The Nikon D780 is a full-frame DSLR camera announced by Nikon on January 6, 2020. It was released for purchase on January 23, 2020. It is the successor to the Nikon D750 and has incorporated a lot of technologies from mirrorless Z6 camera.
87-601: As compared to the previous Nikon D750, this camera body has an upgraded EXPEED 6 processor (the D750 had an EXPEED 4 processor), a BSI CMOS sensor that allows for better low-light performance (the D750 had an ISO range of 100–12,800, where the D780 has a range of 100–51,200), and a faster maximum shutter speed of 1/8000 (as compared to 1/4000 on the D750). For continuous shooting, the D780 can shoot up to 7 frames per second (fps), where
174-421: A peak performance of up to 28 instructions per clock cycle and core. Due to the used four-way single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector processor units, data is processed with up to 112 data operations per cycle and core. An on-chip 32-bit Fujitsu FR RISC microcontroller core is used to initiate and control all processors, modules and interfaces. The Expeed versions designated EI-14x and
261-565: A blackout-free viewing experience. As input/output (I/O) processor Nikon uses external 32-bit microcontrollers to connect additional sensors and displays : Viewfinder , top- display , flash ( Speedlight )/ hot shoe , shutter / aperture motors , metering / autofocus sensors and lens / battery grip / battery control. Used variants are the Fujitsu FR in the Expeed EI-14x series, which changed to MIPS architecture in
348-486: A chip solution integrates an image processor in multi-core processor architecture, with each single processor-core able to compute many instructions/operations in parallel . Storage and display interfaces and other modules are added and a digital signal processor (DSP) increases the number of simultaneous computations. An on-chip 32-bit microcontroller initiates and controls the operation and data transfers of all processors, modules and interfaces and can be seen as
435-680: A different architecture. Or the Nikon D200 processor (EI-126) uses the same, but greatly expanded firmware as the D80 (unofficial "Expeed"). The Expeed processor variant EI-137 is found in the Nikon D40, Nikon D40x and Nikon D80 – as it is officially in the later-released Nikon D60 and Nikon D3000. First used in the Nikon D3 and Nikon D300 in 2007, the Expeed was used later in
522-607: A dual-core ARM microcontroller are the main improvements. Its high speed allows the world's fastest speed (Nikon claim) of 60 frames per second (10 fps with full autofocus ). The Expeed 3A , a successor to the Expeed 3 EI-160 used in the Nikon 1 series, was first released in the Nikon 1 V2 and mainly features an increased world record image-processing speed of up to 850 megapixels per second. This enables 60 frames per second (15 fps with full autofocus ) speed even with
609-494: A form of LPC called adaptive predictive coding (APC), a perceptual coding algorithm that exploited the masking properties of the human ear, followed in the early 1980s with the code-excited linear prediction (CELP) algorithm which achieved a significant compression ratio for its time. Perceptual coding is used by modern audio compression formats such as MP3 and AAC . Discrete cosine transform (DCT), developed by Nasir Ahmed , T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974, provided
696-415: A further refinement of the direct use of probabilistic modelling , statistical estimates can be coupled to an algorithm called arithmetic coding . Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a finite-state machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols. It can achieve superior compression compared to other techniques such as
783-459: A group of programmers called "Nikon Hacker" develops custom firmware , making recent progress including an FR emulator for some DSLRs. It was shown that Nikon uses the Softune integrated development environment together with an μITRON realtime kernel . Currently there is some modified firmware available mainly removing time based video and uncompressed NEF files restrictions, but there
870-597: A lossily compressed file for some purpose usually produces a final result inferior to the creation of the same compressed file from an uncompressed original. In addition to sound editing or mixing, lossless audio compression is often used for archival storage, or as master copies. Lossy audio compression is used in a wide range of applications. In addition to standalone audio-only applications of file playback in MP3 players or computers, digitally compressed audio streams are used in most video DVDs, digital television, streaming media on
