Misplaced Pages

#14985

95-642: The Nikon NASA F4 Electronic Still Camera is one of the first and rarest fully digital cameras with development started in 1987. While Nikon delivered a modified Nikon F4 body, most of the electronics for the digital camera and housings were designed and manufactured by NASA at the Johnson Space Center and other suppliers. It was first flown in September 1991 on board the Space Shuttle Discovery , mission STS-48 . Later

190-403: A Bayer filter mosaic, or three separate image sensors (one each for the primary additive colors red, green, and blue) which are exposed to the same image via a beam splitter (see Three-CCD camera ). Multi-shot exposes the sensor to the image in a sequence of three or more openings of the lens aperture . There are several methods of application of the multi-shot technique. The most common

285-599: A lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit a controlled amount of light to the image, just as with film, but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory . Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound . Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other kinds of image editing . The first semiconductor image sensor

380-552: A multiplicative factor of increased light sensitivity. This multiplicative factor was determined by the constraint that an increment of 19° Sch. (from 1° to 20° Sch.) corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity. Thus emulsions that differed by 1° Sch. on the Scheiner scale were 100 19 = 1.2742... {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{19}]{100}}=1.2742...} -fold more (or, less) sensitive to each other. An increment of 3° Sch. came close to

475-413: A Bayer filter on the chip. The third method is called scanning because the sensor moves across the focal plane much like the sensor of an image scanner . The linear or tri-linear sensors in scanning cameras utilize only a single line of photosensors, or three lines for the three colors. Scanning may be accomplished by moving the sensor (for example, when using color co-site sampling ) or by rotating

570-484: A considerable depth up to 100 feet (30 m); others only 10 feet (3 m), but only a few will float. Ruggeds often lack some of the features of ordinary compact camera, but they have video capability and the majority can record sound. Most have image stabilization and built-in flash. Touchscreen LCD and GPS do not work underwater. GoPro and other brands offer action cameras that are rugged, small, and can be easily attached to helmets , arms, bicycles, etc. Most have

665-429: A digital camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into discrete signals. The brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is read for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used, which requires demosaicing to recreate a full-color image . The number of pixels in the sensor determines the camera's " pixel count ". In

760-946: A doubling of sensitivity ( 100 19 ) 3 = 2.06914... {\displaystyle ({\sqrt[{19}]{100}})^{3}=2.06914...} . The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944) and Flemish-born botanist Walter Hecht  [ de ] (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer measuring emulsion speeds in Eder–Hecht grades). It remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated

855-588: A frame of 35 mm film. Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs using active pixel sensors include 1.3x for some Canon (APS-H) sensors, 1.5x for Sony APS-C sensors used by Nikon, Pentax and Konica Minolta and for Fujifilm sensors, 1.6 (APS-C) for most Canon sensors, ~1.7x for Sigma 's Foveon sensors and 2x for Kodak and Panasonic 4/3-inch sensors currently used by Olympus and Panasonic. Crop factors for non-SLR consumer compact and bridge cameras are larger, frequently 4x or more. The resolution of

950-403: A full array of RGB image data. Cameras that use a beam-splitter single-shot 3CCD approach, three-filter multi-shot approach, color co-site sampling or Foveon X3 sensor do not use anti-aliasing filters, nor demosaicing. Firmware in the camera, or a software in a raw converter program such as Adobe Camera Raw , interprets the raw data from the sensor to obtain a full-color image, because

1045-476: A given film, a light meter is typically used. Five criteria for the rating of emulsion speed have been used since the late 19th century, listed here by name and date, these criteria are: threshold (1880), inertia (1890), fixed density (1934), minimum useful gradient (1939) and fractional gradient (1939). The threshold criterion is the point on the characteristic curve corresponding to just perceptible density above fog. The inertia speed point of an emulsion

SECTION 10

#1732786664015

1140-484: A larger sensor including, at the high end, a pricey full-frame sensor compact camera, such as Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1 , but have capability near that of a DSLR. A variety of additional features are available depending on the model of the camera. Such features include GPS , compass, barometers and altimeters . Starting in 2010, some compact digital cameras can take 3D still photos. These 3D compact stereo cameras can capture 3D panoramic photos with dual lens or even

1235-434: A major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to

1330-401: A much higher cost. Autofocus systems in compact digital cameras generally are based on a contrast-detection methodology using the image data from the live preview feed of the main imager. Some compact digital cameras use a hybrid autofocus system similar to what is commonly available on DSLRs. Typically, compact digital cameras incorporate a nearly silent leaf shutter into the lens but play

