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181-576: Leskov received his formal education at the Oryol Lyceum . In 1847 Leskov joined the Oryol criminal court office, later transferring to Kiev , where he worked as a clerk, attended university lectures, mixed with local people, and took part in various student circles. In 1857 Leskov quit his job as a clerk and went to work for the private trading company Scott & Wilkins owned by Alexander Scott, his aunt's Scottish husband. His literary career began in

362-436: A temperate bacteriophage called CTXφ . Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the V. cholerae bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the intestinal wall. Of particular interest have been

543-436: A bunch of crooks and scoundrels; nihilists and officials. Soboryane , published by The Russian Messenger in 1872, had for its major theme the intrinsic, unbridgeable gap between the "down to earth", Christianity of the people and the official, state-sponsored corrupt version; it riled both the state and church authorities, was widely debated and had great resonance. In the summer of 1872 Leskov travelled to Karelia and visited

724-696: A comprehensive book of memoirs (which had its own dramatic story: destroyed in the 1942 Siege of Leningrad by a bomb, it was reconstructed from scratch by the 80-plus year old author after the War, and finished in 1948). It was first published by Goslitizdat in Moscow (1954); in 1981 it was re-issued in two volumes by Prioksky publishers in Tula . Nikolai Leskov, now widely regarded as a classic of Russian literature, had an extremely difficult literary career, marred by scandals which resulted in boycotts and ostracism. Describing

905-428: A day. Severe cholera, without treatment, kills about half of affected individuals. If the severe diarrhea is not treated, it can result in life-threatening dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Estimates of the ratio of asymptomatic to symptomatic infections have ranged from 3 to 100. Cholera has been nicknamed the "blue death" because a person's skin may turn bluish-gray from extreme loss of fluids. Fever

1086-520: A drunken pastor and deacon at a church in a provincial town) was published by Istorichesky vestnik . It caused a scandal and cost its author his job at the Ministry of Education. Minister Delyanov suggested that Leskov should sign a retirement paper, but the latter refused. "What do you need such a firing for?" the Minister reportedly asked. "For a decent obituary," Leskov retorted. In April he informed

1267-531: A full-blown novel. Both chronicles were thinly veiled satires on certain aspects of the Orthodox church, especially those incongruities it had with intrinsic Christian values which had made it impossible (according to the author) for the latter to take root firmly in the Russian soil. On 16 November 1874, Leskov wrote to Ivan Aksakov : "The second part of A Decayed Family which appeared in god-awful shape, became

1448-428: A greatly reduced pathogen count—though it will not necessarily be perfectly safe, it is an improvement for poor people with limited options. In Bangladesh this practice was found to decrease rates of cholera by nearly half. It involves folding a sari four to eight times. Between uses the cloth should be rinsed in clean water and dried in the sun to kill any bacteria on it. A nylon cloth appears to work as well but

1629-540: A group of Czech writers, notably Martin Brodsky, whose arabesque You Don't Cause Pain he translated. In December Leskov was in Paris, where he translated Božena Němcová 's Twelve Months (A Slavic Fairytale) , both translations were published by Severnaya ptchela in 1863. On his return to Russia in 1863 Leskov published several essays and letters, documenting his trip. 1862 saw the launch of Leskov's literary career, with

1810-522: A higher education establishment. Graduates of academic lyceums will be able to obtain a bachelor's degree in three years (in most specialties) instead of four. Other types of lyceums in Ukraine include military lyceums and lyceums with intensive military and physical training. See lyceum movement and comparison of US and UK secondary school years (except Scotland). It is not uncommon in Chile to use

1991-475: A lasting effect on his career." On 30 May 1862, Severnaya Ptchela published an article by Nikolaj Leskov on the issue of the fires that started on 24 May, lasting for six days and destroying a large part of the Apraksin and Schukin quarters of the Russian capital, which popular rumour imputed to a group of "revolutionary students and Poles" that stood behind the "Young Russia" proclamation. Without supporting

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2172-420: A literary icon-painting: he began to create a gallery of saints for the Russian iconostases ." Leskov's miscellaneous sketches on the lives and tribulations of the Russian small-scale priesthood and rural nobility gradually gravitated (according to critic V. Korovin) into a cohesive, albeit frameless tapestry of a battlefield where "good men" (Tuberozov, Desnitsyn, Benefaktov, all of them priests) were fighting off

2353-478: A magazine that adorns itself with novels and novellas by Stebnitsky?" The social democrat-controlled press started spreading rumours that No Way Out had been 'commissioned' by the Interior Ministry's 3rd Department . What Leskov condemned as "a vicious libel" caused great harm to his career: popular journals boycotted him, while Mikhail Katkov of the conservative The Russian Messenger greeted him as

2534-534: A massive inoculation program in British India . Persons who survive an episode of cholera have long-lasting immunity for at least 3 years (the period tested.) A number of safe and effective oral vaccines for cholera are available. The World Health Organization (WHO) has three prequalified oral cholera vaccines (OCVs): Dukoral, Sanchol, and Euvichol. Dukoral , an orally administered, inactivated whole-cell vaccine , has an overall efficacy of about 52% during

2715-458: A maximum age up to 20 years old. Evening lyceum ( Εσπερινό ) is both for adult and underage working students, and lasts three years as of the 2020–2021 academic year, per Law 4547/2018. The lyceum awards the Απολυτήριο , apolytirio or apolyterio , which is the upper secondary education leaving certificate. Before World War I , secondary education institutes with a primary goal of preparing for higher studies were often referred to by

2896-599: A new wave of interest in Leskov's legacy. In 1923 three volumes of Nikolai Leskov's selected works came out in Berlin, featuring an often-quoted rapturous preface by Maxim Gorky (who called Leskov "the wizard of wording"), and was re-issued in the USSR in early 1941. For decades after his death the attitude of critics toward Leskov and his legacy varied. Despite the fact that some of his sharpest satires could be published only after

3077-541: A non-toxic B-subunit of cholera toxin and providing protection against V. cholerae O1; and two vaccines developed using the same transfer of technology—ShanChol (Shantha Biotec) and Euvichol (EuBiologics Co.), which have bivalent O1 and O139 oral killed cholera vaccines. Oral cholera vaccination could be deployed in a diverse range of situations from cholera-endemic areas and locations of humanitarian crises, but no clear consensus exists. Developed for use in Bangladesh ,

3258-470: A number of upper secondary school , which last five years (from 14 to 19 years of age) and are specialized in teaching philosophy , ancient Greek (in the sole liceo classico ) and Latin , but also maths , physics , trigonometry , biology and chemistry . It gives preparation for university . It is divided into six different branches, each one specialized in certain subjects: The first Lyceum in Riga

3439-408: A one-million fold increase in numbers of V. cholerae in the environment. The source of the contamination is typically other people with cholera when their untreated diarrheal discharge is allowed to get into waterways, groundwater or drinking water supplies. Drinking any contaminated water and eating any foods washed in the water, as well as shellfish living in the affected waterway , can cause

3620-454: A peculiar "Leskovian" sense of humour, were written in the skaz manner, a unique folk-ish style of writing, of which Leskov, along with Gogol , was later declared an originator. Two more novellas came out at this time: Neglected People (Oboydyonnye; Otechestvennye Zapiski , 1865) which targeted Chernyshevsky 's novel What's to Be Done? , and The Islanders (1866), about the everyday life of Vasilyevsky Island 's German community. It

3801-430: A person to contract an infection. Cholera is rarely spread directly from person to person . V. cholerae also exists outside the human body in natural water sources, either by itself or through interacting with phytoplankton , zooplankton , or biotic and abiotic detritus. Drinking such water can also result in the disease, even without prior contamination through fecal matter. Selective pressures exist however in

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3982-809: A political ally. Leskov's novel, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (written in Kiev in November 1864 and published in Dostoevsky's Epoch magazine in January 1865) and his novella The Amazon ( Otechestvennye zapiski , No.7, 1866), both "pictures of almost unrelieved wickedness and passion", were ignored by contemporary critics but were praised decades later as masterpieces, containing powerful depictions of highly expressive female characters from different classes and walks of life. Both, marked by

4163-551: A pseudonym he used in 1862–1869) became the head of the domestic affairs department, writing sketches and articles on every possible aspect of everyday life, and also critical pieces, targeting what was termed nihilism and "vulgar materialism". He had some support at the time, from several prominent journalists, among them Grigory Eliseev , who wrote in the April 1862, Sovremennik issue: "Those lead columns in Ptchela make one pity

