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177-697: The president of Nigeria , officially the president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria , is the head of state and head of government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria . The president directs the executive branch of the Federal Government and is the commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces . The offices, powers, and titles of the head of state and the head of government were officially merged into
354-434: A head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant. For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government ). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where
531-672: A vice president ) General Olusegun Obasanjo assumed office as head of state in a meeting of the Supreme Military Council , keeping the chain of command established by General Murtala Muhammed in place. General Obasanjo was responsible for completing the democratic transition begun by his predecessor, which culminated in an election in August 1979 . In 1979, Nigeria adopted a federal presidential constitution. The presidency became an executive post, with powers similar to those of its American counterpart. The legislature
708-573: A bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion. The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is the President of Israel , which holds no reserve powers whatsoever. The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by
885-724: A brick farmhouse. There was local hostility to his obtaining so much land, and much litigation was brought against him because of it. His agricultural activities were organised through his Temperance Enterprises Limited, later renamed Obasanjo's Farms Limited. He devoted particular attention to poultry farming; by the mid-1980s, his farm was hatching 140,000 chicks a week. He also set up farms in other southwestern cities, and by 1987 his farms had over 400 employees at eight locations. Like other popular Yoruba figures, Obasanjo sponsored poor students at his former school in Abeokuta. Obasanjo grew critical of Shagari's civilian government, deeming
1062-644: A cause reflected in their foreign policy choices. This cause increasingly became a preoccupation for Obasanjo. After Angola secured independence from Portugal, a civil war broke out in the country . Nigeria recognised the legitimacy of the government declared by the MPLA , a Marxist group backed by the Soviet Union , because the rival FNLA and UNITA were being assisted by the white minority government in South Africa. As well as providing material aid to
1239-518: A ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Since the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government , the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government . Today, the speaker of
1416-731: A civilian government. Under the military government, Obasanjo sat on the decommissioning committee which recommended dramatic reductions of troop numbers in the Nigerian Army over the course of the 1970s. In 1974 Obasanjo went to the UK for a course at the Royal College of Defence Studies . On returning, in January 1975 Gowon appointed him as the Commissioner for Works and Housing, a position he held for seven months, during which he
1593-677: A commission and a certificate in engineering. While Obasanjo was in England , his mother died. His father then died a year later. In 1959, Obasanjo returned to Nigeria. There, he was posted to Kaduna as an infantry subaltern with the Fifth Battalion. His time in Kaduna was the first time that Obasanjo lived in a Muslim-majority area. It was while he was there, in October 1960, that Nigeria became an independent country. Shortly after,
1770-552: A conference at Kano to mediate the Chadian Civil War . Several factions agreed to a ceasefire, to form a government of national unity, and to allow Nigerian troops to act as peacekeepers. The war nevertheless continued and Nigeria responded by cutting off its oil supply to Chad. A second conference on the conflict took place in Lagos in August 1979, resulting in the formation of another short-lived transitional government. In
1947-490: A consequence of Nigeria's state-directed development, the country saw a rapid growth in the public sector . Evidence emerged of extensive corruption in the country's government, and while accusations were often made against Obasanjo himself, no hard evidence was produced. To hinder the image of corruption in the government, Obasanjo's administration banned the use of Mercedes cars as government transport and instead introduced more modest Peugeot 504s . The import of champagne
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#17327825583282124-450: A coup against Nigeria's government , during which General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated. An attempt was also made on Obasanjo's life, but the wrong individual was killed. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military and his coup failed, forcing him to flee. Obasanjo did not attend Murtala's funeral in Kano , but declared that the government would finance construction of a mosque on
2301-440: A federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state. For example, in each Canadian province the role is fulfilled by the lieutenant governor , whereas in most British Overseas Territories the powers and duties are performed by the governor . The same applies to Australian states , Indian states , etc. Hong Kong 's constitutional document,
2478-463: A former military head of state, Olusegun Obasanjo , after being elected some months prior. Obasanjo served two terms in office. On 29 May 2007, Umaru Musa Yar'Adua was sworn in as president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 13th head of state completing the first successful transition of power, from one democratically elected president to another in Nigeria. Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010 at
2655-453: A four-star general he continued to receive a salary from the state. Having left office in October, he returned to Abeokuta. Following a six-week course at an agricultural training college, Obasanjo then set himself up as a farmer, hoping to set an example in encouraging agricultural self-reliance. He obtained at least 230 hectares of land in Ota on which to establish his farm, there moving in to
2832-493: A group of army officers, led by Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu , overthrew the federal and regional governments, killed the prime minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, and tried to take control of the government. Nzeogwu was countered, captured, and imprisoned by the Army general officer commanding Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi . Aguiyi-Ironsi was named Military Head of State. In July 1966, a group of northern army officers revolted against
3009-538: A head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions. In terms of protocol : the head of a sovereign , independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch , in the case of a monarchy ; or the president, in the case of a republic . Among the state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished: In
3186-429: A host role during a state visit , and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band , inspection of military troops , official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host. At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in
3363-498: A majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to
3540-763: A matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party , the top leader in the one party system . The presidency is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress , the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. While clear categories do exist, it
3717-493: A member of the Commonwealth of Nations . An amendment to the 1960 Independence Constitution replaced the office of the governor-general with that of the president. Nnamdi Azikwe was sworn into that office on 1 October 1963. The office at that time was primarily ceremonial, and the main duties of the president were on such things as receiving foreign dignitaries and opening Parliament. In a January 1966 failed coup d'état ,
