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87-451: Many impressive ruins of the ancient city may be visited today. In 29 BC, 2 years after his victory in the naval battle of Actium , Octavian founded a new city which he called Nicopolis (the City of Victory), located on the southernmost promontory of Epirus, and across the mouth of the harbour from the ancient town of Actium . This foundation echoed a tradition dating back to Alexander

174-488: A minor victory at Alexandria on 31 July 30 BC, more of Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. A slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten. Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in the stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumours propagated by Cleopatra claiming that she had committed suicide. He did not die at once, and when he found out that Cleopatra

261-481: A praeses . Writing around 300, one Arnobius of Numidia mentioned the existence of Christian communities in Achaea, Macedonia, and Epirus. In about 330, the first great recorded Church historian Eusebius of Caesarea mentions that bishops from Epirus attended the first Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325. This implies that bishoprics and an episcopal administrative system had been set up some time before 325. Until

348-450: A devastating effect on the infrastructure of Nicopolis and the mentality of its citizens, affecting the city's social and economic life. It is probably directly related to the reduction of the city's population to one-sixth of what it had been, confining it to the north-east section, the area where the citadel stood, and fortifying it with thick walls to provide better defence. Around 500, as mentioned, Bishop Alcison (491–516), an opponent of

435-451: A free city ( civitas libera Nicopolitana ) i.e. a polis (Greek city), free and autonomous, having the characteristics of civitas libera and civitas foederata , linked to Rome by a treaty ( foedus ). Thus provided with considerable assets by its founder, the new city developed rapidly in Roman times; Augustus adorned it with monuments financed by the spoils of war, but it also owes much to

522-475: A legitimate son of Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself. In 32 BC, one-third of the Senate and both consuls , Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius , allied with Antony. The consuls had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands. Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet, but on 1 January Sosius made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed

609-758: A letter to Pope Hormisdas , reaffirming their steadfastness in the Orthodox faith. The synod appears to be the seventh local episcopal synod for Epirus Vetus. In 551, King Totila of the Ostrogoths , in response to reports of a Byzantine military build-up in the eastern side of the Adriatic, sent a 300-strong fleet to Corfu. The Ostrogoths sacked it and nearby islands. They also sacked the area around Dodoni inland and Nicopolis, and captured several Byzantine ships on their way to bring supplies to Narses. Around 555, according to Procopius , Emperor Justinian renovated

696-486: A manifestation of the goddess unknown outside Nicopolis. Hadrian took advantage of his stay to build a temple to his late protégé, Antinous . Around this time the city's western gate was constructed, several hundred metres north of the south gate, becoming the main gate of Nicopolis. Around 180, the next mention of Nicopolis in Church history concerns a bishop of Rome, Pope Eleutherius , who reigned from around 174–189. He

783-420: A mind to let Antony sail and then attack him, he was prevailed upon by Agrippa to give battle. On 1 September he addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle. The next day was wet and the sea was rough. When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and remained quiet. Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to

870-596: A panegyric to the young Emperor Julian (360–363), mentioning heavy taxation in Dalmatia and Epirus. He emphasised the destruction of some of the most important monuments while congratulating the Emperor for his restoration work. Based on the record of Julian's close ties with certain leading men from Epirus involved in the Empire-wide cultural circuit led by Libanius and Themistius , it appears that Christianity

957-521: A planned great journey to the east. He visited Nicopolis during his tour of Greece to take part in the Actian games and was crowned winner of the chariot race, as is indicated on coins minted in Nicopolis in his honor. Around 94, Emperor Domitian expelled philosophers from Rome including the prominent Stoic philosopher Epictetus of Hierapolis, who went to Nicopolis. He founded his own school, and in

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1044-658: A rare Greek translation of the Old Testament. In 327, Emperor Constantine split the diocese of Moesia into Dacia and Macedonia. The two provinces of Epirus, along with the provinces of Macedonia, Thessaly, and Achaia, became part of the diocese of Macedonia (capital Thessalonica). In 343, in the Acts of the Council of Sardica , we have the first mention by name of a bishop of Nicopolis, one Isidoros. In 361, newly appointed Consul and rhetorician Claudius Mamertinus delivered

1131-602: A road to the Ionian harbour Komaros . The city eventually occupied a site of around 375 acres. Although the exact legal status of Nicopolis is the subject of some dispute, unlike other Roman foundations in Greece contemporary with Nicopolis such as Patras , Philippi and, also in Epirus, Buthrotum and Epidamnus , the city was not, or was not only, a Roman colony (implying that Roman military veterans also settled there) but also

