Gerolamo " Nino " Bixio ( Italian: [dʒeˈrɔːlamo ˈniːno ˈbiksjo] ; Ligurian: [ˈbiːʒu] ; 2 October 1821 – 16 December 1873) was an Italian general, patriot and politician, one of the most prominent figures in the Italian unification .
91-566: He was born Gerolamo Bixio in Genoa. While still a boy, Bixio was compelled by his parents to embrace a career in the navy of the Kingdom of Sardinia . After numerous adventures in various places of the world, he returned to Italy in 1846, joining the Giovine Italia . On 4 November 1847, he made himself conspicuous at Genoa by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert 's horse and crying, "Pass
182-597: A Viceroy governing the island on the king's behalf. This arrangement continued after the personal union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon to form Spain under the Habsburg dynasty . During this time the island became a target for Barbary pirates , due to the frequent wars between Spain and the Ottoman Empire . From the 1570s onward a series of towers, known today as the Spanish Towers, were built around
273-630: A composite state during the Savoyard period, was a country in Southern Europe from the late 13th until the mid-19th century; officially 1297 to 1768 for the Corsican part of this kingdom. The kingdom was a member of the Council of Aragon and initially consisted of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia , sovereignty over both of which was claimed by the papacy , which granted them as
364-616: A blue border, or using a blue flag with the Savoy cross in one canton. Eventually, King Charles Albert of Savoy adopted the "revolutionary" Italian tricolor , surmounted by the Savoyard shield, as his flag. This flag would later become the flag of the Kingdom of Italy , and the tricolor without the Savoyard escutcheon remains the flag of Italy . References : Composite state List of forms of government Philosophers Works A composite monarchy (or composite state )
455-488: A fief, the regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae ("kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" ), to King James II of Aragon in 1297. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia and established de facto their de jure authority. In 1420, after the Sardinian–Aragonese war , the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile , Sardinia became
546-448: A larger political unit without significant conflict. The monarch attempted in each case to ensure the "guarantee of preserving peace, order and justice, and to care for the poor." Most of Europe during the early modern period was governed under arrangements that can be described as composite monarchies. Diversity in arrangements was essential to ensure the unity of composite kingdoms, as they were often very diverse. Composite monarchies in
637-656: A liberal ministry under Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was installed and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the engine driving Italian unification . The Kingdom of Sardinia took part in the Crimean War , allied with the Ottoman Empire , Britain , and France, and fighting against Russia. In 1859, France sided with the Kingdom of Sardinia in a war against Austria , the Austro-Sardinian War . Napoleon III did not keep his promises to Cavour to fight until all of
728-484: A military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of Cagliari and Gallura along with the city of Sassari , claiming the territory as the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica . In 1353, Arborea waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of
819-594: A part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire . In 1720, the island and its kingdom were ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to the Duke of Savoy , Victor Amadeus II . The Savoyards united it with their historical possessions on the Italian mainland, and the kingdom came to be progressively identified with the mainland states, which included, besides Savoy and Aosta , dynastic possessions like
910-566: A prison in Bologna. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica (later, just the "Kingdom of Sardinia" from 1460 ) was a state whose king was the King of Aragon , who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called the Crown of Aragon , and united only in
1001-479: A revolt took place, claimed by Garibaldi to have been led by local criminals and bandits, which caused the massacre of 16 people including peasants, officers, nobles (including two children) and a priest; during the revolt, the town theater and municipal archives were set on fire. On 4 August 1860, Garibaldi decided to send Bixio to suppress the revolt and punishing the responsible. Once he arrived with two battalions of Red Shirts , Bixio besieged and successfully secured
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#17327763567781092-586: A secret clause in the Treaty of Anagni . This was an inducement to join in the effort to restore Sicily , then under the rule of James's brother Frederick III of Sicily , to the Angevin dynasty over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeeded Byzantine imperial rule in
1183-441: A unification where the united territories share the same laws and are regarded as the same jurisdiction. The second arrangement involved the preservation of local customs and power structures. These structures were ruled by a central ruler who either only broadly created state policy with deference to local rule and respect for local religious cultural and political customs; or where there was a more significant central role, negotiated
1274-426: Is a historical category, introduced by H. G. Koenigsberger in 1975 and popularised by Sir John H. Elliott , that describes early modern states consisting of several countries under one ruler, sometimes designated as a personal union , who governs his territories as if they were separate kingdoms, in accordance with local traditions and legal structures. The composite state became the most common type of state in
