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68-747: The range is a spur off the Great Dividing Range and extends generally southeast from Mount Burrell for about 25 kilometres (16 mi) to Peates Mountain. It is separated from the remainder of the Great Dividing Range by the Nimbin Gap . The Range forms the southern flank of the Mount Warning (Tweed) shield volcano and geologically, is formed from the Lismore Basalts which are then overlain successively by

136-400: A Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a TIN . The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents

204-560: A bitumen road via Nimbin which cost £32,000 to construct in tandem with the first tower in 1962 (the tower itself costing only £10,000) and is the starting point for several walking tracks including the Historic Nightcap walking track, which once was the principal route taken by travellers and postal workers between Lismore and Murwillumbah . The range contains the Nightcap National Park and forms part of

272-766: A bushfire on the range (the Mount Nardi bushfire) in November 2019. The range is also notable for containing the majority of known sites for the extremely restricted Minyon quandong , a medium sized tree in the Elaeocarpaceae , which had been recognised as a distinct species for some time but formally described only in 2008. According to the Richmond-Tweed Regional Library's "Place Names of the Tweed, Brunswick and Upper Richmond Regions",

340-492: A complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.). Topographic survey information

408-405: A part of geovisualization , whether maps or GIS systems. False-color and non-visible spectra imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum. Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the co-ordinates of the points in 3D of an object are determined by

476-583: A place or places, what is now largely called ' local history '. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called Ordnance Surveys , and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were

544-598: A valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys (or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover. Remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more

612-535: A water source for important reservoirs and water supply projects such as the Upper Nepean Scheme , Snowy Mountains Scheme and Warragamba Dam . The Bradfield Scheme has been mooted as a way to transport water from the Wet Tropics of Queensland in the coastal northeast of Far North Queensland via a series of Dams & Tunnels , southwest to inland dryer regions, including a tunnel through

680-460: Is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features. The digital elevation model (DEM) is a raster -based digital dataset of the topography ( hypsometry and/or bathymetry ) of all or part of the Earth (or a telluric planet ). The pixels of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines

748-428: Is essential for the planning and construction of any major civil engineering , public works , or reclamation projects. There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and

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816-438: Is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example, boundary delineation may be derived from local cadastral mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve. As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example),

884-547: Is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines , hypsometric tints , and relief shading . The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome , as the detailed description of a place. The word comes from the Greek τόπος ( topos , "place") and -γραφία ( -graphia , "writing"). In classical literature this refers to writing about

952-767: Is only one major road crossing the highlands from north to south, the Great Alpine Road . Parts of the highlands consisting of relatively flat and, by Australian standards, well-watered land were developed for agricultural and pastoral uses. Such areas include the Atherton Tableland and Darling Downs in Queensland, and the Northern Tablelands , Southern Highlands and Southern Tablelands in New South Wales . Other parts of

1020-588: Is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of remotely sensed data in its compilation process. In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States, USGS topographic maps show relief using contour lines . The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps." These maps show not only

1088-422: Is to something else). Topography has been applied to different science fields. In neuroscience , the neuroimaging discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for brain mapping . In ophthalmology , corneal topography is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea . In tissue engineering , atomic force microscopy is used to map nanotopography . In human anatomy , topography

1156-681: The Australian Alps . The central core of the Great Dividing Range is dotted with hundreds of peaks and is surrounded by many smaller mountain ranges or spurs, canyons , valleys and plains of regional significance. Some of the major plains include the High Plains of South-Eastern Australia, the Southern Highlands, the Central Highlands and Bogong High Plains of Victoria. Other tablelands considered part of

1224-716: The Bass Strait . Rivers west of the Dividing Range drain in various westerly directions according to latitudes: the Murray–Darling basin in southeastern Australia ( Darling Downs /eastern South West Queensland , West/Central New South Wales , Northern Victoria and the Murraylands / Riverland region of southeastern South Australia ) drain southwestwards into the Great Australian Bight via