957-400: A lossy format and a lossless correction; this allows stripping the correction to easily obtain a lossy file. Such formats include MPEG-4 SLS (Scalable to Lossless), WavPack , and OptimFROG DualStream . When audio files are to be processed, either by further compression or for editing , it is desirable to work from an unchanged original (uncompressed or losslessly compressed). Processing of
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#17327972305881044-702: A low compression (high data rate) and behaves also in other uses like image extraction quite similar to Motion JPEG formerly used by Nikon. The Expeed 3 (FR) (variants EI-158 and EI-175) offers no significant change, but introduced the first DSLRs to offer uncompressed video output (8bit 4:2:2) over HDMI : Nikon D4 , Nikon D800 / D800E , Nikon D600 , Nikon D7100 and Nikon D5200 . The Expeed 3 (ARM) introduced high-speed video ( slow-motion ) in its enhanced H.264 HD video engine. Socionext specifies each Milbeaut generation with different numbers of processors. Nikon gives no details, but uses different designated processors in its professional and consumer lines. Although
1131-402: A representation of digital data that can be decoded to an exact digital duplicate of the original. Compression ratios are around 50–60% of the original size, which is similar to those for generic lossless data compression. Lossless codecs use curve fitting or linear prediction as a basis for estimating the signal. Parameters describing the estimation and the difference between the estimation and
1218-493: A reprogramming: By using Motion JPEG encoding with 24p frame rate, Nikon achieved 720p HD video resolution. The advantages are easy JPEG image extraction, no motion compensation artifacts and low processing power enabling higher resolution, and the disadvantage is a larger file size, nearly reaching the 2 GB limit (for full compatibility) in 5 minutes. The Nikon D90 was the first DSLR with video recording capabilities. The Expeed 2 (variant EI-154) greatly expanded
1305-590: A result, speech can be encoded at high quality using a relatively low bit rate. This is accomplished, in general, by some combination of two approaches: The earliest algorithms used in speech encoding (and audio data compression in general) were the A-law algorithm and the μ-law algorithm . Early audio research was conducted at Bell Labs . There, in 1950, C. Chapin Cutler filed the patent on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM). In 1973, Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM)
1392-418: A special case of data differencing . Data differencing consists of producing a difference given a source and a target, with patching reproducing the target given a source and a difference. Since there is no separate source and target in data compression, one can consider data compression as data differencing with empty source data, the compressed file corresponding to a difference from nothing. This
1479-772: A zip file's compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it without both, but there may be an even smaller combined form. Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include NVIDIA Maxine , AIVC. Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV , TensorFlow , MATLAB 's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression. In unsupervised machine learning , k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression . Data compression aims to reduce
1566-498: Is a dynamic range only at the level of competitors like the (higher priced) Canon EOS 600D ; lower than other Nikon DSLRs with the same Expeed 2 variant. The Expeed EI-15x and EI-17x A/D converters allow an increased image sensor readout clock frequency with improved A/D converter accuracy, especially when using 14-bit sampling. Expeed A/D converters used for EI-149 or all EI-142 need considerably reduced clock rates (1.8 fps on Nikon D3X) for higher accuracy, limiting for example
1653-839: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . EXPEED The Nikon Expeed image / video processors (often styled EXPEED ) are media processors for Nikon's digital cameras . They perform a large number of tasks: Bayer filtering , demosaicing , image sensor corrections/ dark-frame subtraction , image noise reduction , image sharpening , image scaling , gamma correction , image enhancement/Active D-Lighting, colorspace conversion, chroma subsampling , framerate conversion, lens distortion / chromatic aberration correction, image compression / JPEG encoding , video compression , display / video interface driving, digital image editing , face detection , audio processing / compression / encoding and computer data storage / data transmission . Expeed's multi-processor system on
1740-516: Is activated. The Expeed EI-15x are controlled by an integrated FR-80/FR-81 core. Power consumption is also decreased by the Socionext 65 nm process. The Nikon D3s processor – although named Expeed 2 – uses nearly the same EI-142 processor as the previous D3/D3X featuring for example only 720p Motion JPEG video. It offers the same image sensor interface with identical speed and A/D converter accuracy, limiting