1425-488: A photo affects the quality of the image, as high ISO settings equate to an image that is less sharp due to the increased amount of noise allowed into the image, along with too little noise, which can also produce an image that is not sharp. Since the first digital backs were introduced, there have been three main methods of capturing the image, each based on the hardware configuration of the sensor and color filters. Single-shot capture systems use either one sensor chip with

1520-576: A prototype which was first presented at photokina 1986 . The follower Nikon QV-1000C Still Video Camera was produced since 1988 mainly for professional press use. Both cameras used QV mount lenses, a variant of Nikon F-mount lenses. Via an adapter (QM-100) other F-mount lenses can be fitted. The NASA Electronic Still Camera / Nikon NASA F4 was followed by the NASA-used Nikon-based Kodak DCS 460 , DCS 660 and DCS 760 , Nikon D1 , D2X , D2Xs , D3 , D3X , D3S , D4 and

1615-416: A retractable lens assembly that provides optical zoom. In most models, an auto-actuating lens cover protects the lens from elements. Most ruggedized or water-resistant models do not retract, and most with superzoom capability do not retract fully. Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use . Almost all include an automatic mode, or "auto mode", which automatically makes all camera settings for

1710-399: A second by the late 19th century. In both film and digital photography, the use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise ). Generally, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor. To determine the exposure time needed for

1805-407: A simulated camera sound for skeuomorphic purposes. For low cost and small size, these cameras typically use image sensor formats with a diagonal between 6 and 11 mm, corresponding to a crop factor between 7 and 4. This gives them weaker low-light performance, greater depth of field , generally closer focusing ability, and smaller components than cameras using larger sensors. Some cameras use

1900-548: A single lens for playback on a 3D TV . In 2013, Sony released two add-on camera models without display, to be used with a smartphone or tablet, controlled by a mobile application via WiFi. Rugged compact cameras typically include protection against submersion, hot and cold conditions, shock, and pressure. Terms used to describe such properties include waterproof, freeze-proof, heatproof, shockproof, and crushproof, respectively. Nearly all major camera manufacturers have at least one product in this category. Some are waterproof to

1995-407: A smaller sensor is used, as in most digicams, the field of view is cropped by the sensor to smaller than the 35 mm full-frame format's field of view. This narrowing of the field of view may be described as crop factor, a factor by which a longer focal length lens would be needed to get the same field of view on a 35 mm film camera. Full-frame digital SLRs utilize a sensor of the same size as

SECTION 20

#1732786664015

2090-750: A standardized method of sensitometry put forward by the Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung since 1930 and presented by Robert Luther  [ de ] (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie ) held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931. The DIN system

2185-443: A typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. Pixels are square and is often equal to 1 , for example, a 1,000 by 1,000-pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, or 1 megapixel . On full-frame sensors (i.e., 24 mm 36 mm), some cameras propose images with 20–25 million pixels that were captured by 7.5–m photosites , or a surface that is 50 times larger.   Digital cameras come in

2280-590: A wide angle and fixed focus and can take still pictures and video, typically with sound. The 360-degree camera can take picture or video 360 degrees using two lenses back-to-back and shooting at the same time. Some of the cameras are Ricoh Theta S, Nikon Keymission 360 and Samsung Gear 360. Nico360 was launched in 2016 and claimed as the world's smallest 360-degree camera with size 46 x 46 x 28 mm (1.8 x 1.8 x 1.1 in) and price less than $ 200. With virtual reality mode built-in stitching, Wifi, and Bluetooth, live streaming can be done. Due to it also being water resistant,

2375-442: A wide range of sizes, prices, and capabilities. In addition to general-purpose digital cameras, specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and astrographs are used for scientific, military, medical, and other special purposes. Compact cameras are intended to be portable (pocketable) and are particularly suitable for casual " snapshots ". Point-and-shoot cameras usually fall under this category. Many incorporate

2470-480: Is a factor of multiple systems throughout the DSLR camera by its ISO , resolution, lens, and the lens settings, the environment of the image, and its post-processing. Images have a possibility of being too sharp, but they can never be too in focus. A digital camera resolution is determined by a digital sensor. The digital sensor indicates a high level of sharpness can be produced through the amount of noise and grain that