1365-672: The Statuto Albertino . By the time of the Crimean War in 1853, the Savoyards had built the kingdom into a strong power. There followed the annexation of Lombardy (1859), the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies (1860), Venetia (1866), and the Papal States (1870). On 17 March 1861, to more accurately reflect its new geographic, cultural and political extent, the Kingdom of Sardinia changed its name to
1456-634: The Balearics , commanded by Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī (Latinized as Museto ). The Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicates with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa . Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Arabs. After the Great Schism , Rome made many efforts to restore Latinity to
1547-488: The Catholic Monarchs in the late fifteenth century, which united through a dynastic union , a form of federation, the Crown of Castille and the Crown of Aragon . Throughout much of the early modern period, each Spanish realm retained its own freedoms and laws , and this included administrative and governance arrangements, different monetary systems and borders. Modes of taxation are an excellent example of
1638-592: The Church of Scotland ( Presbyterian Church ) and Scots law were preserved, while no separate church or legal system for Wales remained. England and Wales integrated, while Scotland retained many of its unique institutions and traditions. To this day, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (the majority of Ireland broke away as the Irish Free State in 1922, which later became the modern Republic of Ireland ) remain separate legal jurisdictions within
1729-679: The Holy Roman Empire , the Crowns of Castile and Aragon , the Kingdom of France, and the early modern predecessors of the United Kingdom ( England and Wales , Scotland, and the Kingdom of Ireland ) are prominent examples of composite rule. Remnants of the Byzantine Empire from Eastern Europe were united under Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II by 1453, and the empire incorporated a vast collection of territories surrounding
1820-525: The Houses of Anjou and Aragon , established on paper a Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae that would be a fief of the papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the Pope offered his newly created fief to James II of Aragon , promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323 James II formed an alliance with Hugh II of Arborea and, following
1911-669: The Judicate of Arborea in the course of war with the Republic of Pisa , James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states of Cagliari and Gallura and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347, Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of the Republic of Genoa , which controlled most of the lands of the former Logudoro state in north-western Sardinia, including
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#17327763567782002-649: The Kingdom of Aragon : "In 1582 he favoured the demands of Catalonia’s elites over those of Barcelona’s artisans, but under different circumstances he took the opposite stance in Aragon.", due to worsening relations between the Spanish monarchy and the Aragonese nobility, which was accused of "protecting bandits". The early modern predecessors of the United Kingdom ( England and Wales , Ireland and later including Scotland ) included both an accessory union and aeque principali union. The union between England and Wales
2093-481: The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia had been conquered. Following the bloody battles of Magenta and Solferino , both French victories, Napoleon thought the war too costly to continue and made a separate peace behind Cavour's back in which only Lombardy would be ceded. Due to the Austrian government's refusal to cede any lands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, they agreed to cede Lombardy to Napoleon, who in turn then ceded
2184-651: The Kingdom of Naples , Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan. During the War of the Quadruple Alliance , Victor Amadeus II , Duke of Savoy and King of Sicily, had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the Treaty of The Hague of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century,
2275-804: The Maddalena archipelago in the Strait of Bonifacio from the Republic of Genoa and claimed it as part of Sardinia. Since then the archipelago has been a part of the Sardinian region. In 1792, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the other states of the Savoy Crown joined the First Coalition against the French First Republic , but was beaten in 1796 by Napoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageous Treaty of Paris (1796) , giving
2366-459: The Republic of Genoa . Following Geneva 's accession to Switzerland , the Treaty of Turin (1816) transferred Carouge and adjacent areas to the newly created Swiss Canton of Geneva . In 1847–48, through an act of Union analogous to the one between Great Britain and Ireland , the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system with their capital in Turin, and granted a constitution,
2457-654: The Ticino , Sire, and we are all with you." He fought through the campaign of 1848, became captain under Giuseppe Garibaldi at Rome in 1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion , and gaining the gold medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a Hunters of the Alps battalion, fought in the Battle of Varese , and gained the Military Cross of Savoy . One of the organizers of Garibaldi's 1860 Expedition of