1827-476: Is also the first Expeed using digital image sensor readout – no analog image sensor interface is needed. In the Nikon 1 cameras introduced September 2011 it uses 1 GB fast DDR2 RAM packaged in 2x 4 Gbit chips. Nikon marked EI-160, manufactured in the Socionext 65 nm process. High-speed dual multi-core image-processing engines with world record (Nikon claim) 600 megapixels per second speed, enhanced H.264 HD video engine and controlled by
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#17327972305881914-564: Is based on the Socionext Milbeaut imaging processors with 16-bit per pixel multi-core FR-V processor architecture, using a highly parallel pipelined architecture which allows efficient hardware use, increasing throughput and reducing power consumption. Each core uses an eight-way 256-bit very long instruction word (VLIW, MIMD ) and is organized in a four-unit superscalar pipelined architecture ( Integer (ALU) -, Floating-point - and two media-processor-units) giving
2001-547: Is close to the Expeed 2 variant EI-154 with some improvements like DDR3 memory, and with increased computing power. The D5200 uses a package on package with a 4 Gbit DDR3 SDRAM on top. In the Nikon 1 series September 2011 Nikon introduced a new largely changed architecture – the main control unit it uses an ARM microcontroller which requires new firmware compared to the totally different Fujitsu FR microcontroller used in all former Milbeaut and Expeed processors. It
2088-650: Is distinguished as a separate discipline from general-purpose audio compression. Speech coding is used in internet telephony , for example, audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by the audio players. Lossy compression can cause generation loss . The theoretical basis for compression is provided by information theory and, more specifically, Shannon's source coding theorem ; domain-specific theories include algorithmic information theory for lossless compression and rate–distortion theory for lossy compression. These areas of study were essentially created by Claude Shannon , who published fundamental papers on
2175-528: Is highly increased. Marked EI-158, this variant is used by the Nikon D4 and Nikon D800 . The EI-158 was the first Expeed to offer uncompressed video output (8bit 4:2:2) over HDMI. The Nikon D600 (teardown ), Nikon D3200 and Nikon D5200 (teardown ) use an Expeed 3 (EI-175, differently marked ML-1131 on D5200), which is, according to Nikon, the same as used for the D4 and D800 series. Its architecture
2262-570: Is no stable alternative firmware available, as the project is still in an early state. The Nikon supplied firmware-updates normally include the firmware A for the I/O processor and the firmware B to control Expeeds by integrated FR microcontrollers (different for the ARM-based Expeed 3 ). Besides a general analysis of the hardware and software of the D7000, D5100 and D3100 and newer cameras,
2349-411: Is on the order of 23 ms. Speech encoding is an important category of audio data compression. The perceptual models used to estimate what aspects of speech a human ear can hear are generally somewhat different from those used for music. The range of frequencies needed to convey the sounds of a human voice is normally far narrower than that needed for music, and the sound is normally less complex. As
2436-420: Is perceptually irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) to convert time domain sampled waveforms into a transform domain, typically the frequency domain . Once transformed, component frequencies can be prioritized according to how audible they are. Audibility of spectral components is assessed using the absolute threshold of hearing and
2523-426: Is processed. In the minimum case, latency is zero samples (e.g., if the coder/decoder simply reduces the number of bits used to quantize the signal). Time domain algorithms such as LPC also often have low latencies, hence their popularity in speech coding for telephony. In algorithms such as MP3, however, a large number of samples have to be analyzed to implement a psychoacoustic model in the frequency domain, and latency
2610-429: Is reduced, using methods such as coding , quantization , DCT and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to represent the uncompressed data. Lossy audio compression algorithms provide higher compression and are used in numerous audio applications including Vorbis and MP3 . These algorithms almost all rely on psychoacoustics to eliminate or reduce fidelity of less audible sounds, thereby reducing
