lived here before the Incarnation of Christ, or indeed about Arthur and all
1780-468: A youth in Ambrosius , who rebuked the wise men and revealed that the disturbance was caused by two dragons buried underground. The tower story is repeated and embellished by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae , though he attributes it to Merlin , saying "Ambrosius" is the sage's alternative name. Geoffrey includes Aurelius Ambrosius, another figure mentioned in the Historia , as
1869-481: Is also the first record we have of the great figure King Lear, and the beginning of the mythical King Arthur figure. For centuries, the Historia was accepted at face value, and much of its material was incorporated into Holinshed 's 16th-century Chronicles . Modern historians have regarded the Historia as a work of fiction with some factual information contained within. John Morris in The Age of Arthur calls it
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#17327825794001958-487: Is another wonder in the region which is called Ercing . A tomb is located there next to a spring which is called Licat Amr; and the name of the man who is buried in the tomb was called thus: Amr (←Anir). He was the son of Arthur the soldier, and Arthur himself killed and buried him in that very place. And men come to measure the grave and find it sometimes six feet in length, sometimes nine, sometimes twelve, sometimes fifteen. At whatever length you might measure it at one time,
2047-534: Is given rule of Brittany to compensate him for not succeeding. After a long period of Roman rule, the Romans decide they no longer wish to defend the island and depart. The Britons are immediately besieged by attacks from Picts , Scots and Danes, especially as their numbers have been depleted due to Conan colonizing Brittany and Maximianus using British troops for his campaigns. In desperation the Britons send letters to
2136-400: Is in the region of Linnuis . The sixth battle was above the river which is called Bassas. The seventh battle was in the forest of Celidon, that is Cat Coit Celidon. The eighth battle was at the fortress of Guinnion, in which Arthur carried the image of Holy Mary ever virgin on his shoulders; and the pagans were put to flight on that day. And through the power of our Lord Jesus Christ and through
2225-448: Is succeeded by his brother, Cassibelanus , as Lud's sons Androgeus and Tenvantius are not yet of age. In recompense, Androgeus is made Duke of Kent and Trinovantum (London), and Tenvantius is made Duke of Cornwall . After his conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar looks over the sea and resolves to order Britain to swear obedience and pay tribute to Rome. His commands are answered by a letter of refusal from Cassivellaunus. Caesar sails
2314-404: Is succeeded by his nephew Tenvantius, as Androgeus has gone to Rome. Tenvantius is succeeded in turn by his son Kymbelinus , and then Kymbelinus's son Guiderius . Guiderius refuses to pay tribute to emperor Claudius , who then invades Britain. After Guiderius is killed in battle with the Romans, his brother Arvirargus continues the defence, but eventually agrees to submit to Rome, and is given
2403-447: Is temporarily defeated, gaining final victory only with the help of Duke Gorlois of Cornwall . But while celebrating this victory with Gorlois, he falls in love with the duke's wife, Igerna . This leads to war between Uther Pendragon and Gorlois of Cornwall, during which Uther clandestinely lies with Igerna through the magic of Merlin. Arthur is conceived that night. Then Gorlois is killed and Uther marries Igerna. But he must war against
2492-491: Is the earliest example of the original Historia Brittonum , that includes the author's name, Nennius. Originally written as a history of the Britons in an attempt to document a legitimate past, the Historia Brittonum contains stories of legend and superstition alike. The historical accuracy of the Historia Brittonum is at best questionable, but the document is internally consistent and provides information from and indirectly about Nennius' sources. Some historians argue that
2581-537: The Annales Cambriae ; here, Arthur is described as carrying "the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights…", though here the battle is said to be Badon rather than Guinnion. T. M. Charles-Edwards argues that these accounts both refer to a single source. Other scholars, however, such as Thomas Jones and N. J. Higham , argue that the Annales account is based directly on
2670-477: The British History , first appears in a manuscript from the twelfth century. The prologues of all other manuscripts, though only included marginally, so closely resemble this first prologue that William Newell claims they must be copies. "The preface has evidently been prepared by someone who had before him the completed text of the treatise. It appears in the first instance as a marginal gloss contained in
2759-636: The Galfridian works Geoffrey to Robert III of Scotland . Glyndwr referenced himself as the Prince of Wales and a direct descendant and heir of the son of Brutus of Troy, King Camber, and also of later the medieval King Cadwaladr . The work of Geoffrey of Monmouth was considered to take inspiration from the Latin publication of the life of 11th and 12th century King Gruffudd ap Cynan (written from 1137), finished by Gerald of Wales . Gruffudd's biography has