4344-513: A pupil and protege, soon becoming another of Leskov's adopted daughters. Andrey Leskov made a career in the military. From 1919 to 1931 he served as a staff officer on the Soviet Army's North-Western frontier and retired with the rank of Lieutenant-General. By this time he had become an authority on his father's legacy, praised by Maxim Gorky among many others and regularly consulted by specialists. Andrey Leskov's The Life of Nikolai Leskov ,

4525-530: A result of transmission by food, while in developing countries it is more often water. Food transmission can occur when people harvest seafood such as oysters in waters infected with sewage , as Vibrio cholerae accumulates in planktonic crustaceans and the oysters eat the zooplankton . People infected with cholera often have diarrhea, and disease transmission may occur if this highly liquid stool, colloquially referred to as "rice-water", contaminates water used by others. A single diarrheal event can cause

4706-507: A row and intrigue, having brought upon himself the wrath of the governor himself. "So we left our house in Oryol, sold what we had in the city and bought a village with 50 peasants in the Kromy region from general A. I. Krivtsov. The purchase was made mostly on credit, for mother was still hoping to get her five thousand off of Strakhov which never came. The tiny village father had bought was eventually sold for debts," Leskov later remembered. What

4887-399: A set of stories which would later form his cycle Virtuous Ones . Some critics found Leskov's heroes virtuous beyond belief, but he insisted they were not fantasies, but more like reminiscences of his earlier encounters. "I credit myself with having some ability for analyzing characters and their motives, but I'm hopless at fantasizing. Making up things is hard labour for me, so I've always felt

5068-421: A severe case if they become infected. Any individual, even a healthy adult in middle age, can undergo a severe case, and each person's case should be measured by the loss of fluids, preferably in consultation with a professional health care provider . The cystic fibrosis genetic mutation known as delta-F508 in humans has been said to maintain a selective heterozygous advantage : heterozygous carriers of

5249-583: A severe cold; by the end of the year his general condition had deteriorated. Responding to Pavel Tretyakov 's special request, Leskov (still very ill) agreed to pose for Valentin Serov , but in February 1895, when the portrait was exhibited in the Tretyakovskaya Gallery , he felt utterly upset both by the portrait and the black frame. On 5 March 1895, Leskov died, aged 64. The funeral service

5430-782: A technical high school. For example, the famous scientist Gerty Cori went to a lyceum school. The concept and name lyceum (in Swedish, lyseo in Finnish) entered Finland through Sweden. Traditionally, lycea were schools to prepare students to enter universities, as opposed to the typical, more general education. Some old schools continue to use the name lyceum , though their operations today vary. For example, Helsinki Normal Lyceum educates students in grades 7–12, while Oulu Lyceum enrolls students only in grades 10–12. The more commonly used term for upper secondary school in Finland

5611-442: A year (uncertainty range: 21,000–143,000) as of 2015 . This occurs mainly in the developing world. In the early 1980s, death rates are believed to have still been higher than three million a year. It is difficult to calculate exact numbers of cases, as many go unreported due to concerns that an outbreak may have a negative impact on the tourism of a country. As of 2004, cholera remained both epidemic and endemic in many areas of

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5792-555: A year. To date, seven cholera pandemics have occurred, with the most recent beginning in 1961, and continuing today. The illness is rare in high-income countries , and affects children most severely. Cholera occurs as both outbreaks and chronically in certain areas . Areas with an ongoing risk of disease include Africa and Southeast Asia . The risk of death among those affected is usually less than 5%, given improved treatment, but may be as high as 50% without such access to treatment. Descriptions of cholera are found as early as

5973-409: Is liceu . It represents a post-secondary form of education. In order for a student to graduate the lyceum and obtain a baccalaureate diploma, they must pass the bac . The lyceum consists of four school years (ages 15–19). Although the lyceum is a pre-university educational institution, it can be enough for the graduates to find a job, mainly in office work. In Imperial Russia, a lyceum was one of

6154-628: Is lise which is derived from the French word lycée and corresponds to high school in English. It lasts four to five years with respect to the type of the high school. At the end of their lise education, students take the TYT/AYT test, i.e. university entrance examination, to get the right to enroll in a public university or a private university. According to the Law of Ukraine "On Education",

6335-661: Is lukio in Finnish and gymnasium in Swedish. The French word for an upper secondary school, lycée , derives from Lyceum. (see Secondary education in France .) The lyceum in Germany was known as an old term for a Gymnasium for girls. In Bavaria it was also a Hochschule to study theology and philosophy . In Greece, Λύκειο refers to a type of upper secondary education school for students aged 15 to 18 or 20. The lyceum school first grade admitted students can have

6516-596: Is endemic . If people are immunized broadly, herd immunity results, with a decrease in the amount of contamination in the environment. WHO recommends that oral cholera vaccination be considered in areas where the disease is endemic (with seasonal peaks), as part of the response to outbreaks, or in a humanitarian crisis during which the risk of cholera is high. Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV) has been recognized as an adjunct tool for prevention and control of cholera. The World Health Organization (WHO) has prequalified three bivalent cholera vaccines—Dukoral (SBL Vaccines), containing

6697-547: Is oral rehydration salts (ORS), the replacement of fluids and electrolytes by using slightly sweet and salty solutions. Rice-based solutions are preferred. In children, zinc supplementation has also been found to improve outcomes. In severe cases, intravenous fluids , such as Ringer's lactate , may be required, and antibiotics may be beneficial. The choice of antibiotic is aided by antibiotic sensitivity testing . Cholera continues to affect an estimated 3–5 million people worldwide and causes 28,800–130,000 deaths

6878-651: Is a category of educational institution defined within the education system of many countries, mainly in Europe . The definition varies among countries; usually it is a type of secondary school . Basic science and some introduction to specific professions are generally taught. Lyceum is a Latin rendering of the Ancient Greek Λύκειον ( lykeion ), the name of a gymnasium in Classical Athens dedicated to Apollo Lyceus . This original lyceum

7059-422: Is a common problem. Stool and swab samples collected in the acute stage of the disease, before antibiotics have been administered, are the most useful specimens for laboratory diagnosis. If an epidemic of cholera is suspected, the most common causative agent is V. cholerae O1. If V. cholerae serogroup O1 is not isolated, the laboratory should test for V. cholerae O139. However, if neither of these organisms

7240-503: Is a common source. Humans are the only known host for the bacteria . Risk factors for the disease include poor sanitation , insufficient clean drinking water , and poverty . Cholera can be diagnosed by a stool test , or a rapid dipstick test , although the dipstick test is less accurate. Prevention methods against cholera include improved sanitation and access to clean water . Cholera vaccines that are given by mouth provide reasonable protection for about six months, and confer

7421-625: Is also sometimes used for other vocational schools such as the Grafisch Lyceum , or Muzieklyceum Amsterdam , which grew into the Conservatorium van Amsterdam . The liceum is the Polish secondary-education school . Polish liceums are attended by students aged 15 to 19–20 (see list below). Before graduating, pupils are subject to a final examination, the matura . Polish liceums are of several types: From 1836 until 1978, in

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7602-442: Is available to determine the presence of V. cholerae . In those samples that test positive, further testing should be done to determine antibiotic resistance. In epidemic situations, a clinical diagnosis may be made by taking a patient history and doing a brief examination. Treatment via hydration and over-the-counter hydration solutions can be started without or before confirmation by laboratory analysis, especially where cholera

7783-446: Is effective for adults aged 18–64 as a single dose. One injectable vaccine was found to be effective for two to three years. The protective efficacy was 28% lower in children less than five years old. However, as of 2010 , it has limited availability. Work is under way to investigate the role of mass vaccination. The WHO recommends immunization of high-risk groups, such as children and people with HIV , in countries where this disease

7964-416: Is increasing within cholera bacteria. In Bangladesh , for example, most cases are resistant to tetracycline , trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole , and erythromycin . Rapid diagnostic assay methods are available for the identification of multi-drug resistant cases. New generation antimicrobials have been discovered which are effective against cholera bacteria in in vitro studies. A rapid dipstick test

8145-487: Is isolated, it is necessary to send stool specimens to a reference laboratory. Infection with V. cholerae O139 should be reported and handled in the same manner as that caused by V. cholerae O1. The associated diarrheal illness should be referred to as cholera and must be reported in the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends focusing on prevention, preparedness, and response to combat

8326-460: Is less in those with lowered gastric acidity (for instance those using proton pump inhibitors ). Children are also more susceptible, with two- to four-year-olds having the highest rates of infection. Individuals' susceptibility to cholera is also affected by their blood type , with those with type O blood being the most susceptible. Persons with lowered immunity , such as persons with AIDS or malnourished children, are more likely to develop