2697-463: Is referred to as an encoder, and one that performs the reversal of the process (decompression) as a decoder. The process of reducing the size of a data file is often referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission , it is called source coding: encoding is done at the source of the data before it is stored or transmitted. Source coding should not be confused with channel coding , for error detection and correction or line coding ,
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2784-431: Is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Any particular compression is either lossy or lossless . Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy . No information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information. Typically, a device that performs data compression
2871-402: Is the same as considering absolute entropy (corresponding to data compression) as a special case of relative entropy (corresponding to data differencing) with no initial data. The term differential compression is used to emphasize the data differencing connection. Entropy coding originated in the 1940s with the introduction of Shannon–Fano coding , the basis for Huffman coding which
2958-435: Is used in digital cameras , to increase storage capacities. Similarly, DVDs , Blu-ray and streaming video use lossy video coding formats . Lossy compression is extensively used in video. In lossy audio compression, methods of psychoacoustics are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal . Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques; speech coding
3045-685: Is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987. DEFLATE , a lossless compression algorithm specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format. Wavelet compression , the use of wavelets in image compression, began after the development of DCT coding. The JPEG 2000 standard was introduced in 2000. In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms. JPEG 2000 technology, which includes
3132-710: Is used in the Nikon 1 V3 , Nikon 1 J4 and Nikon 1 S2 . Nikon announced EXPEED 5 processor engine in their new DX and FX cameras Nikon D500 and Nikon D5 at CES 2016, (Las Vegas, January 5, 2016) and also used in the Nikon D7500 and D850 . The EXPEED 5A image-processing engine is first seen in the Nikon 1 J5 , which was announced April 2, 2015. In the Nikon 1 J5 it is capable of 4k Ultra HD (3840*2160) at 15 fps, Full-HD (1920*1080) at 60 fps, HD (1280*720) at 120 fps, 800 x 296 at 400 fps and 400 x 144 at 1200 fps. It can handle 20MP burst photos at 20 fps with autofocus at each frame, and even 60 fps with autofocus fixed at
3219-499: The D3s dynamic range at low ISOs. The Expeed 3 (ARM) , first used in the Nikon 1 series , connects a data stream with 24 digital channels (bus) , using A/D converters integrated on the image sensor chip. The first variant, EI-14x originally included a video encoder capable of processing VGA resolution with 30 frames per second and MPEG-4 encoding. The software based video processor realized with FR-V processors enabled
3306-466: The Expeed 2 and 3 additionally include a HD video codec engine (FR-V based) and a 16-bit DSP with separate on-chip 4-block Harvard RAM which is usable for example for additional image- and audio-processing . The Expeed 3 (FR) (EI-158/175) is based on an improved Expeed 2 EI-154 with greatly increased processing speed. A new architecture in the Expeed 3 (ARM) offers a highly increased speed in its image processor (with even two pipelines on
3393-495: The Expeed EI-15x and EI-17x series. The professional series uses two or more Hitachi / Renesas H8SX controllers. Former DSLRs used H8S microcontrollers. The ARM-based Expeed in the Nikon 1 series with its dual ARM core needs no additional I/O processors. The Nikon 1 series also includes an Epson graphic processor . As with CHDK or Magic Lantern modified Canon digital cameras based on DIGIC processors,
3480-630: The Internet , satellite and cable radio, and increasingly in terrestrial radio broadcasts. Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression than lossless compression, by discarding less-critical data based on psychoacoustic optimizations. Psychoacoustics recognizes that not all data in an audio stream can be perceived by the human auditory system . Most lossy compression reduces redundancy by first identifying perceptually irrelevant sounds, that is, sounds that are very hard to hear. Typical examples include high frequencies or sounds that occur at
3567-462: The Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) algorithm rapidly became the method of choice for most general-purpose compression systems. LZW is used in GIF images, programs such as PKZIP , and hardware devices such as modems. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in
