Misplaced Pages

#41958

113-651: Prominent Ngindo people include: [1] . This article about a Tanzanian ethnicity is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Tanzania Tanzania , officially the United Republic of Tanzania , is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to

226-442: A UNESCO World Heritage Site , features a collection with remnants of tools that document the development and use of transitional technology . The indigenous populations of eastern Africa are thought to be the linguistically isolated Hadza and Sandawe hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. The first wave of migration was by Southern Cushitic speakers who moved south from Ethiopia and Somalia into Tanzania. They are ancestral to

339-590: A 2.5 km-wide (1.6-mile) caldera caused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime). The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within

452-447: A filled caldera . The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with some pyroclastics . The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating from ring fractures , but there was no large-scale explosive activity . Two cones formed subsequently,

565-529: A major producer of gold around this same period. Economic, social, and religious power was increasingly vested in Kilwa , Tanzania's major medieval city-state. Kilwa controlled a number of smaller ports stretching down to modern-day Mozambique. Sofala became the major gold emporium and Kilwa grew rich off the trade, lying at the southern end of the Indian Ocean Monsoons. Kilwa's major rivals lay to

678-605: A member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871. Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain. Elephants and Cape buffaloes are among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers. Bushbucks , chameleons , dik-diks , duikers , mongooses , sunbirds , and warthogs have also been reported. Zebras , leopards and hyenas have been observed sporadically on

791-516: A powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. The mountain may have been known to non-Africans since antiquity . Sailors' reports recorded by Ptolemy mention a "moon mountain" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa like Mount Kenya , the mountains of Ethiopia ,

904-488: A scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522. West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals. In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro

1017-611: A small amount of imported pottery has been found, less than 1% of total pottery finds, mostly from the Gulf and dated to the 5th to 8th century. The similarity to contemporary sites such as Mkokotoni and Dar es Salaam indicate a unified group of communities that developed into the first centre of coastal maritime culture. The coastal towns appear to have been engaged in Indian Ocean and inland African trade at this early period. Trade rapidly increased in importance and quantity beginning in

1130-576: A type of high-heat blast furnace , which allowed them to forge carbon steel at temperatures exceeding 1,820 °C (3,310 °F) more than 1,500 years ago. Travelers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and India have visited the east African coast since early in the first millennium AD. Islam was practiced by some on the Swahili Coast as early as the eighth or ninth century AD. Bantu-speakers built farming and trade villages along

1243-486: A wide variety of animal habitats. On Tanzania's Serengeti plain, white-bearded wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi ), other bovids and zebra participate in a large-scale annual migration. Tanzania is home to about 130 amphibian and over 275 reptile species, many of them strictly endemic and included in the International Union for Conservation of Nature 's Red Lists of countries. Tanzania has

SECTION 10

#1732775693042

1356-518: A year, TANU had become the leading political organisation in the country. Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960 and continued as prime minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961. British rule came to an end on 9 December 1961. Elizabeth II , who had acceded to the British throne in 1952, continued to reign through the first year of Tanganyika's independence, but now distinctly as Queen of Tanganyika , represented by

1469-567: Is Freeman Mbowe . In Zanzibar, the country's semi-autonomous state, The Alliance for Change and Transparency-Wazalendo is (ACT-Wazalendo) is considered the main opposition political party. The constitution of Zanzibar requires the party that comes in second in the polls to join a coalition with the winning party. ACT-Wazalendo joined a coalition government with the islands' ruling party Chama Cha Mapinduzi in December 2020 after Zanzibar disputed elections . In November 2020, Magufuli once again

1582-595: Is dormant and could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. The Tanzania National Parks Authority , a Tanzanian government agency, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization lists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on a British survey in 1952. The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of

1695-605: Is a dormant volcano in Tanzania . It is the highest mountain in Africa and the highest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world : 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also the highest volcano in the Eastern Hemisphere and the fourth most topographically prominent peak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as

1808-414: Is caused by both melting and sublimation . While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespread glacier retreat in mid-to-low latitudes across the globe. In 2013, it was estimated that, at the current rate of global warming , most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and "it