1218-520: A series of six basilicas were built, beginning with the five-aisled metropolitan basilica B. Artisans decorated many of the basilicas with high-quality mosaics, developing their own workshop, and operating until the 550s. Their influence extended to the rest of Epirus and perhaps further afield in eastern Illyricum. Basilica B was the largest of the Nicopolis basilicas and probably served as the metropolitan bishop's main church. An inscription informs us that Bishop Alcison (491-516) sponsored some additions to

1305-469: A severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive. Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller " Liburnian " vessels. His ships, though smaller, were still manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat. Moreover, his crews were better-trained, professional, well-fed and rested. A medium ballista could penetrate

1392-417: A smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those left behind were captured or sunk. J. M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle. He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to

1479-400: A successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet. Antony's ships' main weakness was lack of manoeuvrability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks. Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been

1566-653: Is estimated that Antony had around 140 ships, to Octavian's 260. Antony had shown up to Actium with a much larger force of around 500 ships, but could not man all of them. The problem facing Antony was desertion. Plutarch and Dio speak of how desertion and disease plagued Antony's camp. What Antony lacked in quantity was made up for in quality: his ships were mainly the standard Roman warship, quinqueremes with smaller quadriremes , heavier and wider than Octavian's, making them ideal weapon platforms. However, due to their larger size, they were less manoeuvrable than Octavian's ships. Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals',

1653-429: The lex Papia Poppaea , a law intended to strengthen and encourage marriage. From 15 until his death in 35, Sabinus served as Governor of the combined provinces of Moesia , Achaea , and Macedonia . During his tenure Sabinus oversaw the resolution of a boundary dispute between the communities of Kierion and Metropolis (mod. Palaiokastro Georgikon ), both located in ancient Thessaly . Also during his tenure he ended

1740-475: The Amphictyonic Council . As a city in a senatorial province, Nicopolis began minting its own copper coins (until 268). During the first five years or so of the city's foundation, local authorities supervised the construction of the city walls, the majority of the public buildings, including the theatre , stadium , gymnasium , odeion , and the aqueduct. The city's western gate was connected by

1827-466: The Monophysite policy of Emperor Anastasius , supervised the addition of annexes to the five-aisled metropolitan basilica B, which has taken his name. Around 515, the three-aisled basilica Δ, with fragments of floor mosaics, was built. In 516, all eight bishops of Vetus Epirus held a synod and elected Ioannes as successor to the martyred Bishop Alcison. Bishop Ioannes sent a deacon, Rufinus, with

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1914-627: The Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius . During this time, Bishop Donatus of Nicopolis maintained a correspondence with Bishop Cyril of Alexandria concerning Nestorianism . In 451, six Epirote bishops attended the Fourth Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon , including Bishop Atticus of Nicopolis. All these bishops without exception signed the Council's decisions in favor of the Orthodox position of Dyophysitism , also backed by

2001-662: The Peloponnese ) with help from Marcus Agrippa . Octavian previously gained a preliminary victory in Greece, where his navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Octavian landed on mainland Greece, opposite of the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and proceeded south, on land. Trapped on both land and sea, portions of Antony's army deserted and fled to Octavian's side (daily), and Octavian's forces became comfortable enough to make preparations for battle. Antony's fleet sailed through

2088-555: The Roman Empire . The alliance among Octavian , Mark Antony and Lepidus , commonly known as the Second Triumvirate , was renewed for a five-year term at Tarentum in 37 BC. However, the triumvirate broke down when Octavian saw Caesarion , the professed son of Julius Caesar and Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, as a major threat to his power. This occurred when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of

2175-460: The assassination of Caesar . After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Antony started to act independently, eventually arousing his rival's suspicion that he was vying to become sole master of Rome. When he left Octavia Minor and moved to Alexandria to become Cleopatra's official partner, many Roman politicians suspected that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms while still maintaining his command over

2262-492: The 5th century, except for the bishop of Nicopolis in 343. The Acts of the Council of Constantinople in 381, as well as of the Third (431) and Fourth (451) Ecumenical Councils, recognized the see of Thessalonica as holding sixth place in the Church administrative hierarchy, after the five patriarchs. Among the sees of Illyricum , Thessalonica held the first position in the hierarchy, followed by Corinth and Nicopolis. In 431,