8507-754: Is maintained. The WHO only recommends antibiotics in those with severe dehydration. Doxycycline is typically used first line, although some strains of V. cholerae have shown resistance . Testing for resistance during an outbreak can help determine appropriate future choices. Other antibiotics proven to be effective include cotrimoxazole , erythromycin , tetracycline , chloramphenicol , and furazolidone . Fluoroquinolones , such as ciprofloxacin , also may be used, but resistance has been reported. Antibiotics improve outcomes in those who are both severely and not severely dehydrated. Azithromycin and tetracycline may work better than doxycycline or ciprofloxacin . In Bangladesh zinc supplementation reduced

8688-469: Is not as affordable. Continued eating speeds the recovery of normal intestinal function. The WHO recommends this generally for cases of diarrhea no matter what the underlying cause. A CDC training manual specifically for cholera states: "Continue to breastfeed your baby if the baby has watery diarrhea, even when traveling to get treatment. Adults and older children should continue to eat frequently." The most common error in caring for patients with cholera

8869-442: Is rapid and thready, and urine output decreases with time. Muscle cramping and weakness, altered consciousness, seizures , or even coma due to electrolyte imbalances are common, especially in children. Cholera bacteria have been found in shellfish and plankton . Transmission is usually through the fecal-oral route of contaminated food or water caused by poor sanitation . Most cholera cases in developed countries are

9050-412: Is rare and should raise suspicion for secondary infection. Patients can be lethargic and might have sunken eyes, dry mouth, cold clammy skin, or wrinkled hands and feet. Kussmaul breathing , a deep and labored breathing pattern, can occur because of acidosis from stool bicarbonate losses and lactic acidosis associated with poor perfusion . Blood pressure drops due to dehydration, peripheral pulse

9231-406: Is rare. For example, the last major outbreak of cholera in the United States occurred in 1910–1911. Cholera is mainly a risk in developing countries in those areas where access to WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) infrastructure is still inadequate. Effective sanitation practices, if instituted and adhered to in time, are usually sufficient to stop an epidemic. There are several points along

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9412-544: Is remembered as the location of the peripatetic school of Aristotle . Some countries derive the name for their modern schools from the Latin but use the Greek name for the ancient school: for example, Dutch has lykeion (ancient) and lyceum (modern), both rendered lyceum in English (note that in classical Latin the C in lyceum was always pronounced as a K , not a soft C , as in modern English). The name lycée

9593-586: Is the preferred solution, often with added potassium. Large volumes and continued replacement until diarrhea has subsided may be needed. Ten percent of a person's body weight in fluid may need to be given in the first two to four hours. This method was first tried on a mass scale during the Bangladesh Liberation War , and was found to have much success. Despite widespread beliefs, fruit juices and commercial fizzy drinks like cola are not ideal for rehydration of people with serious infections of

9774-404: Is to underestimate the speed and volume of fluids required. In most cases, cholera can be successfully treated with oral rehydration therapy (ORT), which is highly effective, safe, and simple to administer. Rice-based solutions are preferred to glucose-based ones due to greater efficiency. In severe cases with significant dehydration, intravenous rehydration may be necessary. Ringer's lactate

9955-407: The 1917 Revolution , Soviet literary propaganda found little of use in Leskov's legacy, often labeling the author a "reactionary" who had "denied the possibility of social revolution," placing too much attention on saintly religious types. For highlighting the author's 'progressive' inclinations "Leftie" (a "glorification of Russian inventiveness and talent") and "The Toupee Artist" (a "denunciation of

10136-564: The Complete Leskov in 12 volumes (which contained mostly fiction). By June 1889, the fourth and fifth volumes had been issued, but in August volume six, containing some anti-Eastern Orthodox satires was stopped. On 16 August, Leskov suffered his first major heart attack on the stairs of Suvorin's house, upon learning the news. The publication of his works continued with volume seven, generating considerable royalties and greatly improving

10317-605: The Crimean War I was infected with a then popular heresy, something I've been reproaching myself for since. I abandoned the state official career which seemed to be starting promisingly and joined one of the newly-born trade companies." In May 1857 Leskov moved with his family to Raiskoye village in Penza Governorate where the Scotts were based, and later that month embarked upon his first business trip, involving

10498-449: The Gs alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein . This results in constitutive cAMP production, which in turn leads to the secretion of water, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate into the lumen of the small intestine and rapid dehydration. The gene encoding the cholera toxin was introduced into V. cholerae by horizontal gene transfer . Virulent strains of V. cholerae carry a variant of

10679-642: The Moscow University 's new course between those on Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy. In 1989 Ogonyok re-issued the 12-volume Leskov collection in which At Daggers Drawn appeared for the first time in the USSR. In 1996 the Terra publishing house in Russia started a 30 volume Leskov series, declaring the intention to include every single work or letter by the author, but by 2007 only 10 volumes of it had come out. The Literaturnoye nasledstvo publishers started

10860-602: The Portuguese educational system , the lyceum ( Portuguese : liceu ), or national lyceum ( liceu nacional ), was a high school that prepared students to enter universities or more general education. On the other hand, the technical school ( escola técnica ) was a technical-oriented school. After several education reforms , all these schools merged into a single system of "3rd cycle basic" and secondary schools ( escolas básicas do 3.º ciclo e secundárias ), offering grades 7 to 12 . The Romanian word for lyceum

11041-656: The Raqi Qirinxhi High School . The Belarusian Humanities Lyceum is a private secondary school founded shortly after Belarus' independence from the USSR by intellectuals, such as Vincuk Viacorka and Uladzimir Kolas, with the stated aims of preserving and promoting native Belarusian culture, and raising a new Belarusian elite. It was shut down in 2003 by the Ministry of Education of Belarus allegedly for promoting enmity within Belarusian society and using

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11222-714: The Russian Orthodox Church and its functionaries. Leskov died on 5 March 1895, aged 64, and was interred in the Volkovo Cemetery in Saint Petersburg , in the section reserved for literary figures. Nikolai Semyonovich Leskov was born on 4 February 1831 , in Gorokhovo, Oryol Gubernia , to Semyon Dmitrievich Leskov (1789–1848), a respected criminal investigator and local court official, and Maria Petrovna Leskova (née Alferyeva; 1813–1886),

11403-626: The Ukazatel Ekonomitchesky (Economic Guide). His series of October 1860 articles on corruption in the sphere of police medicine ("Some Words on the Police Medics in Russia") led to confrontations with colleagues and his being fired from Sovremennaya Meditsina . In 1860 his articles started to appear regularly in the Saint Petersburg-based paper Otechestvennye Zapiski where he found a friend and mentor in

11584-636: The Unpublished Leskov series: book one (fiction) came out in 1991, book two (letters and articles) – in 2000; both were incomplete, and the volume six material, which had been banned a century ago and proved to be too tough for the Soviet censors, was again neglected. All 36 volumes of the 1902 Marks Complete Leskov were re-issued in 2002 and Moshkov's On-line Library gathered a significant part of Leskov's legacy, including his most controversial novels and essays. Lyceum#Russia The lyceum

11765-406: The human stomach . The few surviving bacteria conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the passage through the stomach by shutting down protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine , they must propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive. Once

11946-479: The potassium level may be normal, even though large losses have occurred. As the dehydration is corrected, potassium levels may decrease rapidly, and thus need to be replaced. This is best done by Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS). Antibiotic treatments for one to three days shorten the course of the disease and reduce the severity of the symptoms. Use of antibiotics also reduces fluid requirements. People will recover without them, however, if sufficient hydration

12127-455: The small intestine by some strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae . Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea lasting a few days. Vomiting and muscle cramps may also occur. Diarrhea can be so severe that it leads within hours to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalance . This may result in sunken eyes , cold skin, decreased skin elasticity, and wrinkling of

12308-471: The "adventure" plot and the improbability of some of its characters. The short novel Laughter and Grief ( Sovremennaya letopis , March–May, 1871), a strong social critique focusing on the fantastic disorganization and incivility of Russian life and commenting on the sufferings of individuals in a repressive society proved to be his last; from then on Leskov avoided the genre of the orthodox novel. In November 1872, though, he adapted Victor Hugo 's Toilers of

12489-411: The "sari filter" is a simple and cost-effective appropriate technology method for reducing the contamination of drinking water. Used sari cloth is preferable but other types of used cloth can be used with some effect, though the effectiveness will vary significantly. Used cloth is more effective than new cloth, as the repeated washing reduces the space between the fibers. Water collected in this way has