1921-458: Is despair, love where there is hate, and dignity where before there was only humiliation." — Julius Nyerere , first president of Tanganyika and Tanzania The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbers Eduard Hans Oehler and Fritz Klute , who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via

2034-430: Is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060". The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of

2147-481: Is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose the igneous strata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed. Shira is topped by a broad high plain at 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be

2260-553: Is sometimes understood as a reference to Lake Tanganyika . The name of Zanzibar derives from Zanj , the name of a local people (said to mean "black"), and Arabic barr "coast" or "shore." Tanzania is one of the oldest continuously inhabited areas on Earth. Traces of fossil remains of humans and hominids date back to the Quaternary era. The Olduvai Gorge , in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area ,

2373-574: Is spoken in Zanzibar . Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the north-east, where Mount Kilimanjaro , the highest mountain in Africa and the highest single free-standing mountain above sea level in the world, is located. Three of the African Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria , Africa's largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika , the continent's deepest lake, known for its unique species of fish. To

SECTION 20

#1732775693042

2486-662: Is the 13th largest country in Africa and the 31st largest in the world, ranked between the larger Egypt and smaller Nigeria. It borders Kenya and Uganda to the north; Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. Tanzania is located on the eastern coast of Africa and has an Indian Ocean coastline approximately 1,424 kilometres (885 mi) long. It also incorporates several offshore islands, including Unguja (Zanzibar), Pemba , and Mafia . The country

2599-456: Is the largest religion in Tanzania , with substantial Muslim and Animist minorities. Over 100 languages are spoken in Tanzania , making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa; the country does not have a de jure official language, although the national language is Swahili . English is used in foreign trade, in diplomacy, in higher courts, and as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education, while Arabic

2712-489: Is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emitting fumaroles in its crater. Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone with escarpments rising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define

2825-472: Is the site of Africa's highest and lowest points: Mount Kilimanjaro , at 5,895 metres (19,341 ft) above sea level, and the floor of Lake Tanganyika , at 1,471 metres (4,826 ft) below sea level, respectively. Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located. Three of Africa's Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria , Africa's largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika ,

2938-1128: The Allied forces and were among the 375,000 Africans who fought with those forces. Tanganyikans fought in units of the King's African Rifles during the East African Campaign in Somalia and Abyssinia against the Italians, in Madagascar against the Vichy French during the Madagascar Campaign , and in Burma against the Japanese during the Burma Campaign . Tanganyika was an important source of food during this war, and its export income increased greatly compared to

3051-593: The Drygalski Glacier , and descended via the Western Breach. The mountain lent its name to the 1914 Battle of Kilimanjaro during World War I . In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller. One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition

3164-467: The East African Rift , Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes host montane forests and cloud forests . Multiple species are endemic to Mount Kilimanjaro, including the giant groundsel Dendrosenecio kilimanjari . The mountain possesses a large ice cap and the largest glaciers in Africa, including Credner Glacier , Furtwängler Glacier , and

3277-615: The Iraqw , Gorowa , and Burunge . Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have been two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago, originating from north of Lake Turkana . Archaeological evidence supports the conclusion that Southern Nilotes , including the Datoog , moved south from the present-day South Sudan / Ethiopia border region into central northern Tanzania between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago. These movements took place at approximately

3390-456: The Maasai , represent a more recent migration from present-day South Sudan within the past 500 to 1,500 years. The people of Tanzania have been associated with the production of iron and steel. The Pare people were the main producers of sought-after iron for peoples who occupied the mountain regions of north-eastern Tanzania. The Haya people on the western shores of Lake Victoria invented

3503-714: The Rebmann Glacier . This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although the Chagga people of the Kilimanjaro region have no name for the mountain, they call its two peaks Kipoo and Kimawenze . The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean "spotted" in reference to Kibo's snow and "broken top" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak. "Kilimanjaro" may originate from