2565-436: Is almost always used to frame the photo on an integrated LCD. In addition to being able to take still photographs almost all compact cameras have the ability to record video . Compacts often have macro capability and zoom lenses , but the zoom range (up to 30x) is generally enough for candid photography but less than is available on bridge cameras (more than 60x), or the interchangeable lenses of DSLR cameras available at

2660-673: Is described in ISO ;12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019). The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale . The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In

2755-457: Is determined on the Hurter and Driffield characteristic curve by the intercept between the gradient of the straight line part of the curve and the line representing the base + fog (B+F) on the density axis. The fixed density speed point is determined by defining a fixed minimum density as the basis the emulsion speed (e.g. 0.1 above B+F). The minimum useful gradient criterion places

2850-630: Is the measure of a photographic film 's sensitivity to light , determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales , the most recent being the ISO system introduced in 1974. A closely related system, also known as ISO, is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras. Prior to ISO, the most common systems were ASA in the United States and DIN in Europe. The term speed comes from

2945-421: Is tolerated through the lens of the camera. Resolution within the field of digital stills and digital movies is indicated through the camera's ability to determine detail based on the distance, which is then measured by frame size, pixel type, number, and organization. Although some DSLR cameras have limited resolutions, it is almost impossible to not have the proper sharpness for an image. The ISO choice when taking

Nikon NASA F4 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3040-570: The D800E . The Nikon F-mount is the only 35mm SLR or DSLR lens mount ever used by NASA. The camera was based on a modified F4 with standard F-mount and had a digital camera back with a monochrome CCD image sensor with 1024 x 1024 pixels on an area of 15 x 15mm developed by Ford Aerospace. ISO 200 was the only light sensitivity, without infrared filter ISO 400. Removable IDE hard-disks were used for digital storage of 40 images each with 8 bits per pixel. The camera's imaging sensor interface

3135-512: The DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years. In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in

3230-589: The General Electric Photo Data Book . General Electric switched to use the ASA scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 are equipped with the ASA scale (labeled "Exposure Index") already. For some of the older meters with scales in "Film Speed" or "Film Value" (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from

3325-561: The ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system. GOST (Cyrillic: ГОСТ ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST ;2817-45 and GOST 2817–50. It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: ХиД) numbers, which had been used since 1928. GOST 2817-50

3420-504: The Landsat 1 satellite's multispectral scanner (MSS) started taking digital images of Earth. The MSS, designed by Virginia Norwood at Hughes Aircraft Company starting in 1969, captured and transmitted image data from green, red, and two infrared bands with 6 bits per channel, using a mechanical rocking mirror and an array of 24 detectors. Operating for six years, it transmitted more than 300,000 digital photographs of Earth while orbiting

3515-548: The RGB color model requires three intensity values for each pixel: one each for the red, green, and blue (other color models, when used, also require three or more values per pixel). A single sensor element cannot simultaneously record these three intensities, so a color filter array (CFA) must be used to selectively filter a particular color for each pixel. The Bayer filter pattern is a repeating 2x2 mosaic pattern of light filters, with green ones at opposite corners and red and blue in

3610-622: The fractional gradient criterion of the American 1943 standard, and also included arithmetic speed numbers in addition to logarithmic numbers. The logarithmic speed number proposed in the later BS 1380:1957 standard was almost identical to the DIN ;4512:1957 standard, except that the BS number was +9 degrees greater than the corresponding DIN number; in 1971, the BS and DIN standards changed this to +10 degrees. Following an increasing effort to produce international standards,

3705-410: The image sensor that turns light into discrete signals. The brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is read for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used, which requires demosaicing to recreate a full-color image . The number of pixels in the sensor determines the camera's " pixel count ". In a typical sensor,

3800-536: The "Still Video Floppy", or "SVF". The Canon RC-701, introduced in May 1986, was the first SVF camera (and the first electronic SLR camera) sold in the US. It employed an SLR viewfinder, included a 2/3" format color CCD sensor with 380K pixels, and was sold along with a removable 11-66mm and 50-150mm zoom lens.   Over the next few years, many other companies began selling SVF cameras. These analog electronic cameras included

3895-494: The ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values. Prior to

Nikon NASA F4 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3990-605: The British, American, and German standards became identical in ISO 6:1974, which corresponded to BS 1380:Part1:1973. Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of Weston film speed ratings was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation , with