2548-474: The Treaty of Stupinigi , the Kingdom of Sardinia extended its protectorate over the Principality of Monaco . In the reaction after Napoleon, the country was ruled by conservative monarchs: Victor Emmanuel I (1802–21), Charles Felix (1821–31) and Charles Albert (1831–49), who fought at the head of a contingent of his own troops at the Battle of Trocadero , which set the reactionary Ferdinand VII on
2639-524: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Ireland retained its own legal system, which continues today as Northern Irish Law . The Kingdoms of England and Ireland were united with Scotland in a personal union from 1603 ( Union of the crowns ). England and Scotland were legally united by the Acts of Union 1707 , forming the Kingdom of Great Britain . However, this union preserved institutions, customs and legal traditions peculiar to Scotland. For example,
2730-627: The late medieval and early modern era in Europe . Koenigsberger divides composite states into two classes: those, like the Spanish Empire , that consisted of countries separated by either other states or by the sea, and those, like Poland–Lithuania , that were contiguous. A medieval example of a composite monarchy was the Angevin Empire . Theorists of the 16th century believed that "conformity" (similarity in language and customs)
2821-671: The 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of the Judicate of Cagliari (the so-called Carta Volgare ), issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in 1070, was already written in the Romance Sardinian language , albeit with the Greek alphabet . The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates of Cagliari , Arborea , Gallura and Logudoro , perfectly organized as
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2912-648: The 5th century when it was occupied by the Vandals , who had also settled in north Africa. In 534 AD it was reconquered by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire . It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century. After that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Facing Arab attempts to sack and conquer, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used
3003-538: The 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the Anagni treaty. Genoa had also ruled Corsica since conquering the island nearly two centuries before ( c . 1133). There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against the Ghibelline (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and
3094-529: The Arborean army led by Brancaleone Doria again swept most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in the Battle of Sanluri . After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for
3185-460: The Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by a viceroy . In 1420, Alfonso V of Aragon , king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, bought the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins of
3276-524: The Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms, communes and signorie , the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, the introduction of a sterile feudalism , as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of uprisings occurred under the local noble Leonardo Alagon , marquess of Oristano , who defended his territories against Viceroy Nicolò Carroz and managed to defeat
3367-518: The French army free passage through Piedmont. On 6 December 1798 Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. In 1799 the Austro-Russians briefly occupied the city, but with the Battle of Marengo (1800), the French regained control. The island of Sardinia stayed out of
3458-768: The Garibaldines entered in Reggio Calabria , in the Neapolitan mainland. He took part in the Battle of the Volturno , where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861, he endeavored to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at the head of the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat from the Battle of Custoza , ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender. Appointed senator in February 1870, he
3549-760: The Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to the Latin Church , but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture. In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII , intervening between
3640-466: The Italian capital until 1865, when the capital was moved to Florence . But many revolts exploded throughout the peninsula, especially in southern Italy, and on the island of Sicily, because of the perceived unfair treatment of the south by the Piedmontese ruling class. The House of Savoy ruled Italy until 1946, when Italy was declared a republic by referendum . The result was 54.3% in favor of
3731-487: The Judicate of Arborea in the 1420 from the last judge, William III of Narbonne , and the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese ) that was stolen from the Doria in 1448, and renamed Castillo Aragonés ( Aragonese Castle ). Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with
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3822-466: The Kingdom of Italy , and its capital was eventually moved first to Florence and then to Rome . The Savoy-led Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was thus the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, which in turn is the predecessor of the present-day Italian Republic . In 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire . The Romans ruled the island until the middle of
3913-660: The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, the Archons (ἄρχοντες) or, in Latin, judices , who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia (Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δού λού σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δού ληςσου Γετιτ ), even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu (Tουρκοτουριου βασιλικου προτοσπαθαριου και Σαλουσιου των ευγενεστατων άρχωντων), who probably ruled in