2349-485: The 5th century. Diadochos’ texts also show us that both theoretical and practical ideas about theology and the organization of monastic life also spread from the eastern Mediterranean to Epirus. In fact, a reference in one of Diadochos’ own writings suggests he was also the hegumen of a monastery in Photiki and that Epirus in the 450s at least had both anchoretic and coenobitic monastic communities. From around 460,

2436-572: The Acts of the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus list the bishops of Epirus, including metropolitan Bishop Donatus of Nicopolis (c. 425–432). Atticus Bishop of Nicopolis was an attendee at Council of Chalcedon . The majority of the bishops from Epirus and Illyricum and other representatives upheld the Orthodox theological position of the Bishop Celestine I of Rome (422–432) and Bishop Cyril of Alexandria against

2523-546: The Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the southern camp. Cleopatra now advised that garrisons be put into strong towns and that the main fleet return to Alexandria. The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony, and it appears that this movement was agreed to. Octavian learned of this and debated how to prevent it. At first of

2610-664: The Great , and more recently illustrated by Pompey , founder of Nicopolis in Little Armenia (63 BC). Symbolically, the new city represented one example of his successful unification of the Roman Empire under one administration. Geographically, it constituted a major transportation and communications link between the eastern and western halves of the Mediterranean . Economically, it served to reorganise and revitalise

2697-618: The Roman Mediterranean) and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. The victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked Rome's transition from republic to empire. Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked the demise of both the Hellenistic Period and the Ptolemaic Kingdom , turning it into a Roman province . To commemorate his victory, Octavian founded

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2784-549: The Roman consul Poppaeus Sabinus visited Nicopolis. In the winter of 65–66, the Apostle Paul decided to spend the winter at Nicopolis and in his Epistle to Titus 3:12 invited his co-worker Titus to join him there from Crete. Apparently a Christian community was in existence in the city. In 66, in the wake of a terror campaign and financial constraints in Rome, Emperor Nero made a more modest trip to Greece in lieu of

2871-496: The Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium. Further, after the battle, upon Octavian's return to Rome he celebrated his triple triumph spread over three days: the first for his victory over Illyria , the second for the Battle of Actium, and the third for his conquest of Egypt. Octavian's victory at Actium gave him sole, uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" ("Our Sea", i.e.,

2958-465: The Senate deprived Antony of any legal authority. Antony initially planned to anticipate an attack by descent upon Italy toward the end of 32 BC; he went as far as Corcyra . Finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, Antony retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet for the most part lay in the Ambracian Gulf , and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while

3045-521: The Thessalian koinon . The late third century was a time of troubles for the whole Empire: the city was attacked by the Goths and Heruli , but managed to avoid looting thanks to makeshift fortifications. In 268, the Goths launched a combined land-sea invasion against the Roman Empire, assisted by Heruli sailors and other tribesmen. Their naval forces ravaged Byzantium and Chrysopolis , though

3132-520: The Vandals took the city apparently without being equipped with siege tools, while they failed to take the walled city of Taenarum . If this is so, the walls of Nicopolis attributed to Justinian, enclosing only one-sixth of the city founded by Augustus, were erected not before 474. In any case, the Nicopolis walls, probably of the 480s-510s period (like those of Dyrrachium), were made of bricks, mortar, and rubble. This raid and prisoner-taking probably had

3219-439: The army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium and Octavian landed at Pelusium, with the connivance, it was believed, of Cleopatra. Antony was defeated by Gallus and, returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium. Despite

3306-680: The bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade . It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more manoeuvrable ships under commanders Gaius Sosius and Agrippa. Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby. Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide . Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He adopted

3393-484: The bishop of Rome. In 457-458 the bishops of Epirus then held a provincial synod to ratify the validity of the Fourth Ecumenical Council. We have a list of as many as nine bishops signing a letter written by Bishop Eugenius of Nicopolis to Pope Leo I of Rome. This was also the time of Bishop Diadochos of Photiki (c. 450–458), a saint and Father of the Church. Not only was he the bishop of what

3480-492: The board. Some fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was the work done. Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible. Antony transferred to

3567-413: The city then lost much of its importance and reputation by becoming only a provincial centre. In 293, as part of Diocletian's reforms, the province of Epirus became known as Epirus Vetus (including Adrianopolis, Phoenice , Ogchismos, and Buthrotum as the most northerly major cities, and Acarnania and the islands of Corfu, Ithaca, and probably Leucas to the south). The capital was Nicopolis. Meanwhile,