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2848-484: The Harleian Genealogies ) and king-lists, the poems of Taliesin , the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen , and some of the medieval Welsh saints' lives, expanded and turned into a continuous narrative by Geoffrey's own imagination. The medieval works are deemed to be drawn from traditional Celtic materials and are supposed to have deep roots to the point that the publications are considered reliable and not
2937-565: The High Middle Ages , revolutionising views of British history before and during the Anglo-Saxon period despite the criticism of such writers as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh , who stated "no one but a person ignorant of ancient history [can doubt] how impertinently and impudently he falsifies in every respect." . The prophecies of Merlin in particular were often drawn on in later periods, for instance by both sides in
3026-461: The Historia , suggesting the name of the battle was switched from the unknown Guinnion to the famous Badon, and that the icon Arthur carries was replaced with a more common one. The Battle of Mount Badon is associated with Arthur in several later texts, but not in any that predate the Historia . It was clearly a historical battle described by Gildas , who does not mention the name of the Britons' leader. He does however mention Aurelius Ambrosius as
3115-525: The Historia Britonum is studied, these sources are eventually mentioned. Historia Regum Britanniae Historia regum Britanniae ( The History of the Kings of Britain ), originally called De gestis Britonum ( On the Deeds of the Britons ), is a fictitious historical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth . It chronicles the lives of the kings of
3204-450: The Historia Brittonum gives good insight into the way 9th century Britons viewed themselves and their past. Nennius makes several attempts to trace the history of the Britons back to the Romans and Celts through his empirical observations of what he refers to as "The Marvels" or "Wonders of Britain" . These include ruins, landmarks and other aspects of the British countryside that Nennius deems worthy of documentation. His explanation of
3293-559: The Historia Brittonum to Arthur carrying the image of St. Mary on his shoulders in a battle has been interpreted by later commentators as a mistranslation of Arthur bearing the image of Mary on his shield ; the words in Welsh are very similar. The 19th-century classicist Theodor Mommsen divided the work into seven parts: Preface ( Prefatio Nennii Britonum ); I. The Six Ages of the World ( de sex aetatibus mundi ) (§1-6); II. History of
3382-465: The Norman world in the 11th–12th centuries. The remainder are obscure. After Aurelius Ambrosius defeats and kills Vortigern , becoming king, Britain remains in a state of war under him and his brother Uther. They are both assisted by the wizard Merlin. At one point during the continuous string of battles, Ambrosius takes ill and Uther must lead the army for him. This allows an enemy assassin to pose as
3471-535: The Prologue and in the Apology differs, the Prologue containing an expanded form of the Apology that is only found in editions copied during the 12th century, leading experts to believe that later versions of the document were altered. The largest known edition contains seventy-six sections including the Prologue and the Apology . The work was translated into Irish by Giolla Coemgin in c. 1071 and
3560-429: The Saxons under Hengist and Horsa to fight for him as mercenaries, but they rise against him. He loses control of much of his land and encounters Merlin . At this point Geoffrey abruptly pauses his narrative by inserting a series of prophecies attributed to Merlin . Some of the prophecies act as an epitome of upcoming chapters of the Historia , while others are veiled allusions to historical people and events of
3649-604: The Strata Florida Abbey in Wales, and then translated by Hywel Fychan ap Hywel Goch of Buellt into Latin- Welsh during 1250 in the manuscript Chronicle of Kings ( Welsh : Brut y Brenhinedd ). Both of which are part of the medieval manuscripts of Wales ( Wales Library collection ), a lot of which are kept at the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth today. Geoffrey's work was to do with
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3738-581: The Trojan Aeneas , who, according to the Aeneid of Virgil , settled in Italy after the Trojan War . His great-grandson Brutus is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion , "Britain" after himself. Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of
3827-438: The British tongue", given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford . However, no modern scholars take this claim seriously. Much of the work appears to be derived from Gildas 's 6th-century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae , Bede 's 8th-century Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , the 9th-century Historia Brittonum ascribed to Nennius , the 10th-century Annales Cambriae , medieval Welsh genealogies (such as