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3654-507: The Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004. Audio data compression, not to be confused with dynamic range compression , has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data. Audio compression formats compression algorithms are implemented in software as audio codecs . In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy
3741-706: The Nikon D300 / D300s with 12 simultaneous, parallel analog signal readout channels. Mainly due to a larger settling time it allows improved conversion accuracy compared to the four channels in the previous Nikon D2X / D2Xs, Nikon D200 or the Canon EOS 5D Mark II . six-channel readout is supported by the EI-149 and EI-154 used on the D90, D5000, D7000 and D5100. The D3100 uses an Analog Devices sensor interface with integrated analog-to-digital converters. The result
3828-618: The Nikon D3X , Nikon D700 and Nikon D300s , marked EI-142, and the consumer line variant with reduced processor cores in the Nikon D90 and Nikon D5000 , marked EI-149. It is based on a Socionext Milbeaut imaging-processor with 720p Motion JPEG video encoder, DSP and FR-80 (EI-14x versions) core. It uses a 90 nanometer process technology . The EI-137 variant in the Nikon D60 and Nikon D3000 – additionally found in
3915-490: The Nikon D40 , Nikon D40x and Nikon D80 – is based on the older Milbeaut M-3 in 180 nanometer technology (like all former Expeed/Milbeaut since 2001). It includes a FR-71 core with only 12-bit, two-channel image sensor readout, no DSP, slower memory and has a reduced feature set. 1080p H.264/MPEG-4 HD video encoder, improved face detection , image noise reduction and image distortion correction are
4002-467: The Nikon Z 50II , Nikon Z 6III , Nikon Z 8 , Nikon Z 9 , and Nikon Z f mirrorless cameras. Expeed 7 has 10 times the image processing speed of its predecessor and is powerful enough for the camera to omit a dedicated autofocus engine. It can handle complex AF and AE calculations at 120 cycles per second, separately processes dual-streamed data from stacked image sensors, and enables features like 120 fps still shooting, internal 8k RAW video recording and
4089-582: The Nikon Z 6 . Nikon Z cameras >> PROCESSOR : Pre-EXPEED | EXPEED | EXPEED 2 | EXPEED 3 | EXPEED 4 | EXPEED 5 | EXPEED 6 VIDEO: HD video / Video AF / Uncompressed / 4k video ⋅ SCREEN: Articulating , Touchscreen ⋅ BODY FEATURE: Weather Sealed Without full AF-P lens support ⋅ Without AF-P and without E-type lens support ⋅ Without an AF motor (needs lenses with integrated motor , except D50 ) This camera-related article
4176-476: The University of Buenos Aires . In 1983, using the psychoacoustic principle of the masking of critical bands first published in 1967, he started developing a practical application based on the recently developed IBM PC computer, and the broadcast automation system was launched in 1987 under the name Audicom . 35 years later, almost all the radio stations in the world were using this technology manufactured by
4263-505: The discrete cosine transform (DCT). It was first proposed in 1972 by Nasir Ahmed , who then developed a working algorithm with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973, before introducing it in January 1974. DCT is the most widely used lossy compression method, and is used in multimedia formats for images (such as JPEG and HEIF ), video (such as MPEG , AVC and HEVC) and audio (such as MP3 , AAC and Vorbis ). Lossy image compression
4350-506: The linear predictive coding (LPC) used with speech, are source-based coders. LPC uses a model of the human vocal tract to analyze speech sounds and infer the parameters used by the model to produce them moment to moment. These changing parameters are transmitted or stored and used to drive another model in the decoder which reproduces the sound. Lossy formats are often used for the distribution of streaming audio or interactive communication (such as in cell phone networks). In such applications,
4437-610: The probability distribution of the input data. An early example of the use of arithmetic coding was in an optional (but not widely used) feature of the JPEG image coding standard. It has since been applied in various other designs including H.263 , H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and HEVC for video coding. Archive software typically has the ability to adjust the "dictionary size", where a larger size demands more random-access memory during compression and decompression, but compresses stronger, especially on repeating patterns in files' content. In
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#17327972305884524-698: The D3s dynamic range at 200 and especially 100 ISOs lower as the D7000/D5100. Variant used in some Coolpix compact cameras. Cheaper Nikon compact cameras use Sanyo or Zoran Coach image/video processors; both with a completely different technology and different firmware compared to the Expeed . Compared to the previous Expeed 1 (EI-142), it offers the same improvements as the Expeed 2 EI-154 with Socionext 65 nm process, including increased A/D converter accuracy and image sensor analog signal readout clock rate, reducing rolling shutter. Computing power