1292-649: The Calder Highway , the Western Highway , and the Murray Valley Highway traverse parts of the range. Much of the range lies within a succession of national parks and other reserves . Most of the national parks are listed below, and there are almost double that amount of state forests. In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Great Dividing Range was announced as one of

1360-634: The Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the War of 1812 , which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1878,

1428-606: The East Australian Cordillera or the Eastern Highlands , is a cordillera system in eastern Australia consisting of an expansive collection of mountain ranges , plateaus and rolling hills . It runs roughly parallel to the east coast of Australia and forms the fifth-longest land-based mountain chain in the world , and the longest entirely within a single country. It is mainland Australia 's most substantial topographic feature and serves as

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1496-479: The Gulf of Carpentaria . The sharp rise between the coastal lowlands and the eastern uplands has affected Australia's climate , mainly due to orographic precipitation , and these areas of highest relief have revealed an impressive gorge country. Areas to the east of the mountain range in southern NSW usually experience a Föhn effect , which is a dry wind originating from the Great Dividing Range that abruptly raises

1564-633: The Latrobe Valley and Wilsons Promontory ). Whereas on the downwind (eastern) slopes, Cooma , Omeo , Goulburn , Bowral , Bombala , Nimmitabel , and Canberra , are warmer and drier relative to altitude. Moreover, Oberon , Shooters Hill and Sunny Corner are on the crest of the ranges and thus exposed from all directions, hence their evenly spread rainfall. The main ski resorts in New South Wales, such as Thredbo Village , Perisher and Charlotte Pass , lie transitionally between

1632-604: The Liverpool Range , Mount Royal Range and the Monaro District . Whilst some of the peaks of the highlands reach respectable heights of a little over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), the age of the range and its erosion mean that most of the mountains are not very steep, and virtually all peaks can be reached without mountaineering equipment. In some areas, such as the Snowy Mountains , Victorian Alps ,

1700-589: The Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "location". Topographic feature Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces . The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief , but also natural , artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In

1768-591: The Scenic Rim and the eastern escarpments of the New England region, the highlands form a significant barrier. The eastern escarpment is the site of many spectacular waterfalls which were formed by rivers plunging off the tablelands. In other areas the slopes are gentle and in places the range is barely perceptible. Well known passes on the range include Coxs Gap , Cunninghams Gap , Dead Horse Gap , Nowlands Gap , and Spicers Gap . Major cities located on

1836-571: The Shoalhaven River . Those that flow south, primarily through Victoria, include the Snowy , Cann , Tambo , Mitchell , Latrobe , Thomson , Yarra , Werribee , Hopkins and Glenelg rivers. At some high hill passes the range provides cool sites appropriate for vineyards . The engineers of early rail passages across the Great Dividing Range needed to find low sections of the range to cross, as well as suitable, "low" gradient paths up

1904-423: The Snowy Mountains portion of southern Great Dividing Range. The Dividing Range does not consist of a single continuous mountain chain , but is rather a combined complex ( cordillera ) of mountain ranges , plateaus , hilly upland areas and escarpments with an ancient and complex geological history . The physiographic division name for the landmass is called the East Australian Cordillera . In some places

1972-627: The Wimmera plains as rolling hills west of the Grampians region . The width of the Range varies from about 160 km (100 mi) to over 300 km (190 mi). The Greater Blue Mountains Area , Gondwana Rainforests and Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Areas are located in the Range. The highest place in Australia, the 2,228 m (7,310 ft) Mount Kosciuszko , resides in

2040-414: The drainage basins of river systems east (the coastal or rainward side) and west (the inland or leeward side) of it. The higher and more rugged parts of the "range" do not necessarily form part of the crest of the range, but may be branches and offshoots from it. The term "Great Dividing Range" may refer specifically to the watershed crest of the range, or to the entire upland complex including all of