3916-798: The Britons over the course of two thousand years, beginning with the Trojans founding the British nation and continuing until the Anglo-Saxons assumed control of much of Britain around the 7th century. It is one of the central pieces of the Matter of Britain . Although taken as historical well into the 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history. When events described, such as Julius Caesar 's invasions of Britain , can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffrey's account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. It remains, however,
4005-560: The Britons ( historia Brittonum ) (§7-49); III. Life of Patrick ( vita Patricii ) (§50-55); IV. Arthuriana (§ 56); V. Genealogies ( regum genealogiae cum computo ) (§c. 57–66); VI. Cities of Britain ( civitates Britanniae ) (§66 ); VII. Wonders of Britain ( de mirabilibus Britanniae ) (§67—76). The Historia Brittonum can be dated to about 829. The work was written no earlier than the "fourth year of [the reign of] king Mermenus" (who has been identified as Merfyn Frych ap Gwriad , king of Gwynedd ). Historians have conservatively assigned 828 to
4094-425: The Britons and that it was largely based on Gildas ' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae written some three centuries before. Other sources included a Life of St Germanus and several royal pedigrees. Most other sources have not survived and therefore cannot be confirmed. The surviving manuscripts of the Historia Brittonum appear to be redacted from several lost versions: information about Nennius contained in
4183-558: The Continental dating for Easter , and who died in 809 according to the Annales Cambriae . Nennius is believed to have lived in the area made up by Brecknockshire and Radnorshire in present-day Powys , Wales. Thus, he lived outside the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, isolated by mountains in a rural society. Because of the lack of evidence concerning the life of Nennius, he has become the subject of legend himself. Welsh traditions include Nennius with Elbodug and others said to have escaped
4272-679: The Saxons again. Although Uther ultimately triumphs, he dies after drinking water from a spring the Saxons had poisoned. Uther's son Arthur assumes the throne and inflicts a severe enough defeat against the Saxons that they cease to be a threat until after his death. In the meantime, Arthur conquers most of northern Europe and ushers in a period of peace and prosperity that lasts until the Romans, led by Lucius Hiberius , demands that Britain once again pay tribute to Rome. Arthur defeats Lucius in Gaul, intending to become Emperor, but in his absence, his nephew Mordred seduces and marries Guinevere and seizes
4361-680: The Tryfrwyd battle they spar with a character named Garwlwyd (Rough-Gray), who is likely the Gwrgi Garwlwyd (Man-Dog Rough-Grey) who appears in one of the Welsh Triads . Arthur's main protagonist in the fight is Bedwyr , later known as Sir Bedivere, and the poem also mentions the euhemerized god Manawydan . "The City of the Legion" may be a reference to Caerleon , whose name translates as such, but it might also refer to Chester ,
4450-540: The aid of King Alan of the Armoricans. However an angel's voice tells him the Britons will no longer rule and he should go to Rome. Cadwallader does so, dying there, though leaves his son and nephew to rule the remaining Britons. The remaining Britons are driven into Wales and the Saxon Athelstan becomes King of Loegria. Geoffrey claimed to have translated the Historia into Latin from "a very ancient book in
4539-641: The anonymous compiler's) words from the Prefatio that "I heaped together ( coacervavi ) all I could find" from various sources, not only concrete works in writing but "our ancient traditions" (i.e. oral sources) as well. This is quoted from the Apologia version of the preface. Giles's translation rendered this as "I put together", obscuring the fact that this is indeed a quote from the work and not from some commentator (See Morris's more recent translation as given in wikiquote: Historia Brittonum ) . Leslie Alcock
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#17327825794004628-592: The author incorporated the list from a now-lost Old Welsh poem, based on the fact that some of the names appear to rhyme, The odd description of Arthur bearing the image of the Virgin Mary on his shoulders at Guinnion might stem from a conflation of the Welsh word iscuit (shield) with iscuid (shoulders). Others reject this as untenable, arguing that the author included battles not previously associated with Arthur, perhaps even made them up entirely. A similar story to that attached to Guinnion also appears in
4717-499: The basis on which later medieval authors such as Geoffrey of Monmouth would write the Historia Regum Britanniae , one of the early Welsh chronicles and romantic histories of King Arthur. Nennius however never refers to Arthur as a King instead calling him a "Dux Bellorum" who lead the kings of Britain in battle, a military commander. The Prologue, in which Nennius introduces his purpose and means for writing