4611-524: The D750 was capable of shooting up to 6.5 fps. In "live view" mode, continuous shooting up to 12 fps is possible. While it does not have a built-in flash as the D750 does, nor an AF-assist lamp, it has a standard hot shoe for use with an external flash. With the switch to USB-C , the camera can recharge the EN-EL15b battery internally. The D780 also does not have the facility to add a battery grip with portrait orientation shooting controls. The D780 eschews
4698-746: The EI-160), its H.264 video encoder and is controlled by a dual-core ARM architecture microcontroller replacing the Fujitsu FR. CMOS / CCD image sensors are connected with additional external ICs , Nikon drivers, with the exception of the Nikon D3100 . This is done by a mixed analog / digital interface which controls the sensor digitally, but receives analog signals with parallel 14- bit analog-to-digital (A/D) converters . The Expeed variants EI-142 and EI-158 use Nikon ASICs to connect all full-frame (FX) digital SLR sensors and additionally
4785-468: The Milbeaut ( Expeed ) is used in different Nikon designs and by other manufacturers, the software/ firmware specifies many of its functions and details and the number of processors or included modules may vary in this ASIC . DSLRs announced before August 2006 do not contain processors named Expeed (for example Nikon D70 /D70s processor: EI-118), although that does not mean that these processors use
4872-518: The actual signal are coded separately. A number of lossless audio compression formats exist. See list of lossless codecs for a listing. Some formats are associated with a distinct system, such as Direct Stream Transfer , used in Super Audio CD and Meridian Lossless Packing , used in DVD-Audio , Dolby TrueHD , Blu-ray and HD DVD . Some audio file formats feature a combination of
4959-474: The advantage of higher quality (lower motion blur based on better motion compensation ) even with significant higher compression ratio . This compression requires considerably higher computing power. In 2012 the Canon 5D Mark III introduced a similar compression called "IPB". Also introduced was "All-I", which uses the simpler I‑frames (coded pictures) without processing any differences between them, but using
5046-403: The amount of data required to represent an image at the cost of a relatively small reduction in image quality and has become the most widely used image file format . Its highly efficient DCT-based compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos . Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed in 1984. It
5133-418: The basis for the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) used by modern audio compression formats such as MP3, Dolby Digital , and AAC. MDCT was proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986. The world's first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system was developed by Oscar Bonello, an engineering professor at
5220-487: The better-known Huffman algorithm. It uses an internal memory state to avoid the need to perform a one-to-one mapping of individual input symbols to distinct representations that use an integer number of bits, and it clears out the internal memory only after encoding the entire string of data symbols. Arithmetic coding applies especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the statistics vary and are context-dependent, as it can be easily coupled with an adaptive model of
5307-474: The capabilities by its 1080p H.264/MPEG-4 AVC HD video encoder. It also offers an increased image sensor analog signal readout clock rate, reducing rolling shutter . Compared to competitors from Canon ( DIGIC , "IPP" compression – MPEG-2 equivalent : Only one previous frame analyzed ) the Expeed 2 offers video compression also based on complex B-frames ( bi-directional differencing between frames and motion prediction ), which has
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#17327972305885394-410: The coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is a two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality. In contrast to the speed of compression, which is proportional to the number of operations required by the algorithm, here latency refers to the number of samples that must be analyzed before a block of audio
5481-480: The computational resources or time required to compress and decompress the data. Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information , so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy. For example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels; instead of coding "red pixel, red pixel, ..."