Ngindo people - Misplaced Pages Continue

3616-569: The Swahilis used the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either "mountain of greatness" or "mountain of caravans", with a translation of njaro as greatness or jaro as "caravans". In 1885, Scottish explorer Joseph Thomson reported "white mountain" as an alternative, with njaro denoting whiteness. This Swahili etymological approach is criticized as kilima is a diminutive of mlima (mountain) and actually means "hill". However, mlima may have been misreported as kilima via conflation with

3729-728: The UNESCO World Heritage List . From the mid-1980s, the regime financed itself by borrowing from the International Monetary Fund and underwent some reforms. Since then, Tanzania's gross domestic product per capita has grown and poverty has been reduced, according to a report by the World Bank. In 1992, the Constitution of Tanzania was amended to allow multiple political parties. In Tanzania's first multi-party elections, held in 1995,

3842-546: The Virunga Mountains , the Rwenzori Mountains , and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy, Aeschylus and Herodotus referred to "Egypt nurtured by the snows" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them. Martín Fernández de Enciso , a Spanish traveler to Mombasa who obtained information about

3955-644: The governor general . Tanganyika also joined the British Commonwealth in 1961. On 9 December 1962, Tanganyika became a democratic republic under an executive president. After the Zanzibar Revolution overthrew the Arab dynasty in neighbouring Zanzibar , accompanied with the slaughter of thousands of Arab Zanzibaris, which had become independent in 1963, the archipelago merged with mainland Tanganyika on 26 April 1964. The new country

4068-412: The phonolitic one at the northwest end of the ridge and the doleritic Platzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago. They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation. The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old. Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge with pinnacles and ridges opening to

4181-551: The " Chagga home gardens" agroforestry . Native vegetation at this altitude range ( Strombosia , Newtonia , and Entandrophragma ) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorges and is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope, montane forests first contain Ocotea usambarensis as well as ferns and epiphytes ; farther up in cloud forests Podocarpus latifolius , Hagenia abyssinica and Erica excelsa grow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On

4294-579: The 1890s, slavery was abolished. In 1863, the Holy Ghost Mission established an early reception center and depot at Zanzibar. In 1877, responding to appeals of Henry Stanley following his trans-Africa expedition , and permission being given to Stanley by King Mutessa I of Buganda , the Church Missionary Society sent missionaries Edward Baxter and Henry Cole to establish inland missions. In 1885, Germany conquered

4407-753: The Anglo-Belgian agreement of 30 May 1919 where Britain ceded the north-western GEA provinces of Ruanda and Urundi to Belgium. The conference's Commission on Mandates ratified this agreement on 16 July 1919. The Supreme Council accepted the agreement on 7 August 1919. On 12 July 1919, the Commission on Mandates agreed that the small Kionga Triangle south of the Rovuma River would be given to Portuguese Mozambique , with it eventually becoming part of independent Mozambique. The commission reasoned that Germany had virtually forced Portugal to cede

4520-500: The Austrian Lieutenant Ludwig von Höhnel made an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft). Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked

4633-540: The Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable— kilemanjaare or kilemajyaro —and explorers misinterpreting this as its name. This Kichagga language etymology relies on kileme , "that which defeats", or kilelema , "that which has become difficult or impossible". The -jaro could be derived from njaare , a bird, or jyaro , a caravan . Early Western etymologies used a compound Swahili origin, with kilima translated as "mountain". In 1860, Johann Ludwig Krapf wrote that

Ngindo people - Misplaced Pages Continue

4746-684: The Constitution has a term limit: a president can serve a maximum of two terms. Each term is five years. Every president has represented the ruling party Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM). President Magufuli won a landslide victory and re-election in October 2020. According to the opposition, the election was full of fraud and irregularities. On 17 March 2021, President John Magufuli died in office. Magufuli's vice president, Samia Suluhu Hassan , became Tanzania's first female president. At 947,403 square kilometres (365,794 sq mi), Tanzania

4859-584: The Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government's Directorate of Overseas Surveys (DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the "Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000". Tourist mapping was first published by the Ordnance Survey in England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at