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#17327825583283894-583: A mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate. Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume
4071-785: A notable feature of constitutions in the Americas , including those of Argentina , Brazil , Colombia , El Salvador , Mexico and Venezuela ; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems,
4248-416: A parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution,
4425-546: A protest against the government's political repression. Obasanjo was eager to establish Nigeria as a prominent leader in Africa and under his tenure its influence in the continent increased. He revived Gowon's plan to hold the second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture in Nigeria; it took place in Lagos in February 1977, although domestic critics argued that it was too expensive. Obasanjo gave low priority to
4602-667: A quarrel among several East African states and thus prevent the collapse of the East African Community , but failed in this attempt. As the chair of the OAU mediation committee, he tried to mediate the Ogaden dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia but was again unsuccessful. He also failed to mend the breach that had emerged between Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo. On behalf of the OAU, Obasanjo held
4779-439: A referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours. These officials are excluded completely from
4956-723: A salary; he did not immediately inform his family, fearing that his parents would object. It was at this time that the Nigerian Army was being transferred to the control of the Nigerian colonial government, in preparation for an anticipated full Nigerian independence, and there were attempts afoot to get more native Nigerians into the higher ranks of its military. He was then sent to a Regular Officers' Training School at Teshie in Ghana . When stationed abroad, he sent letters and presents to his fiancé in Nigeria. In September 1958, he
5133-591: A senior Yoruba political figure, urged for the book to be withdrawn to prevent it sowing division. A more positive assessment was made by his friend, Ken Saro-Wiwa , who called it masterly but believed that it had involved much editorial assistance. In 1987, he published Nzeogwu , a memoir of his friend Chukwuma Nzeogwu , with whom he had served in the Congo. 1989 saw the publication of Obasanjo's next book, Constitution for National Integration and Development , in which he warned against Babangida's argument for instituting
5310-424: A separate head of government. However, in some parliamentary systems, like South Africa , there is an executive president that is both head of state and head of government. Likewise, in some parliamentary systems the head of state is not the head of government, but still has significant powers, for example Morocco . In contrast, a semi-presidential system , such as France , has both heads of state and government as
5487-519: A sixth, curtailing prestige projects while spending more on education, health, housing, and agriculture. He also set up an anti-inflation task force, and within a year of Obasanjo taking office, inflation had fallen to 30%. Obasanjo was generally adverse to borrowing money, but with the support of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund Nigeria took out a $ 1 billion loan from a syndicate of banks. Leftist critics argued that doing so left
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5664-507: A theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations , dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon , groundbreaking , ship christening , laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in
5841-652: A topic he had ignored while in power, urging Nigerians to have smaller families "in their own economic and national socio-economic interest". During the eleven years after Obasanjo left office, he published four books. In 1980, Obasanjo was a Distinguished Fellow at the University of Ibadan , where he wrote My Command , an account of his experiences during the civil war; it was published in November that year. Some readers criticised what they saw as Obasanjo's disloyalty to Murtala Muhammed, while Robert Adeyinka Adebayo ,
6018-645: A two-party system in Nigeria. In 1990, his third book, Not My Will , was published. It provided an account of his time governing the country. Seeking to retain influence on the global stage, Obasanjo launched the Africa Leadership Forum from his Ota farm. From 1981 to 1982, he also sat on the Palme Commission, a group chaired by the former Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme which discussed disarmament and international security. Obasanjo followed this with membership on similar panels for
6195-453: A village in southwest Nigeria . His later passport gave his date of birth as 5 March 1937, although this was a later estimate, with no contemporary records surviving. His father was Amos Adigun Obaluayesanjo "Obasanjo" Bankole and his mother was Bernice Ashabi Bankole. The first of nine children, only he and a sister (Adunni Oluwole Obasanjo) survived childhood. He was born to the Owu branch of
6372-621: Is a Nigerian general and statesman who served as Nigeria's head of state from 1976 to 1979 and later as its president from 1999 to 2007. Ideologically a Nigerian nationalist , he was a member of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) from 1998 to 2015, and since 2018. Born in the village of Ibogun-Olaogun to a farming family of the Owu branch of the Yoruba , Obasanjo was educated largely in Abeokuta , Ogun State . He joined
6549-558: Is defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is
6726-500: Is significantly shaped by the outcome of presidential elections. The president is directly elected in national elections to a four-year term, along with the vice president . Bola Tinubu is the 16th and current president of Nigeria, having assumed office on 29 May 2023. On 1 October 1960, Nigeria gained independence from Britain. An all-Nigerian Executive Council was headed by the prime minister , Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa . On 16 November 1960, Nnamdi Azikiwe became
6903-561: Is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince , constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet. It could be argued that
7080-474: Is the public persona of a state or sovereign state . The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers ; the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more. In a parliamentary system , such as India or the United Kingdom , the head of state usually has mostly ceremonial powers, with
7257-540: The 1976 Summer Olympics because New Zealand, which was competing, had sporting ties with South Africa, a country that was banned from competing due to apartheid. In 1977, Obasanjo barred any contractors with South African links from operating in Nigeria; the main companies that were hit were British Petroleum and Barclays Bank . That same year, Nigeria hosted the United Nations Conference for Action Against Apartheid in Lagos, while Obasanjo visited
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7434-413: The 1979 election , after which he transferred control of Nigeria to the newly elected civilian president, Shehu Shagari . Obasanjo then retired to Ota, Ogun , where he became a farmer, published four books, and took part in international initiatives to end various African conflicts. In 1993, Sani Abacha seized power in a military coup. Obasanjo was openly critical of Abacha's administration and in 1995
7611-505: The 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory in order to be elected. If neither candidate passes this threshold, a third round will be held, where a simple majority of the votes is required to be elected. Presidential candidates run for office with a running mate, their party's candidate for vice president. Chapter VI, Part I, Section 131 of the constitution states that a person may be qualified for election of