5568-660: The core information of the original data while significantly decreasing the required storage space. Large language models (LLMs) are also capable of lossless data compression, as demonstrated by DeepMind 's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. Data compression can be viewed as
5655-467: The data in question. For example, the human eye is more sensitive to subtle variations in luminance than it is to the variations in color. JPEG image compression works in part by rounding off nonessential bits of information. A number of popular compression formats exploit these perceptual differences, including psychoacoustics for sound, and psychovisuals for images and video. Most forms of lossy compression are based on transform coding , especially
5742-439: The data may be encoded as "279 red pixels". This is a basic example of run-length encoding ; there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage. DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. In the mid-1980s, following work by Terry Welch ,
5829-462: The data must be decompressed as the data flows, rather than after the entire data stream has been transmitted. Not all audio codecs can be used for streaming applications. Latency is introduced by the methods used to encode and decode the data. Some codecs will analyze a longer segment, called a frame , of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time to decode. The inherent latency of
5916-478: The features of the Expeed 3 (FR) and older versions of Expeed, plus it consumes less power. The Nikon D4S 's processor is identical to the Nikon D4, marked EI-158, using its processing power with improved software enabling 1080p video capture at 50/60fps, 11 fps photos with improved autofocus, new noise reduction with image-content variable algorithm (context-adaptive) and other improvements. Version 4A
6003-469: The file size is reduced to 5-20% of the original size and a megabyte can store about a minute's worth of music at adequate quality. Several proprietary lossy compression algorithms have been developed that provide higher quality audio performance by using a combination of lossless and lossy algorithms with adaptive bit rates and lower compression ratios. Examples include aptX , LDAC , LHDC , MQA and SCL6 . To determine what information in an audio signal
6090-447: The first frame, but note that the buffer size is yet unknown and probably very small. Nikon announced the Expeed 6 processor engine on 23 August 2018. It appears in their Nikon Z 7 , Nikon Z 6 , Nikon Z 5 , Nikon Z 50 , Nikon Z 30 , Nikon Z fc , Nikon D780 and Nikon D6 cameras. The Nikon Z 6II and Nikon Z 7II each have two Expeed 6 processors. Nikon announced the Expeed 7 processor engine on 28 October 2021. It appears in
6177-693: The input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded . Grammar-based codes like this can compress highly repetitive input extremely effectively, for instance, a biological data collection of the same or closely related species, a huge versioned document collection, internet archival, etc. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string. Other practical grammar compression algorithms include Sequitur and Re-Pair . The strongest modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching . The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as an indirect form of statistical modelling. In
6264-455: The late 1980s, digital images became more common, and standards for lossless image compression emerged. In the early 1990s, lossy compression methods began to be widely used. In these schemes, some loss of information is accepted as dropping nonessential detail can save storage space. There is a corresponding trade-off between preserving information and reducing size. Lossy data compression schemes are designed by research on how people perceive
6351-509: The main control unit of the camera. In each generation Nikon uses different versions for its professional and consumer DSLRs / MILCs , whereas its compact cameras use totally different architectures. This is different from for example Canons DIGIC : its professional DSLRs double the processors of its consumer DSLR series. The Expeed is an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) built by Socionext specifically for Nikon designs according to Nikon specifications. The Nikon Expeed
6438-500: The main improved features compared to EI-14x Expeeds . Used in the Nikon D7000 , Nikon D3100 and Nikon D5100 and Nikon marked EI-154. Although image sensor readout clock frequency has increased by a factor of 1.75, A/D converter accuracy is improved, especially when using 14-bit. Image processor performance is increased, performing a higher continuous shooting frame rate even when high ISO noise reduction or Active D-Lighting
6525-479: The means for mapping data onto a signal. Data Compression algorithms present a space-time complexity trade-off between the bytes needed to store or transmit information, and the Computational resources needed to perform the encoding and decoding. The design of data compression schemes involves balancing the degree of compression, the amount of distortion introduced (when using lossy data compression ), and
6612-508: The new 14 megapixel image sensor. It is developed exclusively for Nikon 1 cameras. Expeed 4 uses a processor with ARM central controller , and is used in the Nikon D810 , Nikon D750 , Nikon D5300 , Nikon D5500 , Nikon D5600 , Nikon D3300 , Nikon D3400 , Nikon D3500 and Nikon D7200 . It offers full HD (1080p) video capture at 50/60 fps with improved contrast detection autofocus and live preview autofocus. It includes all of