4085-897: The CCD image sensor. Developed upgrades included a 2048 x 2048 CCD sensor, a color CCD and architecture changes, but finally the Kodak DCS 460 was preferred. Nikon Z cameras >> PROCESSOR : Pre-EXPEED | EXPEED | EXPEED 2 | EXPEED 3 | EXPEED 4 | EXPEED 5 | EXPEED 6 VIDEO: HD video / Video AF / Uncompressed / 4k video   ⋅   SCREEN: Articulating , Touchscreen   ⋅   BODY FEATURE: Weather Sealed Without full AF-P lens support   ⋅   Without AF-P and without E-type lens support   ⋅   Without an AF motor (needs lenses with integrated motor , except D50 ) Digital camera Digital and digital movie cameras share an optical system, typically using

4180-646: The FUJIX DS-X, the first fully digital camera to be commercially released. In 1996, Toshiba 's 40 MB flash memory card was adopted for several digital cameras. The first commercial camera phone was the Kyocera Visual Phone VP-210, released in Japan in May 1999. It was called a "mobile videophone" at the time, and had a 110,000- pixel front-facing camera . It stored up to 20 JPEG digital images , which could be sent over e-mail, or

4275-763: The German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002. When BS  935:1941

4370-724: The ISO standards since 1974. The current International Standard for measuring the speed of color negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and color reversal film, respectively. The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras

4465-490: The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was thinking about how to use a mosaic photosensor to capture digital images. His idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts' position. As with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcock's filmless camera (US patent 4,057,830) in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. In 1972,

4560-468: The Nico360 can be used as action camera. There are tend that action cameras have capabilities to shoot 360 degrees with at least 4K resolution. Bridge cameras physically resemble DSLRs, and are sometimes called DSLR-shape or DSLR-like. They provide some similar features but, like compacts, they use a fixed lens and a small sensor. Some compact cameras have also PSAM mode. Most use live preview to frame

4655-615: The Nikon QV-1000C, which had an SLR viewfinder and a 2/3" format monochrome CCD sensor with 380K pixels and recorded analog black-and-white images on a Still Video Floppy. At Photokina 1988, Fujifilm introduced the FUJIX DS-1P, the first fully digital camera, which recorded digital images using a semiconductor memory card . The camera's memory card had a capacity of 2 MB of SRAM (static random-access memory) and could hold up to ten photographs. In 1989, Fujifilm released

4750-598: The Playback- Downlink Unit (PDU) and the kit also included the HERCULES Attitude Processor (HAP, a gyroscope based geolocation processor with initialization through star alignment shot with Nikon NASA F4 and additionally GPS data, giving up to 0.005 degrees per hour precision), Electronic Still Camera (ESC) Electronics Box (ESCEB) including removable imagery data storage disks, NRL HERCULES Inertial Measurement Unit (HIMU) with

4845-660: The Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr. , who worked for them and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering. The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufacturers and third parties in their exposure guidelines. Since manufacturers were sometimes creative about film speeds,

SECTION 50

#1732786664015

4940-416: The beginning of the 21st century made single-shot cameras almost completely dominant, even in high-end commercial photography. Most current consumer digital cameras use a Bayer filter mosaic in combination with an optical anti-aliasing filter to reduce the aliasing due to the reduced sampling of the different primary-color images. A demosaicing algorithm is used to interpolate color information to create

5035-453: The camera used a silicon diode vidicon tube detector, which was cooled using dry ice to reduce dark current, allowing exposure times of up to one hour.    The Cromemco Cyclops was an all-digital camera introduced as a commercial product in 1975. Its design was published as a hobbyist construction project in the February 1975 issue of Popular Electronics magazine. It used a 32×32 metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) image sensor, which

5130-463: The cameras were flown on several other Shuttle missions including STS-44 , 45 , 42 , 49 , 53 , 56 and 61 . Although the camera was often used alone mounted with its Electronics Box, the HERCULES system was built around it: Hand-held Earth-oriented Real-time Cooperative, User-friendly, Location, targeting, and Environmental System. It includes one of the first laptops in space mounted atop

5225-413: The company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their "Weston film ratings" booklets. The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established ASA scale instead. Other models used

5320-699: The definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as "18° DIN" would now be labeled as "21 DIN" without emulsion changes. Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film. On an international level

5415-501: The early days of photography. Photographic emulsions that were more sensitive to light needed less time to generate an acceptable image and thus a complete exposure could be finished faster, with the subjects having to hold still for a shorter length of time. Emulsions that were less sensitive were deemed "slower" as the time to complete an exposure was much longer and often usable only for still life photography . Exposure times for photographic emulsions shortened from hours to fractions of