7788-698: The Aso Rock Presidential Villa . The State Security Service and the Presidential Guard Brigade of the Nigerian Army . The land transportation of the president of Nigeria is provided by the Nigerian Government . The president is driven on ground by the Mobile Police Force while closely protected by Department of State Security agents . The presidents of Nigeria have statutorily used
7965-457: The Basic Law , for example, specifies the chief executive as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely
8142-665: The Camberwell Green Registry Office, only informing their families after the event. That year, Obasanjo was ordered back to Nigeria, although his wife remained in London for three more years to finish her course. Once in Nigeria, Obasanjo took command of the Field Engineering Squadron based at Kaduna. Within the military, Obasanjo steadily progressed through the ranks, becoming a major in 1965. He used his earning to purchase land, in
8319-559: The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and angered many of its Francophone members after insisting that, as the largest financial contributor to the organisation, Nigeria should host the organisation's headquarters in Lagos. Relations with nearby Ghana also declined; in 1979, Nigeria cut off oil supplies to the country to protest the execution of political opponents by Jerry Rawlings ' new military junta. Under Obasanjo, Nigeria loosened its longstanding ties with
8496-517: The House , the presidency has primary responsibility for conducting foreign policy . The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation and domestic policymaking. As part of the system of separation of powers , the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. Presidents are typically viewed as leaders of their political parties, major policy making
8673-633: The Mercedes-Benz Special Class . The current president uses the Mercedes-Maybach S680 . The Nigerian Air Force provides for the aerial transport of the president. The current presidential air fleet consists of: a. A Boeing Business Jet (BBJ 737) b. A Dassault Falcon 7X Jet c. Two Gulfstream Jets ( 500 and 550 ) d. Two AW-189 helicopters e. Two AW-139 helicopters F. Airbus A330 Head of state A head of state (or chief of state )
8850-533: The National Assembly ( legislature ) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state. The offices of president of Nauru and president of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency. Panama , during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega ,
9027-547: The Nigerian Army and specialised in engineering and was assigned to the Congo , Britain, and India , rising to the rank of major. In the late 1960s, he played a senior role in combating Biafran separatists during the Nigerian Civil War , accepting their surrender in 1970. In 1975, a military coup established a junta with Obasanjo as part of its ruling triumvirate. After the triumvirate's leader, Murtala Muhammed ,
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#17327825583289204-640: The Reichstag , which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that
9381-598: The Uli airstrip on 12 January. At this, the Biafran leaders agreed to surrender. On 13 January, Obasanjo met with Biafran military commander Philip Effiong . Obasanjo insisted that Biafran troops surrender their arms and that a selection of the breakaway state's leaders go to Lagos and formally surrender to Gowon. The next day, Obasanjo spoke on regional radio, urging citizens to stay in their homes and guaranteeing their safety. Many Biafrans and foreign media sources feared that
9558-496: The Viceroy and Governor-General of India . Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be
9735-455: The Yoruba people . The village church was part of a mission set up by the U.S. Southern Baptist Church and Obasanjo was raised Baptist . His village also contained Muslims and his sister later converted to Islam to marry a Muslim man. Obasanjo's father was a farmer and until he was eleven years old, the boy was involved in agricultural labour. Aged eleven, he joined the village primary school, and after three years, in 1951, he moved on to
9912-413: The constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics , real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person . In
10089-720: The de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( head of government ). This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea , where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il Sung , the office
10266-420: The de facto leaders of the nation (in practice they divide the leadership of the nation between themselves). Meanwhile, in presidential systems , the head of state is also the head of government. In one-party ruling communist states , the position of president has no tangible powers by itself; however, since such a head of state, as a matter of custom, simultaneously holds the post of General Secretary of
10443-596: The foreign relations of Nigeria , and represents the state in international relations, conducts negotiations and signs ratification documents. The president is an ex officio grand commander in the Order of the Federal Republic. There is a four year tenure with a two-term limit for the president in the Constitution of Nigeria . There was an attempt to modify the term limits in 2006 for Obasanjo, but it did not materialize. The president of Nigeria lives and works in
10620-406: The general election . He also served two terms in office. On 29 May 2023, Bola Tinubu was sworn in as president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 16th head of state after winning the 2023 Nigerian general election . The president of Nigeria is elected using a modified two-round system with up to three rounds. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must receive a plurality of
10797-507: The high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by
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#173278255832810974-482: The military regime . Obasanjo encouraged debate and consensus among the Supreme Military Council. Many wondered why Obasanjo – as a Yoruba and a Christian – had appointed Yar'Adua, a member of the northern aristocracy , as his second-in-command, rather than a fellow Yoruba Christian. Obasanjo emphasised national concerns over those of the regions; he encouraged both children and adults to recite
11151-529: The personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians". In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of
11328-482: The "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower
11505-467: The 1970s and for his Pan-African efforts to encourage cooperation across the continent. Critics maintain that he was guilty of corruption, that his administrations oversaw human rights abuses, and that as president he became too interested in consolidating and maintaining his personal power. Olusegun Matthew Okikiola Aremu Obasanjo (or Matthew Olusegun Aremu Obasanjo) was born in Ibogun-Olaogun,
11682-726: The Baptist Day School in Abeokuta 's Owu quarter. In 1952 he transferred to the Baptist Boys' High School , also in the town. His school fees were partly financed by state grants. Obasanjo did well academically, and at school became a keen Boy Scout . Although there is no evidence that he was then involved in any political groups, it was at secondary school that Obasanjo rejected his forename of "Matthew" as an anti-colonial act. Meanwhile, Obasanjo's father had abandoned his wife and two children. Falling into poverty, Obasanjo's mother had to operate in trading to survive. To pay his school fees, Obasanjo worked on cocoa and kola farms, fished, collected firewood, and sold sand to builders. During
11859-458: The Commonwealth, Emeka Anyaoku , Obasanjo was nominated to co-chair the group alongside former Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser . Obasanjo reluctantly agreed. In February 1986, he and Fraser travelled to Cape Town where they asked to meet with the imprisoned anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela , a prominent member of the banned African National Congress (ANC). Obasanjo alone was permitted to meet with Mandela; he later commented that he