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3654-433: The coast of Asia and embarked under Publius Canidius Crassus . Octavian kept up his strategic preparations. Military operations began in 32 BC, when his general Agrippa captured Methone , a Greek town allied to Antony. But by the publication of Antony's will, which Lucius Munatius Plancus had put into Octavian's hands, and by carefully letting it be known in Rome what preparations were going on at Samos and how Antony

3741-679: The confirmation of his act had it not been vetoed by a tribune. Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply that provoked both consuls to leave Rome to join Antony; Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, went at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion. After staying with his allies at Samos, Antony moved to Athens. His land forces, which had been in Armenia, came down to

3828-508: The countries held by Sextus Pompeius and in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him. Octavian complained that Antony had no authority to be in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; and that his connection with Cleopatra and acknowledgement of Caesarion as

3915-420: The enemy. Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to attack. The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result. Cleopatra's fleet, in

4002-524: The exception of Antony's older son . Octavian admired the bravery of Cleopatra and gave her and Antony a public military funeral in Rome. The funeral was grand and a few of Antony's legions marched alongside the tomb. A day of mourning throughout Rome was enacted. This was partly due to Octavian's respect for Antony and partly because it further helped show the Roman people how benevolent Octavian was. Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with

4089-488: The experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius the centre and Marcus Lurius the right. Titus Statilius Taurus commanded Octavian's armies, and observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits. Antony and Lucius Gellius Poplicola commanded the Antonian fleet's right wing, Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, while Gaius Sosius commanded

4176-406: The fortifications of Nicopolis, as part of his huge program involving the renewal of city fortifications and the erection of new defences. Construction of the three-aisled Basilica Α, decorated with an extensive series of extant floor mosaics. was begun. Bishop Dumetius I also made some additions (the pastophoria ) to Basilica B, and the three-aisled basilica Ε, near the southern harbor Magaronas,

4263-492: The imperial fleet successfully counter-attacked on the Propontis . Meanwhile, the land forces overran Thrace and continued into Achaea as far south as Sparta ; the invading Goths and Heruli sacked Athens , crossed the isthmus, sacked and burned the lower part of Corinth, and advanced to Argos and Sparta, ravaging the countryside along the way and burning the two cities. Here imperial land and sea forces counter-attacked, and

4350-493: The invaders wandered their way through Boeotia , Acarnania, Epirus, Macedonia, and Thrace on their way back to Moesia . In Epirus, while the inhabitants of Nicopolis made hasty repairs to fortifications and managed to avert the danger, the leaders of Corfu organised their own army, crossed over into Epirus and defeated the Goths on land. The Roman army chased the Goths and their allies and defeated them at Naissus . It seems that

4437-567: The land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war. Scientists researching the " dead water " phenomenon are investigating whether the Egyptian fleet may have been trapped in dead water, which can substantially reduce the speed of a ship. The battle had extensive political consequences. Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony

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4524-427: The last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed. He hoped that it might regard him as its champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner. The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been accumulating. Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus , in taking over

4611-469: The left wing; Cleopatra's squadron was behind them. Sosius launched the initial attack from the fleet's left wing while Antony's chief lieutenant Publius Canidius Crassus commanded the triumvir's land forces. Pelling notes that the presence of two former consuls on Antony's side commanding the wings indicates that it was there that the major action was expected to take place. Octavius and Insteius, commanding Antony's centre, were lower-profile figures. It

4698-474: The many Roman legions in the East. As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him. Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated Caesarion, then 13, to power in 34 BC, giving him the title "King of the Kings" ( Donations of Alexandria ). Such an entitlement was seen as a threat to Roman republican traditions. It

4785-438: The nearby city of Nicopolis ("City of Victory") in 29 BC on the southernmost promontory of Epirus , opposite Actium at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf . On a hill just north of the new city, at the site where he had made his camp in 31 BC, he constructed a victory monument decorated with the bronze rostra (rams) taken from the captured warships of Antony's fleet. Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus

4872-407: The north side of the strait. Still, Antony could not be tempted out. It took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered. During these months Agrippa continued his attacks upon Greek towns along the coast, while Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes, so that Antony abandoned the strait's north side between

4959-457: The opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops. After Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony were scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the struggle the next year. The early months passed without any notable events, other than some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece, primarily designed to divert Antony's attention. In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on