12670-750: The 1859 anti-alcohol riots and first published in a local Odessa newspaper, then in Otechestvennye Zapiski (April 1861), to be his proper literary debut. In May 1860 he returned with his family to Kiev, and in the summer started to write for both the Sankt-Peterburgskye Vedomosty newspaper and the Kiev-based Sovremennaya Meditsina (where he published his article "On the Working Class", and several essays on medical issues) and

12851-529: The 1990s there are lyceums (special secondary schools) with in-depth study of humanitarian or natural science disciplines. As a rule, university professors teach in lyceums, and the educational system resembles that of a university. Later, the lyceums were renamed special general secondary schools. The Lyceum of the Principality of Serbia was the first higher education school in Serbia in which education

13032-512: The 5th century BC in Sanskrit . In Europe, cholera was a term initially used to describe any kind of gastroenteritis, and was not used for this disease until the early 19th century. The study of cholera in England by John Snow between 1849 and 1854 led to significant advances in the field of epidemiology because of his insights about transmission via contaminated water, and a map of the same

13213-475: The Crucified One's commandments are being corrupted and falsified... [My position] would be defined as Tolstoyan these days, while things that have nothing to do with Christ's teaching would be termed Orthodoxy. I wouldn't oppose the term, I'd just say, Christianity this is not." Leskov's religious essays of the early 1880s continued the same line of sympathetically supporting poor clergymen and ridiculing

13394-469: The Leskovs, with their three sons and two daughters, were left with was a small Panin khutor , one very poor house, a watermill, a garden, two peasants' houses and 40 dessiatins of land. This is where Nikolai had his first experiences with oral folklore and the 'earthy' Russian dialecticisms he would later become famous for reviving in his literary work. In August 1841 Leskov began his formal education at

13575-493: The Netherlands, a lyceum is a selective secondary school for children aged 12–18 that offers " voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs " (vwo) and " hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs " (havo), the top and high levels of secondary education available in that country. Successful completion allows vwo students admission to university and havo students to hogeschool , comparable to vocational university . The term lyceum

13756-485: The Oryol Lyceum. After five years of poor progress all he could manage was a two-year graduation certificate. Later, scholar B. Bukhstab, comparing Leskov's school failures with those of Nikolay Nekrasov who had had similar problems, argued that, "...apparently, in both cases the reasons were – on the one hand, the lack of a guiding hand, on the other – [both young men's] loathing for the tiresome cramming routine and

13937-640: The Oryol-born publicist S. S. Gromeko. In January 1861 Leskov moved to Saint Peterburg where he stayed at Professor Ivan Vernadsky's along with Zemlya i volya member Andrey Nechiporenko and met Taras Shevchenko . For a short while he moved to Moscow and started to work for the Russkaya Retch newspaper, all the while contributing to Otechestvennye Zapiski . In December he left Russkaya Retch (for personal, rather than ideological reasons) and moved back to Saint Peterburg where in January 1862 he joined

14118-563: The Russian literary community, that Leskov was a right-wing, 'reactionary' author. In April Dmitry Pisarev wrote in his review "A Walk In the Garden of Russian Literature" ( Russkoye Slovo , 1865, No.3): "Can any other magazine be found anywhere in Russia, besides The Russian Messenger , that would venture to publish anything written by and signed as, Stebnitsky? Could one single honest writer be found in Russia who would be so careless, so indifferent regarding his reputation, as to contribute to

14299-405: The Russian literary scene at the time Leskov entered it, D. S. Mirsky wrote: It was a time of intense party strife, when no writer could hope to be well received by all critics and only those who identified themselves with a definite party could hope for even partial recognition. Leskov had never identified himself with any party and had to take the consequences. His success with the reading public

14480-611: The Sea for children. Five years later Józef Ignacy Kraszewski 's The Favourites of King August came out, translated from the Polish and edited by Leskov. The Cathedral Folk ( Soboryane ), published in 1872 , is a compilation of stories and sketches which form an intricate tapestry of thinly drawn plotlines. It was seen as a turning point in the author's career; a departure from political negativism. According to Maxim Gorky , after Daggers , his "evil novel", Leskov's "craft became more of

14661-548: The Steel Flea ", which is seen in retrospect as Leskov's finest piece of work, bringing out the best in him as an ingenious storyteller and stylistic virtuoso whose skaz style is rich in word play and full of original neologisms, each carrying not only humorous but satirical messages. In Lefty the author's point of view is engaged in lively interplay with that of the main (grotesquely naive, simple-minded) character. "Some people argued that I had done little to distinguish between

14842-630: The Valaam monastery in Lake Ladoga ; the result of this trip was his Monastic Isles cycle of essays published in Russky mir in 1873. In October 1872 another collection, Small Belle-lettres Works by Leskov-Stebnitsky came out. These were the months of his short-lived friendship with Aleksey Pisemsky ; Leskov greatly praised his novel In the Vortex and in August 1872 visited Pisemsky in Moscow. At

15023-566: The added benefit of protecting against another type of diarrhea caused by E. coli . In 2017, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a single-dose, live, oral cholera vaccine called Vaxchora for adults aged 18–64 who are travelling to an area of active cholera transmission. It offers limited protection to young children. People who survive an episode of cholera have long-lasting immunity for at least three years (the period tested). The primary treatment for affected individuals

15204-474: The aquatic environment that may reduce the virulence of V. cholerae . Specifically, animal models indicate that the transcriptional profile of the pathogen changes as it prepares to enter an aquatic environment. This transcriptional change results in a loss of ability of V. cholerae to be cultured on standard media, a phenotype referred to as ' viable but non-culturable ' (VBNC) or more conservatively ' active but non-culturable ' (ABNC). One study indicates that

15385-525: The atrocities. The author's suggestion that "firemen sent to the sites would do anything rather than idly stand by" angered Alexander II himself, who reportedly said: "This shouldn't have been allowed, this is a lie." Frightened, Severnaya Ptchela sent its controversial author on a trip to Paris as a correspondent, making sure the mission was a long onе. After visiting Wilno , Grodno and Belostok , in November 1862 Leskov arrived in Prague where he met

15566-558: The author's financial situation. A different version of volume six came out in 1890. In January 1890 the publication of the novel The Devil Dolls (with Tsar Nikolai I and Karl Bryullov as the prototypes for the two main characters) started in Russkaya Mysl , but was stopped by censors. In 1891 Polunochniki (Night Owls), a thinly veiled satire on the Orthodox Church in general and Ioann Kronshtadsky in particular,

15747-616: The author. What would later come to be seen as one of the gems of Russian literature was fiercely attacked both from the left (who accused Leskov of propagating jingoistic ideas) and the right, who found the general picture of the common people's existence as depicted in the story a bit too gloomy for their taste. "Leftie" premiered publicly in March 1882 at the literary and musical evening of The Pushkin Circle; on 16 April it came out in book form. The collection of sketches called Pechersky Antics

15928-420: The best masters of Russian prose." Nevertheless, by 1934 Dmitry Shostakovich had finished his opera, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District , which caused a furore at home and abroad (to be eventually denounced in 1936 by Pravda ). Before that, in 1929, Ivan Shyshov's opera The Toupee Artist (after Leskov's story of the same name) had been published and successfully staged. In the post- World War II USSR

16109-422: The cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they no longer need the flagella to move. The bacteria stop producing the protein flagellin to conserve energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they express in response to the changed chemical surroundings. On reaching the intestinal wall, V. cholerae start producing the toxic proteins that give the infected person a watery diarrhea. This carries

16290-612: The cholera transmission path at which its spread may be halted: Handwashing with soap or ash after using a toilet and before handling food or eating is also recommended for cholera prevention by WHO Africa. Surveillance and prompt reporting allow for containing cholera epidemics rapidly. Cholera exists as a seasonal disease in many endemic countries, occurring annually mostly during rainy seasons . Surveillance systems can provide early alerts to outbreaks, therefore leading to coordinated response and assist in preparation of preparedness plans. Efficient surveillance systems can also improve

16471-406: The classroom as a political soapbox, indoctrinating students with biased views on history, ideology, politics, morality and values. The lyceum eventually switched to homeschooling with a limited number of underground homeschoolers. The term lyceum refers to a type of secondary education consisting of anywhere from four years ended by graduation. It is a type of schooling between grammar school and

16652-424: The culturability of V. cholerae drops 90% within 24 hours of entering the water, and furthermore that this loss in culturability is associated with a loss in virulence. Both toxic and non-toxic strains exist. Non-toxic strains can acquire toxicity through a temperate bacteriophage . About 100   million bacteria must typically be ingested to cause cholera in a normal healthy adult. This dose, however,