12036-503: The Communist Party , they are the executive leader with their powers deriving from their status of being the party leader , rather than the office of president. Former French president Charles de Gaulle , while developing the current Constitution of France (1958), said that the head of state should embody l'esprit de la nation ("the spirit of the nation"). Some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of "models". An independent nation state normally has
12213-423: The Democratic Republic of Congo to urge their governments to do the same. However, after Thatcher became UK Prime Minister, Nigeria distanced itself from British efforts to end the Rhodesian Bush War and was excluded from any significant role in the UK-brokered process that led to multi-racial democratic elections in Rhodesia . As head of state, Obasanjo attended OAU summits. At that held in July 1977, he proposed
12390-402: The Federal Republic of Nigeria; that as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, I will discharge my duties to the best of my ability, faithfully and in accordance with the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the law, and always in the interest of the sovereignty, integrity, solidarity, well-being and prosperity of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will strive to preserve
12567-408: The Fifth Battalion were sent to the Congo as part of a United Nations peacekeeping force. There, the battalion were stationed in Kivu Province , with their headquarters at Bukavu . In the Congo, Obasanjo and others were responsible for protecting civilians, including the ethnic Belgian minority, against soldiers who had mutinied against Patrice Lumumba 's government. In February 1961, Obasanjo
12744-510: The Fifth Schedule to the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that in all circumstances, I will do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favour, affection or ill-will; that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, except as may be required for
12921-535: The Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy contained in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions; that I will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will abide by the Code of Conduct contained in
13098-487: The German president, Paul von Hindenburg , was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag. Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold
13275-540: The Ibadan City Hall. Troops retaliated, killing ten of the rioters. When Obasanjo returned he ordered a court of inquiry into the events. Gowon decide to replace Colonel Benjamin Adekunle , who was leading the attack on Biafra, but needed another senior Yoruba. He chose Obasanjo, despite the latter's lack of combat experience. Obasanjo arrived at Port Harcourt to take up the new position on 16 May 1969; he
13452-655: The MPLA, Nigeria began lobbying other African countries to also recognise the MPLA administration, and by early 1976 most states in the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) had done so. In February 1976, Obasanjo led a Nigerian delegation to an MPLA anniversary celebration in Luanda , where he declared: "This is a symbolic date, marking the beginning of the final struggle against colonialism, imperialism and racism in Africa." In February 1976, Colonel Buka Suka Dimka launched
13629-585: The Nation , a project to revitalise small-scale farming and which involved students being paid to farm during the holidays. The project also involved abolishing duties on livestock feed and farm implements, subsidizing the use of fertilisers, and easing agricultural credit. In March 1978, Obasanjo issued the Land Use Decree which gave the state propriety rights over all land. This was designed to stop land hoarding and land speculation, and brought praise from
13806-401: The Nigerian Army would commit widespread atrocities against the defeated population, although Obasanjo was keen to prevent this. He ordered his troops in the region to remain within their barracks, maintain that the local police should take responsibility for law and order. The Third Division , which was more isolated, did carry out reprisal attacks on the local population. Obasanjo was tough on
13983-503: The Nigerian left although was disliked by many land-owning families. Obasanjo saw it as one of his government's main achievements. Obasanjo continued the push for universal primary education in Nigeria, a policy inherited from Gowon. He introduced the Primary Education Act in 1976; between 1975–76 and 1979–80, enrolment in free but voluntary primary schooling grew from 6 million to 12.5 million, although there
14160-520: The Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag ) the prime minister and terminates their commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is
14337-944: The Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR ; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet ; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by
14514-468: The Supreme Court. Shagari took office in October 1979; at his inauguration ceremony, Obasanjo presented Shagari with a copy of the new constitution. This marked the start of Nigeria's Second Republic. Obasanjo's role in returning Nigeria to civilian rule would form the basis of the good reputation he retained for the next two decades. However, various domestic and foreign individuals, including
14691-768: The U.S. in October where he urged the country to stop selling arms to South Africa. While in the country he addressed the United Nations General Assembly and two weeks later Nigeria received a seat on the United Nations Security Council . Opposition to white minority rule in Rhodesia had sparked the Rhodesian Bush War and Obasanjo's government maintained that armed struggle was the only option for overthrowing Rhodesia's government. He encouraged unity among
14868-452: The U.S. presidential system whereby a single elected president would be both head of state and head of government . To avoid this president becoming a dictator , as had happened elsewhere in Africa, it argued for various checks on their power, including a federal structure whereby independent elected institutions would exist at the federal, state, and local level. The draft constitution was published in October 1976 and debated in public for
15045-576: The UK, but ultimately did not. Obasanjo nevertheless refused to visit the UK and discouraged his officials from doing so. Relations were further damaged when Margaret Thatcher became British Prime Minister in 1979 , initiating a warmer British approach to the white minority administrations of Rhodesia and South Africa . In response, Nigeria seized a British tanker that was believed to be transporting Nigerian oil to South Africa, banned British firms from competing for Nigerian contracts, and nationalised British Petroleum 's Nigerian operations. Obasanjo
15222-529: The United Kingdom and aligned more closely with the United States. Obasanjo was favourable to the administration of U.S. President Jimmy Carter , who was elected in 1976, because of Carter's commitment to ensuring majority rule across southern Africa. Carter's ambassador to Nigeria, Andrew Young , formed a close personal friendship with Obasanjo, while Carter visited Nigeria in 1978. However,
15399-785: The United Nations, the World Health Organization , and the Inter-Action Council of Former Heads of Government . When Javier Pérez de Cuéllar , the UN Secretary-General , fell ill, Obasanjo was considered as a potential successor. After Pérez de Cuéllar announced his resignation, Obasanjo began campaigning to replace him. At a vote of the UN Security Council , he came third, with Egypt's Boutros Boutros-Ghali taking on
15576-595: The Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda and Togo President Gnassingbé Eyadéma , urged him to remain in power. His refusal to back Awolowo, a fellow Yoruba, earned him the enmity of much of the Yoruba elite. Awolowo accused Obasanjo of orchestrating Shagari's victory, something Obasanjo strenuously denied. Before he left office, in April 1979, Obasanjo promoted himself to the role of general; as
15753-401: The approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment. In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain ). In republics with