5510-410: The establishment of the ASA scale and similar to Weston film speed ratings another manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, General Electric , developed its own rating system of so-called General Electric film values (often abbreviated as G-E or GE ) around 1937. Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated General Electric Film Values leaflets and in

5605-555: The form of the APEX speed value S v (without degree symbol) as well. ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5–1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993. The standard for color negative film

5700-617: The idea of comparability. Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time. The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by the Deutsches Institut für Normung (then known as the Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA)), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for

5795-506: The image. Their usual autofocus is by the same contrast-detect mechanism as compacts, but many bridge cameras have a manual focus mode and some have a separate focus ring for greater control. The big physical size and small sensor allow superzoom and wide aperture. Bridge cameras generally include an image stabilization system to enable longer handheld exposures, sometimes better than DSLR for low light conditions. Film speed#Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index Film speed

SECTION 60

#1732786664015

5890-637: The images were processed at Johnson Space Center's Pixar Image Computer and laser printed. Three copies of the NASA Electronic Still Camera were produced. The original development team included NASA Civil Servant electronic and mechanical design and fabrication, Lockheed development of the Electronic Still Camera ground station, Nikon Engineering supplying in total 14 modified Nikon F4 camera bodies also for prototypes, and Ford Aerospace and JPL development of

5985-449: The logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°. Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, "ISO 100" denotes "ISO 100/21°", while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as "ISO 21°" as per

6080-580: The manufacturer. The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were then aligned to the ASA scale. Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884–1954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings and General Electric film values , the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1–1943

6175-412: The number of remaining photos in free space, postponing the exhaustion of space storage, which is of use where no further data storage device is available and for captures of lower significance, where the benefit from less space storage consumption outweighs the disadvantage from reduced detail. An image's sharpness is presented through the crisp detail, defined lines, and its depicted contrast. Sharpness

6270-479: The original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955, but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston's recommendation. Vice versa, "old" Weston film speed ratings could be converted into "new" Westons and

6365-513: The other two positions. The high proportion of green takes advantage of the properties of the human visual system, which determines brightness mostly from green and is far more sensitive to brightness than to hue or saturation. Sometimes a 4-color filter pattern is used, often involving two different hues of green. This provides potentially more accurate color, but requires a slightly more complicated interpolation process. The color intensity values not captured for each pixel can be interpolated from

6460-513: The phone could send up to two images per second over Japan's Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) cellular network . The Samsung SCH-V200, released in South Korea in June 2000, was also one of the first phones with a built-in camera. It had a TFT liquid-crystal display (LCD) and stored up to 20 digital photos at 350,000-pixel resolution. However, it could not send the resulting image over

6555-452: The photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at

6650-435: The pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000-pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, or 1 megapixel . Firmwares' resolution selector allows the user to optionally lower the resolution to reduce the file size per picture and extend lossless digital zooming . The bottom resolution option is typically 640×480 pixels (0.3 megapixels). A lower resolution extends

6745-403: The pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier. Compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS (BSI-CMOS) sensor. The image processing capabilities of the camera determine the outcome of the final image quality much more than the sensor type. The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by

6840-444: The planet about 14 times per day. Also in 1972, Thomas McCord from MIT and James Westphal from Caltech together developed a digital camera for use with telescopes . Their 1972 "photometer-digitizer system " used an analog-to-digital converter and a digital frame memory to store 256 x 256-pixel images of planets and stars, which were then recorded on digital magnetic tape.  CCD sensors were not yet commercially available, and

6935-530: The sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848–1915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D. The methods to determine

7030-405: The sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as "18° DIN". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in

7125-413: The sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called "H&D 10". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST  2817–50. The Scheinergrade (Sch.) system

7220-423: The speed point where the gradient first reaches an agreed value (e.g. tan 𝜃 = 0.2). The fractional gradient is defined as the speed point at which the slope of the characteristic curve first reaches a fixed fraction (e.g. 0.3) of the average gradient over a range (e.g. 1.5) of the characteristic curve. The first known practical sensitometer , which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials,

7315-578: The telephone function but required a computer connection to access photos. The first mass-market camera phone was the J-SH04 , a Sharp J-Phone model sold in Japan in November 2000. It could instantly transmit pictures via cell phone telecommunication. By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera, and by the early 2010s, almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera. The two major types of digital image sensors are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all