2108-694: The Blue Mountains were later named after each of these men. This was the start of the development of the agricultural districts of inland New South Wales . A road was built to Blaxland by convicts within six months. Easier routes to inland New South Wales were discovered towards Goulburn to the southwest, and westwards from Newcastle . Subsequent explorations were made across and around the ranges by Allan Cunningham , John Oxley , Hamilton Hume , Paul Edmund Strzelecki , Ludwig Leichhardt and Thomas Mitchell . These explorers were mainly concerned with finding and appropriating good agricultural land. By

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2176-513: The Great Divide is only a slight rise in the surrounding topography. Knowing that local Aboriginal people had already established routes crossing the range and by making use of Aboriginal walking trails, a usable ridge-top route was finally discovered by Europeans directly westward from Sydney across the Blue Mountains to Bathurst by an expedition jointly led by Gregory Blaxland , William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth . Towns in

2244-551: The Great Dividing Range are the Atherton Tableland , Canberra wine region and the Southern Tablelands . The Dandenong Ranges , Barrington Tops , Bunya Mountains , Blue Mountains , Liverpool Range , McPherson Ranges and the Moonbi Range are some of the smaller spurs and ranges that make up the greater dividing range. Other notable ranges and tablelands which form part of the Great Dividing Range include

2312-766: The Great Dividing Range into the Flinders River then a tunnel into the Torrens Creek in the White Mountains National Park then flows south into Thompson River / Cooper Creek , part of the Eyre Basin . Many other variations have been proposed. The Great Dividing Range creates the drainage basins of the Australian south-east coast drainage division and the Australian north-east coast drainage division , whose water flows to

2380-759: The Murray–Darling Basin from Victoria include the Goulburn , Mitta Mitta , Kiewa , Ovens , King , Loddon and Campaspe rivers. Rivers that flow east into the Pacific Ocean include the Annan River , Barron River , Brisbane River , Burdekin River , Burnett River , Clarence River , Daintree River , Fitzroy River , Hastings River , Hawkesbury River , Hunter River , Karuah River , Macleay River , Mary River , Pascoe River , Richmond River and

2448-547: The Nimbin Rhyolites and finally the Blue Knob Basalts. The highest peak in the range is Mount Burrell at 933 metres (3,061 ft) above sea level . Other major peaks are Mount Neville at 919 metres (3,015 ft), Mount Nardi at 812 metres (2,664 ft), Mount Matheson at 804 metres (2,638 ft), and Peates Mountain at 604 metres (1,982 ft). The name "Blue Knob" is applied to a prominence on

2516-569: The United States, topography often means specifically relief , even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on. Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain , the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms ; this is also known as geomorphometry . In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form ( DEM ). It

2584-404: The air temperature in the lee of that mountain range and reduces atmospheric moisture. This dry wind, which elevates fire danger in the warm months, occurs because of the partial orographic obstruction of relatively damp low-level air and the subsiding of drier upper-level air in leeward of the mountains. The drier air is then heated more because of the adiabatic compression as it comes down

2652-669: The area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed radar or sonar data. A geographic information system (GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something

2720-455: The basis for much derived topographic work. Digital Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps. Topographic mapping should not be confused with geologic mapping . The latter

2788-580: The catchment for Rocky Creek Dam which is located to the north of Lismore, and provides the drinking water supply for a large portion of the Northern Rivers area. The range is the only known locality for the Nightcap oak , Eidothea hardeniana , a member of the Proteaceae , with a known population only around 100 wild plants, recognised and named in 2002. Much of its habitat was devastated by

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2856-636: The coastal Lake Alexandrina ; the eastern half of the Lake Eyre basin in east central Australia (the Cooper Creek and Warburton River systems in Central /western South West Queensland and eastern Far North of South Australia) drain southwestwards into the endorheic Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre ; the numerous rivers of western Cape York Peninsula in northeastern Australia ( North / Far North Queensland ) drain westwards or northwestwards directly into