15930-546: The burial site. After the assassination, Obasanjo attended a meeting of the Supreme Military Council . He expressed his desire to resign from government, but the Council successfully urged him to replace Murtala as head of state. He therefore became the council's chair. Concerned about further attempts on his life, Obasanjo moved into the Dodan Barracks , while 39 people accused of being part of Dimka's coup were executed, generating accusations that Obasanjo's response
16107-490: The chairman of the Supreme Military Council (SMC) , the new head of state. In August 1985, General Buhari's government was peacefully overthrown by the Army chief of staff, Major General Ibrahim Babangida . Babangida became the president and chairman of the Armed Forces Ruling Council . On 26 August 1993, General Babangida stepped down and chose an interim government to replace him. Ernest Shonekan
16284-635: The city, Obasanjo taught a course in military science at the University of Ibadan and built his contacts in the Yoruba elite. During the war, there was popular unrest in the Western State, and to avoid responsibility for these issues, Obasanjo resigned from the Western State Executive Council. While Obasanjo was away from Ibadan in November 1968, armed villagers mobilised by the farmers' Agbekoya Association attacked
16461-507: The civil service. In October 1975, the government announced plans for an election which would result in civilian rule in October 1979. It also declared plans to create a committee to draft a new constitution, with Obasanjo largely responsible for selecting the 49 committee members. On the recommendation of the Irifeke Commission , the government also announced the creation of seven new states; at Obasanjo's insistence, Abeokuta
16638-564: The constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne. Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose. In
16815-478: The constitution to abolish presidential term limits were unsuccessful and brought criticism. After retiring, he earned a PhD in theology from the National Open University of Nigeria . Obasanjo has been described as one of the great figures of the second generation of post-colonial African leaders. He received praise both for overseeing Nigeria's transition to representative democracy in
16992-450: The construction of 200,000 new housing units by 1980, although ultimately only 28,500 were built. In 1976, Obasanjo's government also announced rent and price controls. To counteract the disruption of labour strikes, in 1976 Obasanjo's government introduced legislation that defined most major industries as essential services, banned strikes within them, and authorised the detention of disruptive union leaders. In 1978 it merged 42 unions into
17169-491: The corruption that was becoming increasingly widespread in Nigeria , although no hard evidence of this ever emerged. His marriage with Oluremi became strained as she opposed his relationships with other women. In the mid-1970s their marriage was dissolved. In 1976 he married Stella Abebe in a traditional Yoruba ceremony. In July 1975, a coup led by Shehu Musa Yar'Adua and Joseph Garba ousted Gowon, who fled to Britain. They had not informed Obasanjo of their plans as he
17346-500: The country in the midst of a military coup led by Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna . Almost all of those involved in organising the coup were from the Igbo people of southern Nigeria. Obasanjo was among those warning that the situation could descend into civil war. He offered to serve as an intermediary between the coup plotters and the civilian government, which had transferred power to the military Commander-in-Chief Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi . As
17523-585: The country subservient to Western capitalism. In the subsequent two years of Obasanjo's government, Nigeria borrowed a further $ 4,983 million. Nigeria was undergoing nearly 3% annual population growth during the 1970s, something which would double the country's population in just over 25 years. Obasanjo later noted that he was unaware of this at the time, with his government having no policy on population control . Nigeria's population growth contributed to rapid urbanisation and an urban housing shortage. To deal with this, Obasanjo's 1976 budget outlined plans for
17700-471: The coup failed, Olusegun met Ironsi in Lagos. Ironsi soon ended federalism in Nigeria through his unification decree in May 1966, something which inflamed ethnic tensions. In late July, a second coup took place . In Ibadan, troops of northern Nigerian origin rebelled and killed Ironsi, also massacring around two hundred Igbo soldiers. General Yakubu Gowon took power. While this coup was taking place, Obasanjo
17877-531: The course of July and August 1979. Turnout was low, at between 30 and 40 percent of legally registered voters, and there was rigging on various sides, although it was peaceful. There was debate as to who won the presidential vote , and Obasanjo refused to adjudicate, insisting that the Electoral Commission take on that role. They declared that Shehu Shagari was the winner, something that the runner up, Obafemi Awolowo , unsuccessfully challenged at
18054-653: The creation of a liquefaction plant at Bonny , which was 62% financed by the NNPC; the project was abandoned by his successor amid spiralling cost increases. Obasanjo also continued the planning of the Ajaokuta integrated steel mill, an inherited project that many critics in the civil service argued was unviable. In the mid-1970s, Nigeria also faced declining agricultural production, a process caused by successive governments finding it cheaper to import food than grow it domestically. In May 1976, Obasanjo launched Operation Feed
18231-516: The decision by King Leopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II , Belgium voted in
18408-574: The decision to shift allegiances was made for pragmatic rather than ideological reasons; the discovery of oil in the North Sea meant that the UK had become a competitor rather than a customer of Nigerian oil. Obasanjo's government was also angry that the UK refused to extradite Gowon and suspected that the British government might have been involved in the coup against Murtala. For these reasons, in 1976 it considered suspending diplomatic relations with
18585-435: The devaluation of the naira . By 1992, his opposition to Babangida's rule had led him to call for a re-democratisation of Nigeria. He also began to reject the economic indigenisation policies of the 1970s, arguing that the constitution should prohibit the confiscation of foreign investments. Instead, he thought the government should emphasise private-led development. He became increasingly concerned by rapid population growth,
18762-474: The due discharge of my duties as President; and that I will devote myself to the service and well-being of the people of Nigeria. So help me God. The president of Nigeria bears ultimate authority over the Nigerian Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief , in which the president issues military directives, makes defence policy and appoints the high command like the Chief of Defence Staff . The president determines
18939-871: The early 1960s obtaining property in Ibadan, Kaduna, and Lagos . In 1965, Obasanjo was sent to India. En route, he visited his wife in London. In India , he studied at the Defence Services Staff College in Wellington and then the School of Engineering in Poona . Obasanjo was appalled at the starvation that he witnessed in India although took an interest in the country's culture, something that encouraged him to read books on comparative religion . Obasanjo flew back to Nigeria in January 1966 to find
19116-756: The encroachment of the Sahara Desert in the north. To meet the country's growing demand for electricity, Obasanjo oversaw the launch of two new hydroelectric projects and a thermal plant. The oil industry remained an important part of Nigeria's economy and under Obasanjo the Ministry of Petroleum Resources was merged with the Nigerian National Oil Corporation to form the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). Obasanjo also supported