7410-540: The three-axis Honeywell ring laser gyroscope , DA-20 action finder, a night vision image intensifier as well as assorted lenses and cables. It was flown on the STS-53 and 56 missions and was succeeded by the HERCULES-B. Nikon has been a supplier of space (EVA) capable cameras for NASA since 1971, when they delivered a modified Nikon F SLR Photomic FTn camera with center-weighted TTL metering system, which

7505-440: The time. His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system. Another early practical system for measuring

7600-418: The user. Some also have manual controls. Compact digital cameras typically contain a small sensor that trades-off picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. A few high-end compact digital cameras have a hotshoe for connecting to an external flash. Live preview

7695-421: The values of adjacent pixels which represent the color being calculated. Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35 mm film size have a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length . This is because the angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used. The crop factor is relative to the 35mm film format . If

7790-636: The whole camera. A digital rotating line camera offers images consisting of a total resolution that is very high. The choice of method for a given capture is determined largely by the subject matter. It is usually inappropriate to attempt to capture a subject that moves with anything but a single-shot system. However, the higher color fidelity and larger file sizes and resolutions that are available with multi-shot and scanning backs make them more attractive for commercial photographers who are working with stationary subjects and large-format photographs. Improvements in single-shot cameras and image file processing at

7885-436: Was a modified MOS dynamic RAM ( DRAM ) memory chip . Steven Sasson , an engineer at Eastman Kodak , built a self-contained electronic camera that used a monochrome Fairchild CCD image sensor in 1975. Around the same time, Fujifilm began developing CCD technology in the 1970s. Early uses were mainly military and scientific, followed by medical and news applications. The first filmless SLR (single lens reflex) camera

7980-501: Was based on an Altera Stand Alone Microsequencer and employed a 1 image SRAM storage buffer. The removable hard drive, RS-232 interface, LCD display, Ku-Band downlink interface and remaining camera control were accomplished with a Wildcard 88 ( Intel 80C88 8 MHz CPU ) single-board computer . Images were transmitted to the ground via the Orbiter Ku-Band digital downlink at a rate of 2 Mbit/s. Within 1 hour

8075-470: Was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° to 20° Sch., with each increment of a degree corresponding to

8170-726: Was first used on the Apollo 15 mission. In 1973, a newer modified version of the Nikon F with a motor drive was delivered for use in Skylab . In 1980 and 1989, Nikon delivered modified, space capable F3 (big and small version) respectively F4 cameras to NASA, which were used in the Space Shuttle . Nikon's first digital camera ( still video camera , with analog storage) was the Nikon Still Video Camera (SVC) Model 1,

8265-434: Was inspired by Scheiner 's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels . Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19° as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...): As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally

8360-463: Was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979, and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27–1988 prior to its withdrawal. Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard. On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by

8455-654: Was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke  – pseudonym of Władysław Małachowski (1837–1900) – in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882. It was commercialized since 1881. The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with

8550-453: Was originally to use a single image sensor with three filters passed in front of the sensor in sequence to obtain the additive color information. Another multiple-shot method is called microscanning . This method uses a single sensor chip with a Bayer filter and physically moves the sensor on the focus plane of the lens to construct a higher resolution image than the native resolution of the chip. A third version combines these two methods without

8645-415: Was publicly demonstrated by Sony in August 1981. The Sony "Mavica" (magnetic still video camera ) used a color-striped 2/3" format CCD sensor with 280K pixels, along with analogue video signal processing and recording. The Mavica electronic still camera recorded FM-modulated analog video signals on a newly developed 2" magnetic floppy disk, dubbed the "Mavipak". The disk format was later standardized as

8740-652: Was published during World War II , specifying exposure tables for negative materials, it employed the same fixed-density speed criterion used in the German DIN  4512:1934 system. The British Standard also used logarithmic speed numbers, following the example of Scheiner and DIN. When the American ASA ;Z38.2.1:1943 standard was published, it used a fractional gradient speed criterion and arithmetic speed numbers, for compatibility with Weston and GE . British standard BS 1380:1947 adopted

8835-403: Was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as American standard speed numbers or ASA exposure-index numbers . (See also: Exposure Index (EI).) The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA. The ASA standard underwent

8930-626: Was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1. GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters , etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture. On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the ISO scale with GOST 10691–84, This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6–88 and GOST 10691.5–88, which both became functional on 1 January 1991. The ASA and DIN film speed standards have been combined into

9025-559: Was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969, based on MOS capacitor technology. The NMOS active-pixel sensor was later invented by Tsutomu Nakamura 's team at Olympus in 1985, which led to the development of the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1993. In the 1960s, Eugene F. Lally of

#14985