4972-911: The Reusch Crater. About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as the Western Breach and the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposed strata within the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions of syenite . Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250 parasitic cones on its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago and erupted picrobasalts , trachybasalts , ankaramites , and basanites . They reach as far as Lake Chala and Taveta in

5085-532: The Shira plateau. Specific species associated with the mountain include the Kilimanjaro shrew and the chameleon Kinyongia tavetana . Natural forests cover about 1,000 km (250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro. In the foothill area, maize , beans, sunflowers and, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the former savanna vegetation with Acacia , Combretum , Terminalia and Grewia . Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of

5198-569: The Stone and Bronze Age, prehistoric migrations into Tanzania included Southern Cushitic speakers who moved south from present-day Ethiopia; Eastern Cushitic people who moved into Tanzania from north of Lake Turkana about 2,000 and 4,000 years ago; and the Southern Nilotes , including the Datoog , who originated from the present-day South Sudan–Ethiopia border region between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago. These movements took place at about

5311-490: The Tanzanian coast from the outset of the first millennium. Archaeological finds at Fukuchani , on the north-west coast of Zanzibar, indicate a settled agricultural and fishing community from the 6th century CE at the latest. The considerable amount of daub found indicates timber buildings, and shell beads, bead grinders, and iron slag have been found at the site. There is evidence for limited engagement in long-distance trade:

5424-462: The beginning of the Holocene epoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform. The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km (7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for

5537-462: The border with Zambia. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area. Climate varies greatly within Tanzania. In the highlands, temperatures range between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F) during cold and hot seasons respectively. The rest of the country has temperatures rarely falling lower than 20 °C (68 °F). The hottest period extends between November and February (25–31 °C or 77.0–87.8 °F) while

5650-405: The coldest period occurs between May and August (15–20 °C or 59–68 °F). Annual temperature is 20 °C (68.0 °F). The climate is cool in high mountainous regions. Tanzania has two major rainfall periods: one is uni-modal (October–April) and the other is bi-modal (October–December and March–May). The former is experienced in southern, central, and western parts of the country, and

5763-501: The continent's deepest lake, known for its unique species of fish. To the southwest lies Lake Nyasa . Central Tanzania is a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. Kalambo Falls in the southwestern region of Rukwa is the second highest uninterrupted waterfall in Africa, and is located near the southeastern shore of Lake Tanganyika on

SECTION 50

#1732775693042

5876-448: The country's largest city, principal port, and leading commercial centre. Tanzania is a de facto one-party state with the democratic socialist Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power. The country has not experienced major internal strife since independence and is seen as one of the safest and most politically stable on the continent. Tanzania's population comprises about 120 ethnic , linguistic , and religious groups. Christianity

5989-492: The country's president. The president of Tanzania and the members of the National Assembly are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for five-year terms. The vice-president is elected for a five-year term at the same time as the president and on the same ticket. Neither the president nor the vice-president may be a member of the National Assembly. The president appoints a prime minister from among

6102-409: The crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch. In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition. They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani of Pangani , who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood. "We will light a candle on top of Mount Kilimanjaro which will shine beyond our borders, giving hope where there

6215-465: The declaration, banks and many large industries were nationalised. Tanzania was also aligned with China, which from 1970 to 1975 financed and helped build the 1,860-kilometre-long (1,160 mi) TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to Kapiri-Mposhi, Zambia. Nonetheless, from the late 1970s, Tanzania's economy took a turn for the worse, in the context of an international economic crisis affecting both developed and developing economies. In 1978,

6328-405: The drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of vegetation, such as the water holding cabbage . The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorial trade winds and the high altitude anti-trades , and by the isolated position of

6441-467: The drier northern slopes olive , Croton - Calodendrum , Cassipourea , and Juniperus form forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lie Erica bush and heathlands, followed by Helichrysum , until 4,500 m (14,800 ft). Neophytes have been observed, including Poa annua . The lower northern and western slopes are dominated by Acacia savanna, while most of

6554-533: The east; Mozambique and Malawi to the south; Zambia to the southwest; and Rwanda , Burundi , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Mount Kilimanjaro , Africa's highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. According to the 2022 national census, Tanzania has a population of around 62 million, making it the most populous country located entirely south of the equator. Many important hominid fossils have been found in Tanzania. In