19293-427: The entrance exam for University College Ibadan , but although he passed it he found that he could not afford the tuition fees. Obasanjo then decided to pursue a career as a civil engineer , and to access this profession, in 1958 answered an advert for officer cadet training in the Nigerian Army. In March 1958, Obasanjo enlisted in the Nigerian Army. He saw it as an opportunity to continue his education while earning
19470-449: The executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government . Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The Constitution of Japan ( 日本国憲法 , Nihonkoku-Kenpō )
19647-472: The final year of his military government, he headed an OAU mission to resolve the conflict in Western Sahara . The military government has assembled a constituent drafting committee to devise a new constitution which could be used amid a transfer to civilian rule. The committee argued that Nigeria should change its governance system, which was based on the British parliamentary system, to one based on
19824-464: The first governor-general of a federation of three regions of the north, east and west, with Lagos as the Federal Capital. Each of the regions was headed by a premier with a governor as ceremonial head. The governors and governor-general represented the queen of Nigeria , Elizabeth II . On 1 October 1963, Nigeria became a Federal republic thereby abolishing its monarchy , but remained
20001-427: The following year. A constituent assembly met to discuss the draft in October 1977. The assembly deadlocked over what role to give sharia law in the constitution. Obasanjo called the assembly together and warned them of the social impact of their decision, urging them to take a more conciliatory attitude. In September 1978, the Supreme Military Council announced the new constitution; it had made several amendments to
20178-543: The form of official patronage. The Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter. As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse,
20355-597: The formation of a standing committee to mediate disputes between OAU member states. At the 1978 conference, he warned of interference from both sides in the Cold War . At the next conference, he urged the formation of a Pan-African military which could engage in peace-keeping efforts on the continent. To promote Nigeria's role internationally, Obasanjo involved himself in various mediation efforts across Africa. In 1977, he persuaded Benin and Togo to end their border dispute and reopen their frontier. He also attempted to mediate
20532-504: The government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly . Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from
20709-493: The government, killed General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, and appointed the army chief of staff, Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon as the head of the new military government. In 1975, General Yakubu Gowon was deposed and Brigadier Murtala Mohammed was made head of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria until his assassination in 1976. Upon his death, the chief-of-staff, Supreme Headquarters (equivalent to
20886-543: The head of government's advice. In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan . Olusegun Obasanjo Chief Olusegun Matthew Okikiola Ogunboye Aremu Obasanjo GCFR ( // ; Yoruba : Olúṣẹ́gun Ọbásanjọ́ [olúʃɛ́ɡũ ɔbásanɟɔ] ; born c. 5 March 1937)
21063-538: The head of state is notional chief executive include Australia , Austria , Canada , Denmark , India , Italy , Norway , Spain and the United Kingdom . The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic , Ireland , Israel , Japan and Sweden . The head of state usually appoints most or all
21240-559: The head of state. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies , the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution , the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III ); likewise, Edward VIII 's abdication required
21417-699: The independence of Igbo-majority areas in the southeast, forming the Republic of Biafra . On 3 July, Nigeria's government posted Obasanjo to Ibadan to serve as commander of the Western State . The fighting between the Nigerian Army and the Biafran separatists broke out on 6 July. On 9 July, Ojukwu sent a column of Biafran troops over the Niger Bridge in an attempt to seize the Mid-West, a position from which it could attack Lagos. Obasanjo sought to block
21594-406: The key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service , foreign service and commissioned officers in the military . In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on
21771-564: The king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia , and then the Kingdom of Italy , the Statuto Albertino —the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include
21948-473: The leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc. Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that
22125-402: The legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America ). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc , so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system. Presidential systems are
22302-515: The majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which
22479-544: The military and both expanded the police and mobilised the army to combat widespread ethnic, religious, and secessionist violence. He withdrew Nigeria's military from Sierra Leone and privatised various public enterprises to limit the country's spiraling debt. He was re-elected in the 2003 election . Influenced by Pan-Africanist ideas, he was a keen supporter of the formation of the African Union and served as its chair from 2004 to 2006. Obasanjo's attempts to change
22656-414: The more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually,
22833-592: The new national pledge and the national anthem. Interested in getting a broader range of perspectives, each Saturday he held an informal seminar on a topical issue to which people other than politicians and civil servants were invited. Among those whose advice he sought were Islamic scholars and traditional chiefs. By the mid-1970s, Nigeria had an overheated economy with a 34% inflation rate. To deal with Nigeria's economic problems, Obasanjo pursued austerity measures to reduce public expenditure. In his 1976 budget, Obasanjo proposed to reduce government expenditure by
23010-409: The nominal chief executive officer , heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet , presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has
23187-713: The office of President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly , while the party leader's post as chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China . In China , under the current country's constitution , the Chinese President is a largely ceremonial office with limited power. However, since 1993, as
23364-452: The office of the presidency under the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria . Executive power is vested in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law and the responsibility to appoint federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory, and judicial officers. Based on constitutional provisions empowering the president to appoint and receive ambassadors and conclude treaties with foreign powers, and on subsequent laws enacted by
23541-488: The office of the president if: A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of the president if: The Constitution of Nigeria specifies an oath of office for the president of the federation. The oath is administered by the chief justice of the Supreme Court of Nigeria or the person for the time being appointed to exercise the functions of that office: I do solemnly swear/affirm that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to
23718-457: The opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation . President François Mitterrand , a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac , who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and