4004-401: The Kingdom of Sardinia were to keep the new acquisitions they would have to cede Savoy and Nice to France. This was done through the Treaty of Turin , which also called for referendums to confirm the annexation. Subsequently, somewhat controversial referendums showed over 99.5% majorities in both areas in favour of joining France. In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer
4095-506: The Mediterranean. The Ottoman Sultan had succeeded in “superimposing” the Byzantine empire with Ottoman Rule. Ottoman lands contained a wide variety of cultural, legal and religious traditions. The Ottomans maintained an aeque principali empire where local customs and traditional practices were perpetuated. In many cases, the Ottomans allowed subject peoples including Christians and Jews to have their own communities where their own particular laws and customs were retained and integrated into
4186-457: The Ottoman Empire towards internal polities, particularly those considered suitable for these measures by the Ottoman court. Early modern Spain was an example of a composite monarchy based on the aeque principali approach. The Spanish approach involved separate administrative and taxation arrangements for each territory. Composite monarchy in Spain started with the Reconquista and the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon ,
4277-465: The Ottoman court ways. The Ottoman Empire's most striking difference with other composite monarchies in Europe was that it allowed religious freedom to a greater extent than the Europeans did. The Ottomans did not require that their subjects adhere to the religion of the monarch, a requirement that usually was a major part of composite kingdoms. The Ottoman Empire was diverse relatively to Europe and some historians argue there were minor restrictions on
4368-405: The Principality of Piedmont and the County of Nice , over both of which the Savoyards had been exercising their control since the 13th century and 1388, respectively. The formal name of this composite state was the " States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia ", and it was and is referred to as either Sardinia – Piedmont , Piedmont–Sardinia , or erroneously the Kingdom of Piedmont , since
4459-414: The Republic. When the Duchy of Savoy acquired the Kingdom of Sicily in 1713 and the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1723, the flag of Savoy became the flag of a naval power. This posed the problem that the same flag was already in use by the Knights of Malta . Because of this, the Savoyards modified their flag for use as a naval ensign in various ways, adding the letters FERT in the four cantons, or adding
4550-405: The Sardinian Parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy , so ratifying the annexations of all other Apennine states, plus Sicily, to the Kingdom of Sardinia. The institutions and laws of the kingdom were quickly extended to all of Italy, abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont became the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, remained
4641-471: The Sardinian church, politics and society, and to finally reunify the island under one Catholic ruler, as it had been for all of southern Italy, when the Byzantines had been driven away by Catholic Normans . Even the title of "Judge" was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, in times of harsh relations between eastern and western churches ( Massacre of the Latins , 1182, Siege of Constantinople (1204) , Recapture of Constantinople , 1261). Before
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#17327763567784732-438: The Spanish throne. Victor Emmanuel I disbanded the entire Code Napoléon and returned the lands and power to the nobility and the Church. This reactionary policy went as far as discouraging the use of roads built by the French. These changes typified Sardinia. The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the Statuto Albertino , was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848 under liberal pressure. In
4823-449: The Thousand against the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , he turned the day in favor of the Thousand at the Battle of Calatafimi . Meanwhile, the Sicilian peasants had hoped for – and did not get from Garibaldi – reforms from the restrictive conditions imposed by noble landowners. This hope had been reinforced by Garibaldi's decree of 2 June 1860 that land would be redistributed. At the little village of Bronte, Sicily in Catania province,
4914-416: The beach and his grave could not be seen at high tide. In 1876, a small military expedition of the Dutch East Indian forces set out to pinpoint the precise spot, but met with disaster as several soldiers were brutally slain in the attempt. Kingdom of Sardinia The Kingdom of Sardinia , also referred to as the Kingdom of Sardinia - Piedmont , Sardegna and Corsica or Piedmont–Sardinia as
5005-537: The broader Ottoman system; which often included separate legal codes for each territory. This approach is similar to the approaches of other composite monarchies except that the Ottoman territories included a more diverse population. Unlike most European examples, the Ottoman ruling class included a wide variety of people and cultural traditions. Entrance to the Ottoman ruling class was not exclusively by birth, but many other cultural and linguistic traditions were included as long as they were Muslim and had deep knowledge of
5096-404: The central government. Diversity of social classes further complicated Spanish composite rule. The central government had to take into account not only peculiarities in local customs and institutions but also local variations in social structure and the interests of the social structure. In the case of the practice of hoarding in Barcelona, the interests of the Guilds and artisan estate differed from
5187-405: The city of Alghero and the semiautonomous Republic of Sassari , and added them to its direct domains. The Judicate of Arborea , the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership of Marianus IV , started