4806-470: The earliest date for the work, which is consistent with the statement in chapter 4 that "from the Passion of Christ 796 years have passed. But from his Incarnation are 831 years". The text makes use of two narrative techniques that are generally considered not reliable by modern academic standards: synthesizing and synchronizing history. Synthetic history combines legendary elements with fact, which makes
4895-432: The end of the 12th century. Even among the earliest manuscripts a large number of textual variants, such as the so-called "First Variant", can be discerned. These are reflected in the three possible prefaces to the work and in the presence or absence of certain episodes and phrases. Certain variants may be due to "authorial" additions to different early copies, but most probably reflect early attempts to alter, add to or edit
4984-876: The general of the Roman forces, asking for help, but receive no reply (this passage borrows heavily from the corresponding section in Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae ). After the Romans leave, the Britons ask the King of Brittany (Armorica), Aldroenus , descended from Conan, to rule them. However, Aldroenus instead sends his brother Constantine to rule the Britons. After Constantine's death, Vortigern assists his eldest son Constans in succeeding, before enabling their murder and coming to power. Constantine's remaining sons Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther are too young to rule and are taken to safety in Armorica. Vortigern invites
5073-467: The hand of Claudius's daughter Genvissa in marriage. Claudius returns to Rome, leaving the province under Arvirargus's governorship. The line of British kings continues under Roman rule, and includes Lucius , Britain's first Christian king, and several Roman figures, including the emperor Constantine I , the usurper Allectus and the military commander Asclepiodotus . When Octavius passes the crown to his son-in-law Maximianus , his nephew Conan Meriadoc
5162-594: The history of the British kings who hailed from the Greek Empire and specifically from after the Trojan War (fall of Troy). Then, the books detail the Welsh medieval era during of the Kingdom of Gwynedd , from around 682, culminating in the life of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd until 1282, it was Prince Llywelyn II who referenced Geoffrey's work. Also, another king to cite the books was Prince Owain Glyndwr , he spoke of
5251-623: The imagination of one man, aka Geoffrey. However, since Geoffrey's publication of the Historia Regum Britanniae (De gestis Britonum), his work has been downgraded due to factual errors that were once recorded for the publication of his work i.e. observations to do with Stonehenge . Then, it was merely a century later that Geoffrey's 'The History of Kings' was rewritten and translated in Cistercian monasteries at locations such as Whitland , St Davids Cathedral and later
5340-537: The island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul. Soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia and travels to Gaul. Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises
5429-530: The island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova ("New Troy"), on the banks of the Thames; later it is known as Trinovantum , and eventually renamed London. When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide the country between themselves; the three kingdoms are named Loegria , Kambria (North and West of the Severn to Humber) and Albany (Scotland). The story then progresses rapidly through
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#17327825794005518-583: The issue of English influence over Scotland under Edward I and his successors. The Historia was quickly translated into Norman verse by Wace (the Roman de Brut ) in 1155. Wace's version was in turn translated into Middle English verse by Layamon (the Brut ) in the early 13th century. In the second quarter of the 13th century, a version in Latin verse, the Gesta Regum Britanniae ,
5607-525: The legendary origins of the Picts , Scots , St. Germanus and Vortigern , and documents events associated with the Anglo-Saxon invasion of the 7th century as contributed by a Northumbrian document. Evidence suggests that the Historia Brittonum was a compilation of several sources, some of which are named by Nennius, while others are not. Some experts say that this was not the first compiled history of
5696-509: The long-running history of the land, such as the Middle English Brut of England , also known as The Chronicles of England . The work was the first source to portray King Arthur , who is described as a dux bellorum ('military leader') or miles ('warrior, soldier') and not as a king . It names the twelve battles that Arthur fought, but, unlike the Annales Cambriae , does not give any actual dates. The reference in
5785-548: The manuscript tradition and nature of the Prologue in particular fail to substantiate the claim that Nennius was the author of Historia Brittonum . In his argument against Zimmer, he cites a textual inconsistency in the Irish translation regarding a place called Beulan, concluding that "we must admit to ignorance of the name of [the Historia's ] ninth-century author." Historia Brittonum The Historia Brittonum describes