23895-408: The perpetrators, having those guilty of looting flogged and those guilty of rape shot. Gowon's government made Obasanjo responsible for reintegrating Biafra into Nigeria, in which position he earned respect for emphasising magnanimity. As an engineer, he emphasised restoration of the water supply; by May 1970 all major towns in the region were reconnected to the water supply. Obasanjo's role in ending
24072-401: The president weak and ill-prepared. Nigeria entered economic recession due to fluctuations in global oil prices. In May 1983, senior military figures asked Obasanjo to take over control in the country again, but he declined. In December, they overthrew Shagari without Obasanjo's involvement, in a coup that saw little violence. Muhammadu Buhari became the new military head of state. Obasanjo
24249-704: The presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état , as often seen in Latin American , Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found among absolute monarchies , parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g., Communist ) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice. In certain states under Marxist–Leninist constitutions of
24426-484: The presidential villa, in Abuja , Nigeria, becoming the second head of state to die there after General Sani Abacha . On 6 May 2010, Vice President Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 14th head of state. On 29 May 2015, Muhammadu Buhari , a former military head of state was sworn in as president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 15th head of state after winning
24603-548: The prime minister on matters of state. In contrast, the only contact the president of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach . The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers , such as referring
24780-401: The prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda. Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany , for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from
24957-429: The prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence. Some parliamentary republics (like South Africa , Botswana and Kiribati ) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being
25134-472: The roads leading to the city. The Yoruba commander Victor Banjo , who was leading the Biafran attack force, tried to convince Obasanjo to let them through, but he declined. Obasanjo was then appointed the rear commander of Murtala Muhammed 's Second Division , which was operating in the Mid-West. Based at Ibadan, Obasanjo was responsible for ensuring that the Second Division was kept supplied. In
25311-497: The role. He left his home on several visits; in 1986 he visited Japan, and in 1987 the U.S. Amid a dispute in the Commonwealth of Nations over the UK's more lenient view of South Africa, it was agreed that an Eminent Persons Group (EPG) would be formed to initiate dialogue with the South African government in the hope of encouraging it toward dismantling apartheid. At the recommendation of Nigeria's Deputy Secretary-General of
25488-464: The school holidays he also worked at the school, cutting the grass and other manual jobs. In 1956, Obasanjo took his secondary school exams, having borrowed money to pay for the entry fees. That same year, he began courting Oluremi Akinlawon , the Owu daughter of a station master. They were engaged to be married by 1958. Leaving school, he moved to Ibadan , where he took a teaching job. There, he sat for
25665-774: The single Nigerian Labour Congress . Obasanjo continued with three major irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria that were first announced under Murtala: the Kano River Project , the Bakalori Scheme , and the South Chad Irrigation Project . His government also continued the Agricultural Development Projects launched in Funtua , Gusau , and Gombe . Some reforestation projects were also initiated to stall
25842-580: The strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model. Another complication exists with South Africa , in which the president is in fact elected by
26019-399: The swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch. One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being
26196-498: The symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag . Other common representations are on coins , postage and other stamps and banknotes , sometimes by no more than
26373-436: The title of " president " - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office. Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called
26550-429: The triumvirate, Obasanjo was "the work-horse and the brains" and was the most eager for a return to civilian rule. Together, the triumvirate introduced austerity measures to stem inflation, established a Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, replaced all military governors with new officers who reported directly to Obasanjo as Chief of Staff, and launched "Operation Deadwood" through which they fired 11,000 officials from
26727-465: The unrest, Obasanjo closed several universities, banned political activity on campus, and proscribed the National Union of Nigerian Students . The severity of these measures was perhaps due to suspicions that the student unrest was linked to a planned military coup that was uncovered in February 1978. Obasanjo was frustrated at the protesting student's behaviour, arguing that it reflected a turn away from traditional values such as respect for elders. As
26904-407: The various anti-government factions there, urging Robert Mugabe , the head of ZANU , to accept the leadership of his rival, Joshua Nkomo of ZAPU . In 1977, the UK and US drew up proposals for a transition to majority rule in Rhodesia, amid a period in which the country would be under the management of United Nations forces. Obasanjo backed the plan, and visited Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique, and
27081-442: The version put forward by the constituent assembly. Along with the new constitution, Obasanjo lifted the ban on political parties. A variety of groups then formed to compete in the ensuing election, most notably the Unity Party of Yoruba , the Nigerian People's Party , and the National Party of Nigeria . Obasanjo was angered that many of the politicians were making promises that they could not keep. The elections took place over
27258-428: The violence abated. After this, Obasanjo sent his wife to Lagos while returning to Kaduna himself, where he remained until January 1967. At this point he was the most senior Yoruba officer present in the north. In January 1967, Obasanjo was posted to Lagos as the Chief Army Engineer. Tensions between the Igbo and northern ethnic groups continued to grow, and in May the Igbo military officer C. Odumegwu Ojukwu declared
27435-417: The votes, as well as over 25% of the vote in at least 24 of the 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory . If no candidate passes this threshold, a second round will be held between the top candidate and the next candidate to have received a majority of votes in the highest number of states. In the second round, a candidate still must receive the most votes, as well as over 25% of the vote in at least 24 of
27612-480: The war made him a war hero and a nationally known figure in Nigeria. In June 1970, Obasanjo returned to Abeokuta, where crowds welcomed him as a returning hero. He was then posted to Lagos as the Brigadier commanding the Corps of Engineers. In October, Gowon announced that the military government would transfer authority to a civilian administration in 1976. In the meantime, a ban on political parties remained in forces; Gowon made little progress towards establishing
27789-453: Was a bicameral National Assembly , comprising a Senate and House of Representatives . On 1 October 1979, after more than 13 years of military rule, Nigeria returned to democratic rule. The National Party of Nigeria emerged victorious in the presidential election and Shehu Shagari became the first democratically elected president. On 31 December 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as