16833-476: The daughter of an impoverished Moscow nobleman, who first met her future husband at a very young age, when he worked as a tutor in their house. Leskov's ancestors on his father's side were all clergymen in the village of Leska in Oryol Gubernia, hence the name Leskov. Semyon Dmitrievich was a well-educated man; friends referred to him as a "homegrown intellectual". One of Nikolai's aunts on his mother's side

17014-434: The deadly dumbness of state education, both having lively temperaments and an eagerness to learn more of real life". In June 1847 Leskov joined the Oryol criminal court office, where Sergey Dmitrievich had once worked. In May 1848 Leskov's family's property was destroyed by a fire. In July of the same year Leskov's father died from cholera . In December 1849 Leskov asked his superiors for a transfer to Kiev , where he joined

17195-503: The director of the Oryol lyceum that he was sending him a gold medal he had received from the Ministry "to be given to the poorest of that year's graduates." By this time the Russian Orthodox Church had become the major target of Leskov's satire. In an 1883 letter, remembering The Cathedral Folk , he confessed: "These days I wouldn't do them, I'd rather have written Notes of a Defrocked Priest ... to show how all of

17376-576: The drawing together of plotlines to one central course. That's not how life is. Human life runs on in its own way and that's how I'm going to treat the roll of events in my works." In the spring of 1875 Leskov went abroad, first to Paris, then to Prague and Dresden in August. In December his novella "At the Edge of the World" was published in Grazhdanin (1875, No. 52). All the while he continued to work on

17557-433: The duration and severity of diarrhea in children with cholera when given with antibiotics and rehydration therapy as needed. It reduced the length of disease by eight hours and the amount of diarrhea stool by 10%. Supplementation appears to be also effective in both treating and preventing infectious diarrhea due to other causes among children in the developing world. If people with cholera are treated quickly and properly,

17738-603: The early 1860s with the publication of his short story The Extinguished Flame (1862), and his novellas Musk-Ox (May 1863) and The Life of a Peasant Woman (September, 1863). His first novel No Way Out was published under the pseudonym M. Stebnitsky in 1864. From the mid-1860s to the mid-1880s Leskov published a wide range of works, including journalism, sketches, short stories, and novels. Leskov's major works, many of which continue to be published in modern versions, were written during this time. A number of his later works were banned because of their satirical treatment of

17919-553: The effect that they knew no such saints, and that all of us were sinful, but they had met some decent men... and I just started writing about them," he wrote in the preface to one such story ("Singlethought", Odnodum, 1879). A similar cycle of short stories involved legends of early Christianity, with plot lines taken from the "prologues" and Byzantine stories of the 10th and 11th centuries. The fact that some of these pieces ("Pamphalone", "Beautiful Azu") were translated into German and praised by publishers, made Leskov immensely proud. What

18100-588: The exception of slightly higher education standards and supposedly being more prestigious. After 2010, regular schools were all formally reformed into lyceums, although their quality remained of the same level as before and most did not get any particular specialization, thereby being dubbed 'theory lyceums' ( liceu teoretic ). One reason for the 2010 reform was to reduce the influence of the Soviet/Russian educational system and/or mentality in Moldova. In

18281-533: The first four chapters of the novel As the Falcon Flies were published by Gazeta Gatsuka , followed by chapters five through eight, then chapters nine and ten; at this point the publication ceased due to interference by the censors. In January 1884 the publication of Notes of a Stranger began in Gazeta Gatsuka (No. 2) to be stopped in April, again by the censors. In the summer of 1884, while Leskov

18462-489: The first to immunize humans against a bacterial disease. His vaccine and inoculation was rather controversial and was rejected by his peers and several investigation commissions but it ended up demonstrating its effectiveness and being recognized for it: out of the 30 thousand people he vaccinated only 54 died. Russian-Jewish bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine also developed a human cholera vaccine in July 1892. He conducted

18643-480: The first year after being given and 62% in the second year, with minimal side effects. It is available in over 60 countries. However, it is not currently recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for most people traveling from the United States to endemic countries. The vaccine that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends, Vaxchora , is an oral attenuated live vaccine , that

18824-714: The following higher educational facilities: Demidov Lyceum of Law in Yaroslavl (1803), Alexander Lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo (1810), Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa (1817), and Imperial Katkov Lyceum in Moscow (1867). The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was opened on October 19, 1811, in the neoclassical building designed by Vasily Stasov and situated next to the Catherine Palace . The first graduates included Aleksandr Pushkin and Alexander Gorchakov . The opening date

19005-399: The former Soviet Union countries after they became independent. One typical example is Uzbekistan, where all high schools were replaced with lyceums ( litsey is the Russian term, derived from French lycée ), offering a three-year educational program with a certain major in a certain direction. Unlike Turkey, Uzbek lyceums do not hold university entrance examinations, which gives students

19186-475: The fullest effect. The Sealed Angel turned out to be the only story that avoided being heavily cut by The Russian Messenger because, as Leskov later wrote, "it slipped through, in the shadows, what with them being so busy." The story, rather critical of the authorities, resonated in high places and was read, reportedly, at the Court. Inspired by his 1872 journey to Lake Ladoga , The Enchanted Wanderer (1873)

19367-420: The genetic mechanisms by which cholera bacteria turn on the protein production of the toxins that interact with host cell mechanisms to pump chloride ions into the small intestine, creating an ionic pressure which prevents sodium ions from entering the cell. The chloride and sodium ions create a salt-water environment in the small intestines, which through osmosis can pull up to six liters of water per day through

19548-462: The genetic structure. Two clusters have been identified: Cluster I and Cluster II. For the most part, Cluster I consists of strains from the 1960s and 1970s, while Cluster II largely contains strains from the 1980s and 1990s, based on the change in the clone structure. This grouping of strains is best seen in the strains from the African continent. In many areas of the world, antibiotic resistance

19729-447: The good and the bad, and that it was difficult to make out who was a helper and who put wrenches in the works. This can be explained by the intrinsic deceitfulness of my own character," Leskov later wrote. Most deceitful (according to critic B. Bukhstab) was the author's treatment of the character ataman Platov , whose actions, even as they are described in a grotesquely heroic manner by the simple-minded protagonist, are openly ridiculed by

19910-437: The good taste of that segment of the reading public who were beyond the scope of the 'directing' influences". In the 1870s things improved but, according to Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary , "Leskov's position in his last 12 to 15 years was ambivalent, old friends distrusting him, new ones being still wary. For all his big name, he wasn't a centerpiece literary figure and critics all but ignored him. This didn't prevent

20091-401: The hands and feet. Dehydration can cause the skin to turn bluish . Symptoms start two hours to five days after exposure. Cholera is caused by a number of types of Vibrio cholerae , with some types producing more severe disease than others. It is spread mostly by unsafe water and unsafe food that has been contaminated with human feces containing the bacteria. Undercooked shellfish

20272-469: The huge success of the Complete Leskov ." After the 10th volume of this collection was published, critic Mikhail Protopopov came up with an essay called "The Sick Talent". Crediting Leskov as a superb psychologist and a master of "reproducing domestic scenes," he rated him equal to Melnikov-Pechersky and Mikhail Avdeev . What prevented Leskov from getting any higher, the critic argued, were "his love of hyperbole" and what he termed "an overload of spices." At

20453-532: The hypocrisy of the Russian Orthodoxy's higher ranks. In "Count Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoyevsky as Heresiarchs " and "The Golden Age", both 1883) he defended both from the criticism of Konstantin Leontiev . Leskov never became a Tolstoyan, but his later works were impregnated with the idea of "new Christianity" which he himself identified with Leo Tolstoy , whom he became close with in the mid-1880s and

20634-609: The interest in Leskov's legacy was continually on the rise, never going, though, beyond certain censorship-set limits. Several scholarly essays came out and then an extensive biography by the writer's son Andrey Leskov was published in 1954. In 1953 the Complete Gorky series featured his 1923 N. S. Leskov essay which became the object of lively academic discussion. The 11-volume 1956–1958 (and then 6 volume 1973–1974) Complete Leskov editions were obviously incomplete: one of his political " anti-nihilistic " novels At Daggers Drawn ,

20815-466: The intestinal cells, creating the massive amounts of diarrhea. The host can become rapidly dehydrated unless treated properly. By inserting separate, successive sections of V. cholerae DNA into the DNA of other bacteria, such as E. coli that would not naturally produce the protein toxins, researchers have investigated the mechanisms by which V. cholerae responds to the changing chemical environments of