5874-455: The massacre of Welsh monks by Ethelfrid in 613, fleeing to the north. Nennius was traditionally credited with having written the Historia Brittonum c. 830 . The Historia Brittonum was highly influential, becoming a major contributor to the Arthurian legend , in particular for its inclusion of events relevant to debate about the historicity of King Arthur . It also includes
5963-410: The northern part of Britain to the kingdom of Kent and from him are descended the kings of Kent. Then Arthur along with the kings of Britain fought against them in those days, but Arthur himself was the military commander ["dux bellorum"]. His first battle was at the mouth of the river which is called Glein . His second, third, fourth, and fifth battles were above another river which is called Dubglas and
6052-493: The other hand, Caitlin Green argues that the only identifiable battles linked explicitly with Arthur in Old Welsh sources are mythological, undermining any claims that the battles had a basis in history. Attached to the Historia is a section called De mirabilibus Britanniae (or simply Mirabilia for short, a Latin word meaning 'marvels, miracles'). It gives a list of 13 topographical marvels, or wonders of Britain, followed by
6141-614: The other kings and establishes his rule over the whole island. He is said to have "established the so-called Molmutine Laws which are still famous today among the English". Dunvallo's sons, Belinus and Brennius , fight a civil war before being reconciled by their mother, and proceed to sack Rome . Victorious, Brennius remains in Italy, while Belinus returns to rule Britain. Numerous brief accounts of successive kings follow. These include Lud , who renames Trinovantum " Kaerlud " after himself; this later becomes corrupted to Lon don . Lud
6230-406: The others who followed on after the Incarnation. Yet the deeds of these men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time." He claims that he was given a source for this period by Archdeacon Walter of Oxford, who presented him with a "certain very ancient book written in the British language" from which he has translated his history. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources. Then follows
6319-491: The physical landmarks and ruins take on a mystical interpretation despite Nennius being a Christian monk. Within the writing of Nennius is a sense of nationalist pride attempting to legitimise the people of Britain and embellish the past through legend much as the Romans used the story of Romulus and Remus to legitimise the founding of Rome. One such example of Nennius stressing legend is in his accounts of Arthur and his twelve battles. The Historia Brittonum would come to be
6408-557: The power of the blessed Virgin Mary his mother there was great slaughter among them. The ninth battle was waged in the City of the Legion . The tenth battle was waged on the banks of a river which is called Tribruit. The eleventh battle was fought on the mountain which is called Agnet. The twelfth battle was on Mount Badon in which there fell in one day 960 men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself, and in all
6497-550: The reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud , who uses magic and even tries to fly, but dies in the process. Bladud's son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia. To decide who should get the largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely; angered, he gives Cordelia no land. Goneril and Regan are to share half
6586-653: The site of a large Roman base. Cat Coit Celidon is probably a reference to the Caledonian Forest ( Coed Celyddon ) which once covered the Southern Uplands of Scotland. Scholar Marged Haycock has suggested that this battle can be identified with the Cad Goddeu , the "Battle of the Trees", best known from the tenth-century poem Cad Goddeu . Arthur is mentioned towards the end of this poem, and
6675-478: The so-called Brut Tysilio , was proposed in 1917 by the archaeologist William Flinders Petrie to be the ancient British book that Geoffrey translated, although the Brut itself claims to have been translated from Latin by Walter of Oxford, based on his own earlier translation from Welsh to Latin. Geoffrey's work is greatly important because it brought the Welsh culture into British society and made it acceptable. It
6764-495: The supposed settlement of Britain by Trojan settlers and says that Britain was named for Brutus , a descendant of Aeneas . The "single most important source used by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his pseudohistorical Historia Regum Britanniae " and through the enormous popularity of the latter work, this version of the early history of Britain, including the Trojan origin tradition, was incorporated into subsequent chronicles of
6853-516: The text as anonymously written would be the best approach as theories attributing authorship to Nennius have since been disputed by subsequent scholars. Repudiating the so-called vindication of Nennius in 1890 by the Celtic scholar Heinrich Zimmer , Mommsen returned to the earlier view of a ninth-century Nennius merely building on a seventh-century original, which he dated to around 680. The historian Ferdinand Lot swiftly challenged Mommsen; but it