27966-486: Was a shortage of teachers and materials to cope with the demand. In the 1977–78 school year, Obasanjo introduced free secondary educational in technical subjects, something extended to all secondary schooling in 1979–80. Concomitantly, Nigeria cut back on university funding; in 1978 it ceased issuing student loans and trebled university food and accommodation charges. Student protests erupted in several cities, resulting in fatal shootings in Lagos and Zaria . In response to
28143-438: Was also banned. Pushing for cut-backs in the military, Obasanjo's government saw 12,000 soldiers demobilised over the course of 1976 and 1977. These troops went through new rehabilitation centres to assist them in adjusting to civilian life. Obasanjo was also accused of being responsible for political repression. In one famous instance, the compound of the Nigerian musician and political activist Fela Kuti , Kalakuta Republic ,
28320-480: Was also eager to hasten the end of white minority rule in southern Africa; according to Iliffe, this became "the centrepiece of his foreign policy". Nigeria gave grants to those fighting white minority rule in the region, allowed these groups to open offices in Lagos, and offered sanctuary to various refugees fleeing the governments of southern Africa. Taking a hard line against the apartheid regime in South Africa, Obasanjo announced that Nigeria would not take part in
28497-414: Was arrested and convicted of being part of a planned coup, despite protesting his innocence. While imprisoned, he became a born again Christian , with providentialism strongly influencing his subsequent worldview. He was released following Abacha's death in 1998. Obasanjo entered electoral politics, becoming the PDP candidate for the 1999 presidential election which he won. As president, he de-politicised
28674-420: Was assassinated the following year, the Supreme Military Council appointed Obasanjo as head of state. Continuing Murtala's policies, Obasanjo oversaw budgetary cut-backs and an expansion of access to free school education. Increasingly aligning Nigeria with the United States, he also emphasised support for groups opposing white minority rule in southern Africa. Committed to restoring democracy, Obasanjo oversaw
28851-481: Was captured by the mutineers while he was evacuating Roman Catholic missionaries from a station near Bukavu. The mutineers considered executing him but were ordered to release him. In May 1961, the Fifth Battalion left the Congo and returned to Nigeria. During the conflict, he had been appointed a temporary captain. He later noted that the time spent in the Congo strengthened the "Pan-African fervour" of his battalion. On his return, Obasanjo bought his first car, and
29028-418: Was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi- absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system . The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet , who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor
29205-436: Was excessive. As head of state, Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies. Aware of the danger of alienating northern Nigerians, Obasanjo brought General Shehu Yar'Adua as his replacement and second-in-command as Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters completing the military triumvirate, with Obasanjo as head of state and General Theophilus Danjuma as Chief of Army Staff , the three went on to re-establish control over
29382-411: Was hospitalised for a time with a stomach ulcer. On his recovery, he was transferred to the Army Engineering Corps. In 1962 he was stationed at the Royal College of Military Engineering in England. There, he excelled and was described as "the best Commonwealth student ever". That year, he paid for Akinlawon to travel to London where she could join a training course. The couple married in June 1963 at
29559-441: Was in Maiduguri . Hearing of it, he quickly returned to Kaduna. There, he found that northern troops from the Third Battalion were rounding up, torturing, and killing Igbo soldiers. The Governor of Northern Nigeria , Hassan Katsina , recognised that although Olusegun was not Igbo, as a southerner he was still in danger from the mutinous troops. To protect them, Katsina sent Olusegun and his wife back to Maiduguri for ten days, while
29736-423: Was initially supportive of Buhari's government, stating that representative democracy had failed in Nigeria. He praised Buhari's War Against Indiscipline , his halving of imports, and his restoration of a balanced budget. In August 1985, Buhari was also overthrown, with the Army Chief of Staff Ibrahim Babangida taking power. Obasanjo was critical of some of the economic reforms that Babangida introduced, including
29913-425: Was known to be critical of coups as an instrument of regime change. The coup plotters wanted to replace Gowon's autocratic rule with a triumvirate of three brigadiers whose decisions could be vetoed by a Supreme Military Council. For this triumvirate, they convinced General Murtala Muhammed to become head of state, with Obasanjo as his second-in-command, and Danjuma as the third. Historian John Iliffe noted that of
30090-463: Was largely responsible for building military barracks. In 1970, Obasanjo bought a former Lebanese company in Ibadan, employing an agent to manage it. In 1973 he registered a business, Temperance Enterprises Limited, through which he could embark on commercial ventures after retiring from the military. He also continued to invest in property; by 1974 he owned two houses in Lagos and one each in Ibadan and Abeokuta. Rumours arose that Obasanjo engaged in
30267-476: Was named as interim head of state. General Sani Abacha seized power from Shonekan on 17 November 1993, and became head of state and chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council. On 8 June 1998, General Abacha died at the presidential villa in the Nigerian capital, Abuja. Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar became the new head of state and chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council. On 29 May 1999, General Abdulsalami Abubakar stepped down, and handed over power to
30444-440: Was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces . Historically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920–1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through
30621-494: Was now in charge of between 35,000 and 40,000 troops. He spent his first six weeks repelling a Biafran attack on Aba . He toured every part of the front, and was wounded while doing so. These actions earned him a reputation for courage among his men. In December, Obasanjo launched Operation Finishing Touch , ordering his troops to advance towards Umuahia , which they took on Christmas Day . This cut Biafra in half. On 7 January 1970, he then launched Operation Tail-Wind , capturing
30798-457: Was raided and burned to the ground after a member of his entourage was involved in an altercation with military personnel. Fela and his family were beaten and raped and his aged mother, the political activist and founding mother Chief Funmilayo Ransome Kuti , was thrown from a window. This resulted in serious injuries, and eventually led to her death. Fela subsequently carried a coffin to the then presidential residence at Dodan Barracks in Lagos as
30975-412: Was selected for six months of additional training at Mons Officer Cadet School in Aldershot , southern England . Obasanjo disliked it there, believing that it was a classist and racist institution, and found it difficult adjusting to the colder, wetter English weather. It reinforced his negative opinions of the British Empire and its right to rule over its colonised subjects. At Mons, he received
31152-420: Was to become the capital of one of these new states, Ogun . Also on the commission's recommendation, it announced gradual plans to move the Nigerian capital from Lagos to the more central Abuja. In January 1976, both Obasanjo and Danjuma were promoted to the ranks of Lieutenant General. Both Murtala and Obasanjo were committed to ending ongoing European colonialism and white minority rule in southern Africa ,
31329-411: Was vacant for years. The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of " Eternal President " . All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il . The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by
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