2924-466: The coastal and inland regions. Many descendants of these nations still exist today, and some remain the traditional owners and custodians of their lands. After British colonisation in 1788, the ranges were an obstacle to exploration and settlement by the British settlers. Although not high, parts of the highlands were very rugged. Crossing the Blue Mountains was particularly challenging due to

2992-454: The contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover , built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest. While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps." Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form

3060-478: The definitive watershed for the river systems in eastern Australia, hence the name. The Great Dividing Range stretches more than 3,500 kilometres (2,175 mi) from Dauan Island in the Torres Strait off the northern tip of Cape York Peninsula , running the entire length of the eastern coastline through Queensland and New South Wales , then turning west across Victoria before finally fading into

3128-515: The direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS -based. In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms

3196-476: The distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites , dumpy levels and clinometers . GPS and other global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are also used. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini , the great Italian astronomer. Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances,

3264-465: The east coast and into the Pacific Ocean, Tasman Sea , and Bass Strait with the westerly Murray–Darling basin which flow inland, away from the coast into the interior plains. Some of the rivers which flow west of the ranges includes the Condamine River , Flinders River , Herbert River , Lachlan River , Macdonald River , Macintyre River and Namoi River . Rivers that flow north into

3332-553: The highlands are too rugged for agriculture and have been used for forestry. Many parts of the highlands which were not developed are now included in National Parks . All of mainland Australia 's alpine areas, including its highest mountain, Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 metres or 7,310 feet AHD ), are part of this range, called the Main Range . The highest areas in southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria are known as

3400-543: The hills and mountains between the east coast of Australia and the central plains and lowlands. At some places it can be up to 400 km (249 mi) wide. Notable ranges and other features which form part of the range complex have their own distinctive names. As a rule of thumb , rivers east/southeast of the Dividing Range drain directly eastward into the South Pacific and the Tasman Sea , or southward into

3468-661: The late 1830s, the most fertile rangelands adjacent to the mountain ranges had been explored, appropriated from the traditional inhabitants and some settled. These included the Gippsland and Riverina regions in the south, up to the Liverpool Plains and the Darling Downs in the north. Various road and railway routes were subsequently established through many parts of the ranges, although many areas remain remote to this day. For example, in eastern Victoria there

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3536-902: The lee slopes, forming a rain shadow . In the cool season, the Great Dividing Range would shield much of the southeast (i.e. Sydney , Central Coast , Hunter Valley , Illawarra , the ACT , the Monaro and South Coast ) from south-westerly cold fronts that originate from the Southern Ocean , which bring chilling rains, sleet and snow to the upwind side of the ranges, such as on the western Central Tablelands , South West Slopes and Snowy Mountains regions – all which have relatively wetter winters. Upwind locations include Crookwell , Batlow , Tumut , Corryong , Bright , Beechworth , Eildon , Tolmie and those in West Gippsland (namely

3604-430: The leeward and windward side (the former town being more leeward and the latter more windward). Although they receive substantial precipitation from over the crest of the ranges, they lack the persistent cloud cover which characterises truly windward locations on the western face, which are; Cabramurra , Kiandra , Mount Buller , Falls Creek , Mount Hotham , Mount Buffalo and Mount Baw Baw . The Great Dividing Range

3672-439: The measurements made in two photographic images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique, the common points are identified on each image . A line of sight (or ray ) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays ( triangulation ) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of

3740-606: The mistaken idea that the creeks should be followed rather than the ridges, and almost impenetrable, labyrinthine, sandstone mountains. The Blue Mountains actually lie to the east of the watershed that divides the Hawkesbury - Nepean system and the Murray-Darling system , the true Great Dividing Range. The watershed in this area lies to the west of Lithgow , passing near the locality of Mt Lambie and village of Capertee . There, as in some other places in New South Wales,

3808-480: The most applications in environmental sciences , land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses, the most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In geostatistics , land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal. In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce

3876-861: The mountains on either side. Rail passages include: Many of Australia's highways such as the Alpine Way , Great Alpine Road , Snowy Mountains Highway , Hume Highway , Illawarra Highway , Northern Highway , Melba Highway , Maroondah Highway , Midland Highway , Pyrenees Highway , Sunraysia Highway , Monaro Highway , Olympic Highway , Newell Highway , Lachlan Valley Way , Barton Highway , Federal Highway , Kings Highway , Great Western Highway , Mitchell Highway , Mid-Western Highway , Castlereagh Highway , Mulligan Highway , Capricorn Highway , Cunningham Highway , Gore Highway , Flinders Highway , Gregory Highway , Peak Downs Highway , Dawson Highway , New England Highway , Golden Highway , Bruxner Highway , Gwydir Highway , Oxley Highway , Warrego Highway , Summerland Way , Waterfall Way , Thunderbolts Way ,

3944-426: The name "Nightcap" is a corruption of "night camp", as used by the original surveyors of the range and subsequent travellers; beyond Nimbin, further along the old Murwillumbah to Lismore route through the mountains, the small settlement of Coffee Camp retains its original, similarly derived name unaltered. Mount Matheson is named for the Government Surveyor George Matheson who, with his assistant Arthur Gracie, surveyed

4012-525: The point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated algorithms can exploit other information on the scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera). Satellite RADAR mapping is one of the major techniques of generating Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in bathymetric surveys using sonar to determine

4080-475: The position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude . Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about terrain and surface features

4148-399: The term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard. In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as neurology . An objective of topography is to determine

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4216-408: The terrain is relatively flat, consisting of very low hills. Typically the highlands range from 300 to 1,600 metres (980 to 5,250 ft) in height. The mountains and plateaus, which consist of limestones , sandstone , quartzite , schists and dolomite , have been created by faulting and folding processes. The crests of the Great Dividing Range is defined by the watershed boundary between

4284-417: The terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years, LIDAR ( LI ght D etection A nd R anging), a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers. Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector ( triangulated irregular network or TIN) or gridded ( raster image ) mathematical models. In

4352-503: The top of Mount Burrell (with "Sphinx Rock" another geological feature adjacent to the main elevated section); the names "Blue Knob" and "Mount Burrell" are also used for the names of settled areas (districts) at the base of the range. The summit of Mount Nardi is the site for several transmission towers which are used for FM radio, digital television and formerly, analogue TV and fixed wireless broadband internet transmissions, as well as some mobile phone services. The summit can be reached by

4420-403: The towns/cities located on or near the range include: The lower reaches are used for forestry, an activity that causes friction with conservationists. The range is also the source of virtually all of eastern Australia's water supply, both through runoff caught in dams, and throughout much of Queensland, through the Great Artesian Basin . Valleys along the chain of mountains have yielded

4488-413: The track over the Nightcap Range in the early 1870s. Mount Burrell (stated as originally spelled with a single "l") is possibly from the Aboriginal word "burrul", meaning "wallaby", while Mount Nardi (previously considered a portion of Mount Matheson) is named for Terania Shire Councillor Angelo Nardi who served from 1956 to 1961. Great Dividing Range The Great Dividing Range , also known as

4556-432: The upland areas of the range include Canberra , Toowoomba and the outer suburbs of Sydney , Melbourne , Brisbane , Gold Coast and Cairns in north Queensland. Many towns and cities are located on the range, and also in lowland areas and foothills adjacent to the highlands. There is a strong natural history and cultural attachment to the Dividing Range region in towns and on many, sometimes remote, landholdings. Some of

4624-511: Was formed during the Carboniferous period —over 300 million years ago—when Australia collided with what are now parts of South America and New Zealand. The range has experienced significant erosion since. (See Geology of Australia .) For tens of thousands of years prior to British colonisation the ranges were home to various Aboriginal Australian nations and clans. Evidence remains in some places of their traditional way of life including decorated caves, campsites and trails used to travel between

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