6699-568: The newer XQD card format used by most recent Nikon camera releases in favour of SD cards , of which it can accept two. DPReview calls the D780 "a DSLR that's learned a lot from mirrorless". They go on to note differences between the D750 and D780, finishing with the observation that those invested in Nikon F-mount lenses should consider this body if it meets their needs. Those not already invested in F-mount lenses should instead consider
6786-473: The principles of simultaneous masking —the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency—and, in some cases, temporal masking —where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time. Equal-loudness contours may also be used to weigh the perceptual importance of components. Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called psychoacoustic models . Other types of lossy compressors, such as
6873-1647: The project focuses on: The changelog shows firmware also for newer variants like D800, D610, D5200 and D3200. This was not a firmware hack, but a method (Photopc – digital camera control ) calling an already implemented diagnostic mode on some old Nikon Coolpix cameras with Fujitsu Sparclite processors. Using this mode, they could write raw images . Nikon Z cameras >> PROCESSOR : Pre-EXPEED | EXPEED | EXPEED 2 | EXPEED 3 | EXPEED 4 | EXPEED 5 | EXPEED 6 VIDEO: HD video / Video AF / Uncompressed / 4k video ⋅ SCREEN: Articulating , Touchscreen ⋅ BODY FEATURE: Weather Sealed Without full AF-P lens support ⋅ Without AF-P and without E-type lens support ⋅ Without an AF motor (needs lenses with integrated motor , except D50 ) << Nikon DSLR cameras << Nikon 1 cameras PROCESSOR : EXPEED 6 | Dual EXPEED 6 | EXPEED 7 VIDEO: Slow-motion video , 4K video , 6K video , 8K video SCREEN: Articulating , Touchscreen BODY FEATURE: In-Body Image Stabilization , Weather Sealed Nikon Z cameras >> PROCESSOR : EXPEED 3 | EXPEED 4 | EXPEED 5 VIDEO: HD video / Video AF / Uncompressed / 4k video ⋅ SCREEN: Articulating , Touchscreen ⋅ BODY FEATURE: In-Body Image Stabilization , Weather Sealed Audio compression (data)#Audio In information theory , data compression , source coding , or bit-rate reduction
6960-488: The same time as louder sounds. Those irrelevant sounds are coded with decreased accuracy or not at all. Due to the nature of lossy algorithms, audio quality suffers a digital generation loss when a file is decompressed and recompressed. This makes lossy compression unsuitable for storing the intermediate results in professional audio engineering applications, such as sound editing and multitrack recording. However, lossy formats such as MP3 are very popular with end-users as
7047-546: The size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to partition a dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly beneficial in image and signal processing , k-means clustering aids in data reduction by replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving
7134-595: The space required to store or transmit them. The acceptable trade-off between loss of audio quality and transmission or storage size depends upon the application. For example, one 640 MB compact disc (CD) holds approximately one hour of uncompressed high fidelity music, less than 2 hours of music compressed losslessly, or 7 hours of music compressed in the MP3 format at a medium bit rate . A digital sound recorder can typically store around 200 hours of clearly intelligible speech in 640 MB. Lossless audio compression produces
7221-511: The symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general intelligence". An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature space vectors , and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature spaces. For each compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input string x, corresponding to
7308-478: The topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Other topics associated with compression include coding theory and statistical inference . There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by finding
7395-509: The vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM. According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize , the best possible compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model,
7482-609: Was developed in 1950. Transform coding dates back to the late 1960s, with the introduction of fast Fourier transform (FFT) coding in 1968 and the Hadamard transform in 1969. An important image compression technique is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a technique developed in the early 1970s. DCT is the basis for JPEG, a lossy compression format which was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) in 1992. JPEG greatly reduces
7569-425: Was introduced by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan . Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression, with linear predictive coding (LPC). Initial concepts for LPC date back to the work of Fumitada Itakura ( Nagoya University ) and Shuzo Saito ( Nippon Telegraph and Telephone ) in 1966. During the 1970s, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs developed
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