6667-405: The elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest stratifications, calving , and other ice features. "There is no pathway for

6780-585: The equipment needed to progress across the ice. The following year, Meyer planned another attempt with Oscar Baumann , a cartographer , but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during the Abushiri Revolt . In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorer Otto Ehrenfried Ehlers approached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached

6893-518: The exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequent Younger Dryas stadial , the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP. Ice cores taken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years, although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP. Higher precipitation rates at

SECTION 60

#1732775693042

7006-430: The growing concern of the negative impacts of climate change and climate variability on the country's social, economic and physical environment. Tanzania contains around 20% of the species of Africa's enormous warm-blooded animal populace, found over its 21 National parks, reserves, 1 conservation area, and 3 marine parks. Spread over a zone of in excess of 42,000 square kilometres (16,000 sq. mi) and shaping around 38% of

7119-580: The guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits. In August 1861, the Prussian officer Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken accompanied by English geologist Richard Thornton attempted to climb Kibo but "got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to

7232-540: The highest summit on Kibo, which he named Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze for Kaiser Wilhelm . Following the Zanzibar Revolution and the formation of Tanzania in 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: "Freedom Peak" in Swahili. Kilimanjaro is a large dormant stratovolcano composed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft); and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft). Mawenzi and Shira are extinct , while Kibo

7345-529: The home of the Chagga Kingdoms until their abolition in 1963 by Julius Nyerere . The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean "mountain of greatness" or "unclimbable". Although described in classical sources, Germany missionary Johannes Rebmann is credited as the first European to report the mountain's existence, in 1848. After several European attempts, Hans Meyer reached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain

7458-524: The ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater. The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during the Quaternary period, namely First (500,000 BP ), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as "Main") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been

7571-482: The ice would be of only "negligible importance" to the water budget of the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, "are [the] essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations". Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce

7684-455: The icy slope. Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater. They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater. After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness. On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study

7797-493: The inclemency of the weather". In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together with Otto Kersten , reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the "first European to reach the equatorial snows" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft). In June 1887, the Hungarian Count Sámuel Teleki and

7910-426: The inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach. The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them "drastically out of equilibrium", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over

8023-689: The interior from native caravans, said in his Summa de Geografía (1519) that west of Mombasa "stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile". The German missionaries Johannes Rebmann of Mombasa and Johann Krapf were the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographer Halford Mackinder and English explorer Harry Johnston , Rebmann in 1848

8136-474: The largest lion population in the world. Tanzania had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.13/10, ranking it 54th globally out of 172 countries. Tanzania is a one-party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party in power. From its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. This changed on 1 July 1992, when the constitution

8249-415: The last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from the Maasai , Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Kibo's diminishing ice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above the snow line . The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of

8362-493: The latter is found in the north from Lake Victoria extending east to the coast. The bi-modal rainfall is caused by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone . Climate change in Tanzania is resulting in rising temperatures with a higher likelihood of intense rainfall events (resulting in flooding) and of dry spells (resulting in droughts). Climate change is already impacting

8475-497: The members of the National Assembly, subject to confirmation by the assembly, to serve as the government's leader in the assembly. The president selects her cabinet from assembly members. Law enforcement in Tanzania is under the executive branch of government and is administered by the Tanzania Police Force. Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro ( / ˌ k ɪ l ɪ m ə n ˈ dʒ ɑː r oʊ / )

8588-834: The mid-8th century and by the close of the 10th century Zanzibar was one of the central Swahili trading towns. Growth in Egyptian and Persian shipping from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf revitalised Indian Ocean trade , particularly after the Fatimid Caliphate relocated to Fustat (Cairo). Swahili agriculturalists built increasingly dense settlements to tap into trade, these forming the earliest Swahili city-states. The Venda-Shona Kingdoms of Mapungubwe and Zimbabwe in South Africa and Zimbabwe , respectively, became