20996-400: The intestines, and their excessive sugar content may even harm water uptake. If commercially produced oral rehydration solutions are too expensive or difficult to obtain, solutions can be made. One such recipe calls for 1 liter of boiled water, 1/2 teaspoon of salt, 6 teaspoons of sugar, and added mashed banana for potassium and to improve taste. As there frequently is initially acidosis ,

21177-448: The last straw for me." It was in the course of the publication of this second part that Katkov told one of his associates, Voskoboynikov: "We've made a mistake: this man is not one of us." In 1873 The Sealed Angel came out, about a miracle which caused an Old Believer community to return to the Orthodox fold. Influenced by traditional folk tales, it is regarded in retrospect one of Leskov's finest works, employing his skaz technique to

21358-409: The last years of his life alone, his biological daughter Vera (from his first marriage) living far away and never visiting; his son Andrey residing in the capital but avoiding his father. On 6 April 1853 Leskov married Olga Vasilyevna Smirnova (1831–1909), the daughter of an affluent Kiev trader. Their son Dmitry was born on 23 December 1854 but died in 1855. On 8 March 1856, their daughter Vera Leskova

21539-477: The local government treasury chamber as an assistant clerk and settled with his maternal uncle, S. P. Alferyev, a professor of medicine. In Kiev he attended lectures at the university as an auditor student, studied the Polish and Ukrainian languages and the art of icon-painting , took part in the religious and philosophical circles of the students, and met pilgrims, sectarians and religious dissenters. Dmitry Zhuravsky, an economist and critic of serfdom in Russia,

21720-466: The lyceum is a level III secondary institution of education (or a structural unit of another institution of education) that provides field-specific secondary education. As it is planned, since 2017 a three-year senior school will be a lyceum of academic or vocational training. In vocational school, a student will master their first profession, whereas in an academic lyceum they will deepen personal knowledge of specific subjects that will be studied further at

21901-421: The lyceum – called liceu – was an educational institution where students studied from the first to the twelfth grade and would obtain the baccalaureate degree upon completion. In most cases, the lyceums were specialized in a particular domain (fine art, theatre, language) that was relevant to the personality whose name the institution bore. In other respects, it was little different from any regular school, with

22082-505: The mortality rate is less than 1%; however, with untreated cholera, the mortality rate rises to 50–60%. For certain genetic strains of cholera, such as the one present during the 2010 epidemic in Haiti and the 2004 outbreak in India, death can occur within two hours of becoming ill. Cholera affects an estimated 2.8 million people worldwide, and causes approximately 95,000 deaths

22263-448: The multiplying new generations of V. cholerae bacteria out into the drinking water of the next host if proper sanitation measures are not in place. The cholera toxin (CTX or CT) is an oligomeric complex made up of six protein subunits : a single copy of the A subunit (part A), and five copies of the B subunit (part B), connected by a disulfide bond . The five B subunits form a five-membered ring that binds to GM1 gangliosides on

22444-400: The mutation (who are not affected by cystic fibrosis) are more resistant to V. cholerae infections. In this model, the genetic deficiency in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channel proteins interferes with bacteria binding to the intestinal epithelium , thus reducing the effects of an infection. When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of

22625-736: The need for having before me real faces which could intrigue me with their spirituality; then they get hold of me and I infuse them with new life, using some real-life stories as a basis," he wrote later in the Varshavsky Dnevnik newspaper. Years of confrontation with critics and many of his colleagues have taken their toll. "Men of letters seem to recognize my writing as a force, but find great pleasure in killing it; in fact they have all but succeeded in killing it off altogether. I write nothing – I just can't!", he wrote to Pyotr Schebalsky in January 1876. In October 1881 Rus magazine started publishing " The Tale of Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and

22806-415: The nihilist movement which, as the author saw it, was quickly merging with the Russian criminal community. Leskov's "political" novels (according to Mirsky) were not among his masterpieces, but they were enough to turn him into "a bogey figure for all the radicals in literature and made it impossible for any of the influential critics to treat him with even a modicum of objectivity." Leskov would later refer to

22987-407: The novel as a failure and blamed Katkov's incessant interference for it. "His was the publication in which literary qualities were being methodically repressed, destroyed, or applied to serve specific interests which had nothing to do with literature," he later insisted. Some of his colleagues ( Dostoevsky among them) criticized the novel from the technical point of view, speaking of the stiltedness of

23168-538: The novella Zenon the Goldsmith was written for Russkaya mysl and promptly banned. By this time, according to Bukhstab, Leskov found himself in isolation again. The right treated him as a dangerous radical, while the left, under pressure from the Russian government, were too scared to publish radical prose. Leskov himself referred to the stories of his later years as "cruel". "The public doesn't like them because they're cynical and in your face. But I don't want to please

23349-531: The official title of Liceu Nacional Afonso de Albuquerque ( Afonso de Albuquerque National Lyceum). The Christ University Lyceum in Bengaluru, Karnataka - established in 2021, where scholars sit and do their research work and have discussion. The Philippines follows its version of the K-12 system, where the term junior high school might be used instead of lyceum . However, there are schools that appropriate

23530-401: The one hand and praised the virtues of the common people and the powers of Christian values on the other, scandalized critics of the radical left who discovered that for most of the characters real life prototypes could be found, and its central figure, Beloyartsev, was obviously a caricature of author and social activist Vasily Sleptsov . All this seemed to confirm the view, now firmly rooted in

23711-440: The potential that is being spent there, still unrealised elsewhere." At a time of intense public excitement, as D. S. Mirsky pointed out, Leskov was "absorbed by the public interest as much as anyone, but his eminently practical mind and training made it impossible for him to join unreservedly any of the very impractical and hot-headed parties of the day. Hence his isolation when, in the spring of 1862, an incident occurred that had

23892-478: The public, I want to torture it and flog it," he wrote. In August, November and December 1887 respectively, the first three volumes of the collection Novellas and Short Stories by N. S. Leskov were published. At the 1888 New Year party at Alexei Suvorin 's, Leskov met Anton Chekhov for the first time. Soon Ilya Repin became Leskov's friend and illustrator. Several months later in a letter, asking Leskov to sit for him, Repin explained his motives: "Not only me but

24073-487: The publication of "The Extinguished Flame" (later re-issued as "The Drought") in the March issue of Vek magazine, edited by Grigory Eliseev , followed by the short novels Musk-Ox (May 1863) and The Life of a Peasant Woman (September, 1863). In August the compilation Three stories by M. Stebnitsky came out. Another trip, to Riga in summer, resulted in a report on the Old Believers community there, which

24254-448: The remote regions of Russia, the young man learned local dialects and became keenly interested in the customs and ways of the different ethnic and regional groups of Russian peoples. Years later, when asked what the source of the endless stream of stories that seemed to pour out of him ceaselessly was, Leskov said, pointing at his forehead: "From this trunk. Here pictures from the six or seven years of my commercial career are being kept, from

24435-454: The repressive nature of Tsarist Russia") were invariably chosen. "He is a brilliant author, an insightful scholar of our ways of life, and still he's not being given enough credit", Maxim Gorky wrote in 1928, deploring the fact that after the 1917 Revolution Leskov was still failing to gain ground in his homeland as a major classic. The inability of the new literary ideologists to counterbalance demands of propaganda with attempts at objectivity

24616-406: The right to enter a university, but they hold a kind of mock examination which is designed to test their eligibility for a certain university. The Albanian National Lyceum was a high school in the city of Korçë , Albania , that emphasized French culture and European values. The school fully functioned with a French cultural emphasis from 1917 to 1939. The school was continued post World War II as

24797-399: The risk assessment for potential cholera outbreaks. Understanding the seasonality and location of outbreaks provides guidance for improving cholera control activities for the most vulnerable. For prevention to be effective, it is important that cases be reported to national health authorities. Spanish physician Jaume Ferran i Clua developed the first successful cholera inoculation in 1885,

24978-403: The rumour, the author demanded that the authorities should come up with a definitive statement which would either confirm or confute those allegations. The radical press construed this as being aimed at inciting the common people against the students and instigating police repressions. On the other hand, the authorities were unhappy too, for the article implied that they were doing little to prevent

25159-798: The same name as Leskov's daughter by his own marriage) Bubnova, was officially adopted by Leskov, who took care that his stepdaughter got a good education; she embarked upon a career in music. In 1866 Bubnova gave birth to their son, Andrey (1866–1953). In August 1878 Leskov and Bubnova parted, and, with Andrey, Nikolai moved into the Semyonov house at the corner of Kolomenskaya St. and Kuznechny Lane, in Saint Petersburg. Bubnova suffered greatly at having her son taken away from her, as her letters, published many years later, attested. In November 1883 Varya Dolina (daughter of E.A. Cook, Leskov's maidservant and ethnic Finn) joined Leskov and his son, first as