6942-488: The text. The task of disentangling these variants and establishing Geoffrey's original text is long and complex, and the extent of the difficulties surrounding the text has been established only recently. The variant title Historia regum Britanniae was introduced in the Middle Ages, and this became the most common form in the modern period. A critical edition of the work published in 2007, however, demonstrated that
7031-512: The throne. Arthur returns and kills Mordred at the Battle of Camlann , but, mortally wounded, he is carried off to the isle of Avalon , and hands the kingdom to his cousin Constantine , son of Cador and Duke of Cornwall. The Saxons returned after Arthur's death, but would not end the line of British kings until the death of Cadwallader . Cadwallader is forced to flee Britain and requests
7120-406: The variant readings "Troit" and "Amr" be preferred since they are closer to the Welsh forms of those names. The first concerns Arthur's dog, Cabal ( Cavall in Welsh) and the footprint it left while chasing the boar Troynt (→Troit) Twrch Trwyth : There is another marvel in the region which is called Buelt . There is a mound of stones there and one stone placed above the pile with the pawprint of
7209-405: The veracity of the text challenging to evaluate. Various specious causal connections and attempts to synchronize material from different sources and traditions also contribute to undermining the reliability of the chronicle. The question of the nature of the text of the Historia Brittonum is one that has caused intense debate over the centuries. Some scholars have taken the position that treating
7298-740: The wars he emerged as victor. And while they were being defeated in all the battles, they were seeking assistance from Germany and their numbers were being augmented many times over without interruption. And they brought over kings from Germany that they might reign over them in Britain, right down to the time in which Ida reigned, who was son of Eobba . He was the first king in Bernicia , i.e., in Berneich. Many of these battle sites are obscure and cannot be identified with any certitude. Some appear in other Welsh literature, though not necessarily explicitly connected to Arthur. Some scholars have proposed that
7387-431: The whole kingdom, ruling for thirty-three years. He is succeeded by his son Rivallo. A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc , has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex. They quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other. Dunvallo Molmutius , the son of Cloten, the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent. He eventually defeats
7476-583: Was Brutus of Troy 's family who fled modern day Republic of Türkiye to the now country of Italy , then afterwards he sailed to the British Isles , specifically Totnes in England, where the Brutus Stone is found today. Then, Brutus divided the island of Great Britain between his three sons as leaders of respective countries. Locrinus was his eldest and was given England to rule, Albanactus
7565-590: Was given Scotland , and Camber , the third son became the ruler of Wales , all three makes up the countries of Britain ( Latin : Brittonum ), which is today is part of the United Kingdom . The books then follow the timeline of the Kings of Britain for the following millennium, until the Roman invasion of Britain and the subsequent founding of medieval kingdoms in Britain. The Historia itself begins with
7654-424: Was not the first to draw attention to the phrase though he may have started the recent spate of interest. The Historia Brittonum has drawn attention because of its role in influencing the legends and myths surrounding King Arthur . It is the earliest source that presents Arthur as a historical figure, and is the source of several stories which were repeated and amplified by later authors. The Historia contains
7743-545: Was not until 1925 that the Anglo-Saxon scholar Felix Liebermann offered a major reconstruction of the Mommsen view, arguing that Nennius in fact first put the whole work into shape in the ninth century. Re-analysing the eleven manuscript variants of Mommsen, he produced a two-stemma analysis of their hypothetical descent, noting however that “Only one branch, viz. C2d2 of the second stem, preserves Nennius's name”. His overall conclusion (based on uniform particularities of style)
7832-400: Was produced by William of Rennes . Material from Geoffrey was incorporated into a large variety of Anglo-Norman and Middle English prose compilations of historical material from the 13th century onward. Geoffrey was translated into a number of different Welsh prose versions by the end of the 13th century, collectively known as Brut y Brenhinedd . One variant of the Brut y Brenhinedd ,
7921-531: Was that “The whole work...belongs to Nennius alone”, but this did not prevent him from recognising that “we must lower Nennius's rank as a historian...[but] praise his patriotic heart. The Nennius question was re-opened in the 1970s by Professor David Dumville . Dumville revisited the stemmatics of the various recensions and published the Vatican version. Dumville called the Nennian preface ( Prefatio Nennii )
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