8701-692: The most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km (150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Pleistocene epoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and Mawenzi. Because of

8814-639: The mountain. Kilimanjaro has daily upslope and nightly downslope winds , a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly. Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones. The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking "partly over" 3,000 mm (120 in) in

8927-412: The nation's area. Tanzania has 21 national parks, plus a variety of game and forest reserves, including the Ngorongoro Conservation Area , however the local human population still has an impact on the environment. In western Tanzania, Gombe Stream National Park is the site of Jane Goodall 's ongoing study of chimpanzee behaviour, which started in 1960. Tanzania is highly biodiverse and contains

9040-452: The neighbouring Uganda, under the leadership of Idi Amin, invaded Tanzania . This disastrous invasion would culminate in Tanzania invading Uganda with the aid of Ugandan rebels and deposing Idi Amin as a result. However, the war severely damaged Tanzania's economy. Through the 1980s, conservation oriented national parks such as Serengeti and Kilimanjaro , with Mount Kilimanjaro as the tallest freestanding summit on Earth, were included on

9153-599: The north, in modern-day Kenya, namely Mombasa and Malindi. Kilwa remained the major power in East Africa until the arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the 15th century. Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Said bin Sultan moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the east African slave trade . Between 65 and 90 per cent of the Swahili population of Zanzibar

9266-499: The northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and a mafic dike swarm . Several large cirques cut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has a subsidiary peak , Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo

9379-460: The past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years. It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at

9492-546: The plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation." The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km (4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km (0.68 sq mi). Between 1912 and 1953, there

9605-478: The pre-war years of the Great Depression . Wartime demand, however, caused increased commodity prices and massive inflation within the colony. In 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed an organisation into the politically oriented Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU's main objective was to achieve national sovereignty for Tanganyika. A campaign to register new members was launched, and within

9718-416: The regions that are now Tanzania (minus Zanzibar) and incorporated them into German East Africa (GEA). The Supreme Council of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference awarded all of GEA to Britain on 7 May 1919, over the strenuous objections of Belgium. The British colonial secretary , Alfred Milner , and Belgium's minister plenipotentiary to the conference, Pierre Orts  [ fr ] , then negotiated

9831-478: The rest of the continent, notably its immediate neighbour, Kenya. Furthermore, since its independence, Tanzania has displayed more political stability than most African countries, particularly due to Nyerere's ethnic repression methods. In 1967, Nyerere's first presidency took a turn to the left after the Arusha Declaration , which codified a commitment to socialism as well as Pan-Africanism . After

9944-474: The ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi won 186 of the 232 elected seats in the National Assembly, and Benjamin Mkapa was elected as president. The presidents of Tanzania since Independence have been Julius Nyerere 1962–1985, Ali Hassan Mwinyi 1985–1995, Benjamin Mkapa 1995–2005, Jakaya Kikwete 2005–2015, John Magufuli 2015–2021, and Samia Hassan Suluhu since 2021. After the long tenure of president Nyerere,

10057-570: The same time as the settlement of the Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas. In the late 19th century, the mainland came under German rule as German East Africa , and this was followed by British rule after World War I when it was governed as Tanganyika , with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction. Following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963,

10170-454: The same time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki (Eastern) Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas, as part of the centuries-long Bantu expansion . The Bantu peoples brought with them the west African planting tradition and the primary staple of yams . They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania between 2,300 and 1,700 years ago. Eastern Nilotic peoples, including

10283-502: The sectors in Tanzania of agriculture, water resources, health and energy. Sea level rise and changes in the quality of water are expected to impact fisheries and aquaculture. Tanzania produced a National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) in 2007 as mandated by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . In 2012, Tanzania produced a National Climate Change Strategy in response to

10396-606: The south lies Lake Malawi . The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area. The Kalambo Falls , located on the Kalambo River at the Zambian border, is the second-highest uninterrupted waterfall in Africa. Tanzania is one of the most visited tourist destinations for safaris . The name Tanzania

10509-585: The southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate

10622-406: The southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereign Chagga states , tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed

10735-485: The state of Tanzania, President Nyerere emphasised a need to construct a national identity for the citizens of the new country. To achieve this, Nyerere provided what is regarded as one of the most successful cases of ethnic repression and identity transformation in Africa. With more than 130 languages spoken within its territory, Tanzania is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Africa. Despite this obstacle, ethnic divisions remained rare in Tanzania when compared to

10848-533: The summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it. In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller for a third attempt. This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far. Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in

10961-484: The triangle in 1894. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, although the treaty did not take effect until 10 January 1920. On that date, the GEA was transferred officially to Britain, Belgium, and Portugal. Also on that date, "Tanganyika" became the name of the British territory. In the mid-1920s, the British implemented a system of indirect rule in Tanzania. The Maji Maji Rebellion , between 1905 and 1907,

11074-662: The two entities merged in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Tanganyika joined the British Commonwealth and Tanzania remains a member of the Commonwealth as a unified republic. Today, the country is a presidential constitutional republic with the federal capital located in Government City (Dodoma) ; the former capital, Dar es Salaam , retains most government offices and is

11187-477: The two peaks' names, Kipoo and Kimawenze . Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with a Wakamba chief that called the mountain Kima jajeu , meaning "mountain of whiteness". Another explanation is that jyaro may refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part of German East Africa and was called Kilima-Ndscharo in German. In 1889, Hans Meyer reached

11300-428: The warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast

11413-527: The water flows. The Lumi and Pangani rivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. In respect of it being 'the highest stratovolcano of the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around

11526-537: The wooded grassland of the lower southern and eastern slopes have been destroyed for cultivation. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of

11639-454: The world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. The Chagga , who traditionally lived on

11752-505: Was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage. The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent. Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011. Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs. The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage, and do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass

11865-432: Was amended. It has held power since independence in 1961, and is the longest-serving ruling party in Africa. John Magufuli won the October 2015 presidential election and secured a two-thirds majority in parliament. The main opposition party in Tanzania since multiparty politics in 1992 is called Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (Chadema) ( Swahili for "Party for Democracy and Progress"). The leader of Chadema party

11978-480: Was an uprising of several African tribes in German East Africa against the colonial authorities, in particular because of forced labour and deportation of certain tribes. It was the subject of a bloody repression, which combined with famine caused 300,000 deaths among the population, out of a Tanganyikan population of about four million. During World War II , about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined

12091-409: Was created as a clipped compound of the names of the two states that unified to create the country: Tanganyika and Zanzibar . It consists of the first three letters of the names of the two states ("Tan" and "Zan") and the suffix "-ia." The name Tanganyika is derived from the Swahili words tanga "sail" and nyika "uninhabited plain, wilderness", creating the phrase "sail in the wilderness". It

12204-426: Was declared the winner for his second term as president. Election fraud was suspected. The national electoral commission announced that Magufuli received 84%, or about 12.5 million votes and the top opposition candidate, Tundu Lissu received 13%, about 1.9 million votes. In March 2021, it was announced that Magufuli had died whilst serving in office, meaning that his vice president, Samia Suluhu Hassan , became

12317-464: Was enslaved. One of the most infamous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip , who was the grandson of an enslaved African. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo . According to Timothy Insoll , "Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast." In

12430-468: Was incorporated into Kilimanjaro National Park in 1973. As one of the Seven Summits , Kilimanjaro is a major hiking and climbing destination. There are seven established routes to Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk of altitude sickness . One of several mountains arising from

12543-407: Was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro. Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness,

12656-691: Was then named the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar . On 29 October of the same year, the country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania ("Tan" comes from Tanganyika and "Zan" from Zanzibar). The union of the two hitherto separate regions was controversial among many Zanzibaris (even those sympathetic to the revolution) but was accepted by both the Nyerere government and the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar owing to shared political values and goals. Following Tanganyika's independence and unification with Zanzibar leading to

12769-437: Was thought to match a living inhabitant of Marangu , Yohani Kinyala Lauwo. Lauwo did not know his own age, nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb. Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning of World War I . The committee concluded that he had been

#41958