25340-601: The same time, Leskov was working on two of his "Stargorod Chronicles", later regarded as part of a trilogy, along with The Cathedral Folk , Old Years in Plodomasovo (1869) and A Decayed Family (1873), each featuring a strong female character: virtuous, courageous, noble and "reasonably humane". Both works bore signs of being unfinished. It later transpired that the second work was ill-received by Mikhail Katkov, and that Leskov, having lost all interest, simply refused to complete what otherwise might have been developed into

25521-406: The spread of cholera. They also stress the importance of an effective surveillance system. Governments can play a role in all of these areas. Although cholera may be life-threatening, prevention of the disease is normally straightforward if proper sanitation practices are followed. In developed countries , due to their nearly universal advanced water treatment and sanitation practices, cholera

25702-555: The staff of the Northern Bee ( Severnaya ptchela ), a liberal newspaper edited by Pavel Usov. There Leskov met journalist Arthur Benni , a Polish-born British citizen, with whom he forged a great friendship and later came to defend, as leftist radicals in Petersburg started to spread rumours about his being "an English spy" and having links with the 3rd Department . For Severnaya ptchela Leskov (now writing as M. Stebnitsky,

25883-646: The stomach, mucous layers, and intestinal wall. Researchers have discovered a complex cascade of regulatory proteins controls expression of V. cholerae virulence determinants. In responding to the chemical environment at the intestinal wall, the V. cholerae bacteria produce the TcpP/TcpH proteins, which, together with the ToxR/ToxS proteins, activate the expression of the ToxT regulatory protein. ToxT then directly activates expression of virulence genes that produce

26064-602: The summer of 1860, when Scott & Wilkins closed, he returned to Kiev to work there as a journalist for a while, then in the end of the year moved to Saint Petersburg . Leskov began writing in the late 1850s, making detailed reports to the directors of Scott & Wilkins , and recounting his meetings and contracts in personal letters to Scott. The latter, marveling at his business partner's obvious literary gift, showed them to writer Ilya Selivanov who found these pieces "worthy of publication". Leskov considered his long essay "Sketches on Wine Industry Issues", written in 1860 about

26245-613: The surface of the intestinal epithelium cells. The A1 portion of the A subunit is an enzyme that ADP-ribosylates G proteins , while the A2 chain fits into the central pore of the B subunit ring. Upon binding, the complex is taken into the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis . Once inside the cell, the disulfide bond is reduced, and the A1 subunit is freed to bind with a human partner protein called ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6). Binding exposes its active site, allowing it to permanently ribosylate

26426-455: The time of his death in 1895 Leskov "had few friends in literary circles but a great many readers all over Russia," according to Mirsky. In 1897 The Adolf Marks publishing house re-issued the 1889–1893 12-volume series and in 1902–1903 released the 36-volume version of it, expanded with essays, articles and letters. This, along with Anatoly Faresov 's memoirs, Against the Grain (1904), caused

26607-612: The times when I travelled across Russia on business trips. Those were the best years of my life. I saw a lot and life was easy for me." In Russian Society in Paris he wrote: "I think I know the Russian man down to the very bottom of his nature but I give myself no credit for that. It's just that I've never tried to investigate the 'people's ways' by having conversations with Petersburg's cabmen. I just grew up among common people." Up until 1860 Leskov resided with members of his family (and that of Alexander Scott) in Raisky, Penza Governorate. In

26788-410: The toxins, causing diarrhea in the infected person and allowing the bacteria to colonize the intestine. Current research aims at discovering "the signal that makes the cholera bacteria stop swimming and start to colonize (that is, adhere to the cells of) the small intestine." Amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting of the pandemic isolates of V. cholerae has revealed variation in

26969-616: The transportation of the Oryol-based serfs of Count Perovsky to the Southern Russian steppes, not entirely successfully, as he later described in his autobiographical short story "The Product of Nature". While working for this company, which, in Leskov's words, "was eager to exploit whatever the region could provide," he derived valuable experience, making him an expert in numerous branches of industry and agriculture. The firm employed him as an agent envoy; while travelling through

27150-428: The whole of enlightened Russia loves you as an outstanding, distinguished writer and as a thinking man." The sittings early the next year were aborted: Leskov was unwilling to have his portrait seen at a forthcoming exhibition of Repin's works. In September 1888 Pyotr Bykov published a full bibliography of Leskov's works (1860–1887) which intrigued publishers. In 1889 Alexei Suvorin 's publishing house began publishing

27331-419: The word liceo when referring to a high school. Another term is enseñanza media (secondary education); however, liceo is the most common term due to Chile's extensive European influence. Liceo is commonly used to refer to secondary education. It was adopted from the French immigrants of the 19th century. Cholera Cholera ( / ˈ k ɒ l ər ə / ) is an infection of

27512-457: The word líceum . In contemporary Hungarian, the most ubiquitous word for these institutions is gimnázium , but líceum lives on as an archaizing word referring to schools of high prestige and revered traditions, most notably Calvinist boarding schools . The lyceum is considered by most the hardest and most prestigious kind of secondary school in Italy. The term liceo refers to

27693-756: The word lyceum in their name. The Lyceum of the Philippines University (LPU) is a university in Manila established by former wartime president José P. Laurel . Among its notable alumni are former president Rodrigo Duterte , popular author Rene Villanueva , and actor Cesar Montano . LPU has campuses in Makati, Batangas, Laguna, Cavite, and Davao. The Filipino word for lyceum is liseo from Spanish liceo which can be found in some names of various universities and educational institutions which are unaffiliated with LPU. Lyceums also emerged in

27874-451: The world. Recent major outbreaks are the 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak and the 2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak . In October 2016, an outbreak of cholera began in war-ravaged Yemen . WHO called it "the worst cholera outbreak in the world". In 2019, 93% of the reported 923,037 cholera cases were from Yemen (with 1911 deaths reported). Between September 2019 and September 2020, a global total of over 450,000 cases and over 900 deaths

28055-406: Was an amorphous, loosely structured piece of work, with several plotlines intertwined – the form Leskov thought the traditional novel was destined to be superseded by. Decades later scholars praised the story, comparing the character of Ivan Flyagin to that of Ilya Muromets , as symbolizing "the physical and moral duress of the Russian man in times of trouble," but the response of contemporary critics

28236-511: Was born. She married Dmitry Noga in 1879 and died in 1918. Leskov's marriage was an unhappy one; his wife suffered from severe psychological problems and in 1878 had to be taken to the St. Nicholas Mental Hospital in Saint Petersburg. She died in 1909. In 1865 Ekaterina Bubnova (née Savitskaya), whom he met for the first time in July 1864, became Leskov's common-law wife. Bubnova had four children from her first marriage; one of whom, Vera (coincidentally

28417-620: Was celebrated each year with carousals and revels, and Pushkin composed new verses for each of those occasions. In January 1844 the Lyceum was moved to Saint Petersburg . During 33 years of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum's existence, there were 286 graduates. The most famous of these were Anton Delwig , Wilhelm Küchelbecher , Nicholas de Giers , Dmitry Tolstoy , Yakov Karlovich Grot , Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky , Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky and Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin . Since

28598-478: Was considerable but the critics continued to neglect him. Leskov's case is a striking instance of the failure of Russian criticism to do its duty. After his 1862 article on the "great fires" and the 1864 novel No Way Out , Leskov found himself in total isolation which in the 1870s and 1880s was only partially relieved. Apollon Grigoriev , the only critic who valued him and approved of his work, died in 1864 and, according to Mirsky, "Leskov owed his latter popularity to

28779-528: Was established. In 2002, another Russian lyceum was established in Daugavpils ( Daugavpils Krievu vidusskola - licejs ), renamed to Daugavpils High School of Technologies ( Daugavpils Tehnoloģiju vidusskola - licejs ) in 2020. Some gymnasiums are called licėjus , e.g. Vilnius Lyceum . Junior lyceums refer to secondary education state owned schools. Until recently, in the Republic of Moldova

28960-435: Was evidenced in the 1932 Soviet Literary Encyclopedia entry, which said: "In our times when the problem-highlighting type of novel has gained prominence, opening up new horizons for socialism and construction, Leskov's relevancy as a writer, totally foreign to the major tendencies of our Soviet literature, naturally wanes. The author of "Lefty", though, retains some significance as a chronicler of his social environment and one of