5046-505: The patronage of Herod the Great . The two ports, one on the Amvrakikos Gulf, probably Vathy , and one at Komaros on the Ionian Sea (Fig. 4), ensured the commercial development of the city which was built on the Roman orthogonal grid distinguished by its considerable size (about 180 ha). Germanicus , nephew and adopted son of Augustus, visited the city en route to Syria and celebrated his second consulship there in 18 AD. In 30–31,

5133-467: The present village of Smyrtoula, Octavian also built a monument and sanctuary to Apollo, considered his patron god, and trophies to two other gods, Neptune and Mars for their contribution to its victory. This monument was adorned with the rams of captured galleys. In further celebration of his victory he instituted the quadrennial Actian games in honour of Apollo Actius. In 27 BC, Octavian implemented an Empire-wide administrative reform. The new polis

5220-468: The rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight. Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat. Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed the fleeing squadron. The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by

5307-443: The reforms of Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211) and up until Emperor Diocletian (284–305). In 128, Emperor Hadrian visited Nicopolis with his wife Sabina during his second voyage to the East (128–134). The imperial couple were received with the highest honours: small altars in the city attest to the worship of Hadrian and Sabina, respectively assimilated to Zeus Dodonaios, the most important deity of Epirus, and Artemis Kelkaia,

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5394-533: The region, which had never recovered from its destruction by Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus in the Third Macedonian War (171–167 BC), or the further destruction under Sulla in 87–86 BC. It also established an important commercial centre and port at this strategic position on the Mediterranean sea routes. On a hill north of Nicopolis where his own tent had been pitched, and north of

5481-410: The reign of Trajan counted Arrian among his students, thanks to the notes he made of his philosophy. He died there around AD 135. Around 110, under Emperor Trajan , the Roman government carved out parts of Macedonia and Achaia to make a separate province of Epirus. It had been decided that the territory needed a stricter government to yield higher revenues. The new province included Acarnania to

5568-400: The remaining ships to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force. With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on board. The next day, as much of

5655-458: The right and pass the enemy's ships. For fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack. The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium on the morning of 2 September. Antony's fleet had 250 larger galleys , with towers full of armed men. He led them through the straits towards the open sea. Octavian's fleet had 400 galleys . His fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by

5742-452: The shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships, which until this point were tightly arranged. He sent Sosius to spread

5829-402: The sides of most warships at close range and had an effective range of around 200 yards. Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the ships' fighting decks. Before the battle one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius , defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans. Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage

5916-571: The south as far as the Achelous , but not Apollonia to the north, plus the Ionian Islands – Corfu , Leukas , Ithaca , Cephalonia , and Zacynthus . It was governed by a procurator Augusti headquartered at Nicopolis, together with other special procuratores , including a procurator of the purple fisheries, whose sphere of office, however, extended to Achaea and Thessaly. This administrative set up appears to have remained intact through

6003-548: The southern annex of Basilica B, possibly around 500. In 474, Emperor Zeno initiated peace negotiations with the Vandals . But during the negotiations, in order to strengthen their position, the Vandals again devastated the coast of Greece during which they captured Nicopolis and took prisoners who had to be ransomed to secure their release. Evidently the walls of Nicopolis built in the time of Augustus were not for defensive purposes, or at least were not functioning in 474, since

6090-471: The territory of northern Epirus (including, Apollonia, Byllis and Amantia on its southern borders) became known as Epirus Nova , with the capital at Dyrrachium . Both provinces, along with Macedonia, Thessaly and Achaea, were included in the diocese of Moesia, which also included four provinces in the northwestern Balkans. The islands of Cephalonia, Zacynthus, and Cythera were included in the province of Achaea. Both Epirus Vetus and Epirus Nova were governed by

6177-407: The time of Constantine , it is supposed that the bishopric of Nicopolis came under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Corinth, but with the administrative reforms under Emperor Diocletian and Constantine (306–337), Nicopolis itself became the metropolitan city of Epirus Vetus. Eusebius also mentions that Origen of Alexandria went to Nicopolis in the first half of the third century and discovered

6264-529: The title of Princeps ("first citizen"), and in 27 BC was awarded the title of Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was known in later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of

6351-527: The triumvirate, abandoned his wife, Octavian's sister Octavia Minor . Afterward he moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, becoming Caesarion's de facto stepfather. Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate saw Antony as leading a separatist movement that threatened to break the Roman Republic's unity. Octavian's prestige and, more importantly, his legions' loyalty had been boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which he