29141-947: Was founded in 1675 by the king Charles XI of Sweden (in Latin, Schola Carolina ), and was renamed to the Imperial Lyceum of Riga (in German, Kaiserliches Lyceum zu Riga ) in 1733. In September 1921, the Riga French Lycée , an upper secondary school supported by the Government of France was founded in Riga. In 1989, during the Latvian National Awakening , the Pushkin Lyceum of Riga ( Puškina licejs ) with education programs in Russian

29322-593: Was held in silence, in accordance with the writer's December 1892 will, forbidding any speeches to be held over his dead body. "I know I have many bad things in me and do not deserve to be praised or pitied," he explained. Leskov was interred in the Literatorskiye Mostki necropolis at the Volkovo Cemetery in Saint Petersburg (the section reserved for literary figures). Due to Leskov's purportedly difficult nature (he has been described as despotic, vindictive, quick-tempered and prone to didacticism), he spent

29503-586: Was in these years that Leskov debuted as a dramatist. The Spendthrift (Rastratchik), published by Literaturnaya biblioteka in May 1867, was staged first at the Alexandrinsky Theatre (as a benefit for actress E. Levkeeva), then in December at Moscow's Maly Theater (with E. Chumakovskaya in the lead). The play was poorly received for "conveying pessimism and asocial tendencies." All the while Leskov

29684-444: Was inevitably influenced by. On 18 April 1887, Leskov wrote a letter to Tolstoy asking for permission to visit him in Moscow so as to fulfill a "long-standing desire." On 25 April the two authors met. "What a bright and original man," Tolstoy later wrote in a letter to Chertkov. Leskov spent January 1890 with Chertkov and Tolstoy at Yasnaya Polyana , where Tolstoy read to them his own play The Fruits of Enlightenment . In July 1883

29865-625: Was lukewarm, Nikolay Mikhaylovsky complaining of its general formlessness: "details stringed together like beads, totally interchangeable." While all of Leskov's previous works were severely cut, this was the first one to be rejected outright; it had to be published in the odd October and November issues of the Russky mir newspaper . In December 1873 Leskov took part in Skladchina , the charity anthology aimed at helping victims of famine in Russia. Having severed ties with The Russian Messenger , Leskov found himself in serious financial trouble. This

30046-462: Was married to a rich Oryol landlord named Strakhov who owned the village of Gorokhovo ("a beautiful, wealthy and well-groomed estate... where the hosts lived in luxury," according to Leskov) another was the wife of an Englishman, the chief steward for several local estates and a large trade company owner. Leskov spent his first eight years in Gorokhovo, where his grandmother lived and where his mother

30227-421: Was missing, included essays and letters carefully selected. Yet, in fifty years' time things changed radically. While in 1931, on Leskov's 100th Anniversary, critics wrote of the "scandalous reputation which followed Leskov's literary life from beginning to the end," by 1981 Leskov, according to the critic Lev Anninsky , was regarded as a first rank Russian classic and academic essays on him had found their place in

30408-462: Was new to the Russian reader in them was, as Mirsky noted, "a boldly outspoken treatment of sensual episodes"; some critics accused the author of "treating his moral subjects as nothing but pretexts for the display of voluptuous and sensual scenes." In February 1883 the essay "Leap-frog in Church and Local Parish Whimsies" (based on an officially documented episode concerning the outrageous behaviour of

30589-451: Was on a trip through Warsaw, Dresden, Marienbad, Prague and Vienna, a special censorship order came out, demanding withdrawal of 125 books from Russian libraries, Leskov's collection Trifles from the Life of Archbishops (1878–79) included. In November 1884, Nov magazine began publishing the novel The Unseen Trail : it was banned after chapter 26 and has never been completed. In November 1888

30770-452: Was only an occasional guest. He acquired his early education in the house of Strakhov, who employed tutors from Germany and France for his own children. As the German teacher started to praise Leskov for his gifts, his life became difficult, due to the jealousy of his hosts. At his grandmother's request, his father took Nikolai back to Oryol where he settled in the family house at 3 Dvoryanskaya Street. In 1839 Semyon Leskov lost his job through

30951-497: Was published as a brochure at the end of the year. In February 1864 Biblioteka Dlya Chteniya magazine began serially publishing his debut novel No Way Out (the April and May issues of the magazine, stopped by the censors, came out in June). The novel bore "every sign of haste and literary incompetence," as its author later admitted, but proved to be a powerful debut in its own way. No Way Out , which satirized nihilist communes on

31132-896: Was published in Severny vestnik and caused an uproar. The 1894 novella The Rabbit Warren about a clergyman who'd been honoured for reporting people to the authorities and driving a police official into madness by his zealousness (one of "his most remarkable works and his greatest achievement in concentrated satire," according to Mirsky) was also banned and came out only in 1917 (in Niva magazine). The process of having his works published, which had always been difficult for Leskov, at this late stage became, in his own words, "quite unbearable". In his last years Leskov suffered from angina pectoris and asthma . There were also rumours, whose accuracy and substantiation have been questioned, that he had been diagnosed with male breast cancer . In early 1894 he caught

31313-593: Was relieved to an extent by his invitation in January 1874 to join the Scholarly Committee of the Ministry of Education (for this he owed much to the Empress consort Maria Alexandrovna who was known to have read The Cathedral Folk and spoke warmly to it), where his duty was to choose literature for Russian libraries and atheneums for a meager wage of one thousand rubles per year. In 1874 Leskov began writing Wandering Lights: A Biography of Praotsev which

31494-629: Was reported; however, the accuracy of these numbers suffer from over-reporting from countries that report suspected cases (and not laboratory confirmed cases), as well as under-reporting from countries that do not report official cases (such as Bangladesh, India and Philippines). Although much is known about the mechanisms behind the spread of cholera, researchers still do not have a full understanding of what makes cholera outbreaks happen in some places and not others. Lack of treatment of human feces and lack of treatment of drinking water greatly facilitate its spread. Bodies of water have been found to serve as

31675-585: Was retrieved and utilized by Napoleon in 1802 to name the main secondary education establishments. From France the name spread in many countries influenced by French culture. The Goa Lyceum ( Portuguese : Liceu de Goa ) in Panaji , Goa – established in 1854, following the Portuguese model – was the first public secondary school in the state, then a Portuguese territory. Later, the Goa Lyceum received

31856-425: Was said to be one of his major influences. In 1853 Leskov married Olga Smirnova; they had one son, Dmitry (who died after only a year), and a daughter, Vera. In 1857 Leskov quit his job in the office and joined the private trading company Scott & Wilkins (Шкотт и Вилькенс) owned by Alexander Scott, his aunt Polly's Scottish husband. Later he wrote of this in one of his short autobiographical sketches: "Soon after

32037-419: Was soon halted and later printed as Early Years: From Merkula Praotsev’s Memoirs . It was during the publication of this work that the author made a comment which was later seen as his artistic manifesto: "Things pass by us and I'm not going to diminish or boost their respective significance; I won't be forced into doing so by the unnatural, man-made format of the novel which demands the rounding up of fabulas and

32218-771: Was taught in Serbian . It was founded in 1838 on the initiative of Prince Miloš Obrenović in 1838 in Kragujevac , then the capital of Serbia. When Belgrade became the Serbian capital in 1841, the Serbian Lyceum opened there. In 1863 it became known as the Grandes écoles until 1905 when it officially changed its name to the University of Belgrade . The Turkish word for the latest part of pre-university education

32399-440: Was the first recorded incidence of epidemiological tracking. The primary symptoms of cholera are profuse diarrhea and vomiting of clear fluid. These symptoms usually start suddenly, half a day to five days after ingestion of the bacteria. The diarrhea is frequently described as "rice water" in nature and may have a fishy odor. An untreated person with cholera may produce 10 to 20 litres (3 to 5 US gal) of diarrhea

32580-412: Was working as a critic: his six-part series of essays on the St. Petersburg Drama Theater was completed in December 1867. In February 1868 Stories by M.Stebnitsky (Volume 1) came out in Saint Petersburg to be followed by Volume 2 in April; both were criticized by the leftist press, Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin in particular. In 1870 Leskov published the novel At Daggers Drawn , another attack aimed at

32761-504: Was written in December, and published by Kievskaya Starina , in its February and April issues. By this time a large Russian Antics cycle began to take shape, in which Leskov implemented, as he saw it, Nikolai Gogol 's idea (formulated in the Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends ) of "extoling modest working men." "It is wrong and unworthy to pick out the worst in the soul of the Russian man, so I embarked on my own journey looking for virtuous ones. Whoever I asked would reply to

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