6438-465: The winter at Samos, though he had to briefly visit Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land. At Samos Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favor of her sons. She was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his triumph . Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure

6525-605: Was a Roman senator (died AD 35), who served as consul in AD 9 with Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus as his colleague. He enjoyed the friendship of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius . Sabinus was elected to the consulship, with Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus , in AD 9. They served until the Kalends of July, when they were succeeded by Sabinus' brother, Quintus Poppaeus Secundus , and Marcus Papius Mutilus , authors of

6612-466: Was a "ten". An "eight" war galley had around 200 heavy marines, archers and at least six ballista catapults. Larger than Octavian's ships, Antony's war galleys were very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower ships. The harpax , Agrippa's device made for grappling and boarding enemy ships, made this task a bit easier. The galleys' bows were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making

6699-431: Was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Thus, after Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to Octavian's, deserted. Though he had not laid down his imperium , Antony was a fugitive and a rebel without that shadow of a legal position the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year. Some of the victorious fleet went in pursuit of him, but Octavian visited Greece and Asia and spent

6786-804: Was born in Nicopolis, according to the Liber Pontificalis , and served as a deacon in Rome . During his term in office as Bishop of Rome, the Church was involved in the Montanist controversy. Around 193–198, Emperor Septimius Severus, based in Syria, campaigned in Mesopotamia , with indirect consequences for Achaea and Epirus: to help pay for these campaigns, Severus apparently required several cities to mint special coins, including Nicopolis, Patrae , Epidaurus , Apollonia, Thuria , Plautilla , and

6873-502: Was built. Around 575, the three-aisled basilica Γ was built and Basilica Α was completed under Bishop Dumetius II. Battle of Actium The Battle of Actium was a naval battle fought between Octavian 's maritime fleet, led by Marcus Agrippa , and the combined fleets of both Mark Antony and Cleopatra . The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC in the Ionian Sea , near the former Roman colony of Actium , Greece , and

6960-431: Was considered capital of the territories of southern Epirus including Ambracia , most of Akarnania, and western Aetolia . Many inhabitants of the surrounding areas – Kassopaia , Ambracia, parts of Acarnania (including Leukas , Palairos , Amphilochian Argos , Calydon , and Lysimachia ) and western Aetolia – were forced to relocate to the new city. Among other things, it obtained the right to send five representatives to

7047-409: Was effectively acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31 BC, for which Antony had been designated. In addition to the deposition, Octavian procured a proclamation of war against Cleopatra. This was well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named. In issuing a war declaration,

7134-407: Was not widespread in Epirus in the mid-4th century (and as part of his pagan policy, Julian reactivated support of the Actian games), but after his death it spread far and wide in the region, judging from legislation issued by Valentinian in 371 and 372, trying to offset some negative effects of its rapid spread, and the fact that there is no written record of the bishops of the cities of Epirus until

7221-551: Was officially adopted as Caesar's only son and the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth. Antony had been the most important and most successful senior officer in Caesar's army ( magister equitum ) and, thanks to his military record, claimed a substantial share of the political support of Caesar's soldiers and veterans. Both Octavian and Antony had fought against their common enemies in the Liberators' civil war that followed

7308-493: Was still alive, he insisted on being taken to the mausoleum where she was hiding and died in her arms. She was soon brought to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity. Cleopatra killed herself on 12 August 30 BC. Most accounts say she put an end to her life by the bite of an asp conveyed to her in a basket of figs. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that month, finally securing his legacy as Caesar's only 'son', while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with

7395-422: Was the capital of a wider district called Thesprotia , he was also the author of important theological treatises, three of which are extant. In combination with the notice of the correspondence between the bishop of Nicopolis and the bishop of Alexandria mentioned previously, from the writings of Diadochos we can infer that learned texts, along with amphorae, traveled between the eastern Mediterranean and Epirus in

7482-440: Was the climax of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony. In early 31 BC, the year of the battle, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece. Mark Antony possessed 500 ships and 70,000 infantry, and made his camp at Actium , and Octavian, with 400 ships and 80,000 infantry, arrived from the north and occupied Patrae and Corinth , where he managed to cut Antony's southward communications with Egypt (via

7569-490: Was widely believed that Antony had once offered Caesarion a diadem . Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome and asserting that he intended to establish a monarchy over the Roman Empire on Caesarion's behalf, circumventing the Roman Senate. It was also said that Antony intended to move the imperial capital to Alexandria. As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on

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