5278-413: The city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese ), which had been stolen from the Doria in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrested from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the kingdom. Under the Crown of Aragon Sardinia continued to be governed as a semi-independent kingdom, retaining its own parliament and
5369-449: The conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" to just the port cities of Cagliari and Alghero and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom. A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388, but tensions continued and, in 1382,
5460-408: The differing arrangements in the Spanish composite monarchy. The system of taxation in Spain varied depending on the kingdom or territory, and sometimes even within kingdoms there were special tax arrangements. The differing tax arrangements led to a reliance on the revenues from the Crown of Castile as opposed to other lands of Spain. While all of Spain was united under the same ruler, each territory
5551-469: The early modern period united diverse territories; while in some cases the unification of territories led to the establishment of nation-states in the modern world, in other cases composite territories did not become a unified nation state. Even in the most unified composite kingdom at the time, France , a majority of subjects did not speak the French language. This demonstrates the extent of diversity even in places considered homogeneous. The Ottoman Empire ,
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#17327763567785642-490: The exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily. Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem , as the House of Savoy still claimed the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem , although both had long been under Ottoman rule. In 1767–1769, Charles Emmanuel III annexed
5733-404: The freedom of minority groups. Christians, Muslims, Jews, Turks, Greeks, Hungarians, Arabs, Armenians, Kurds, guildsmen, and bureaucrats were free to work and live throughout the empire without major hassle. However, others argue the forced abduction of children for the Ottoman military in the Janissary Corps or the practice of forced relocation of ethnic minorities betray a less positive policy in
5824-413: The granting of financial assistance to the King. Although the King had no legislative power, he had the privilege to request papal bulls, and used that privilege to undermine the strength of local elites when it seemed convenient. For example, in the case of the petitions of papal bulls against hoarding to favor popular classes, the King took opposed decisions regarding the Principality of Catalonia and
5915-479: The interests of the clergy and nobility. These differing interests also required resolution from the monarch and his central administrators. The Crown of Aragon was itself a composite monarchy, being an aeque principali union of states (Kingdom of Aragon, Principality of Catalonia, Kingdom of Valencia and Kingdom of Majorca) which developed different laws, tax and monetary systems, governments and parliaments from each other, and were not united politically except at
6006-416: The island of Sardinia had always been of secondary importance to the monarchy. Under Savoyard rule, the kingdom's government, ruling class, cultural models and center of population were entirely situated in the mainland. Therefore, while the capital of the island of Sardinia and the seat of its viceroys had always been de jure Cagliari , it was the Piedmontese city of Turin , the capital of Savoy since
6097-413: The island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172. The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father, Emperor Frederick II in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in
6188-425: The island's coast to guard against pirate raids. The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession . By the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, Spain's European empire was divided: Savoy received Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan , while Charles VI (the Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria ), received the Spanish Netherlands ,
6279-493: The king and his prime minister, wanted to conquer Rome as well. Garibaldi was disappointed in this development, as well as in the loss of his home province, Nice , to France. He also failed to fulfill the promises that had gained him popular and military support by the Sicilians: that the new nation would be a republic, not a kingdom, and that the Sicilians would see great economic gains after unification. The former did not come to pass until 1946. On 17 March 1861, law no. 4671 of
6370-440: The level of the king, who had to deal separately with their different Courts, vow them loyalty and request their financial help. In the Principality of Catalonia , the Catalan Courts had legislative power, and laws could only be made and repealed by mutual consent of King and Courts. In 1519, the Catalan Courts met in Barcelona to recognize the first unified monarch of the crowns of Castile and Aragon, Charles I , and to discuss
6461-630: The mid 16th century, which was the de facto seat of power. This situation would be conferred official status with the Perfect Fusion of 1847, when all the kingdom's governmental institutions would be centralized in Turin. When the mainland domains of the House of Savoy were occupied and eventually annexed by Napoleonic France , the king of Sardinia temporarily resided on the island for the first time in Sardinia's history under Savoyard rule. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which restructured Europe after Napoleon's defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria , taken from
6552-402: The person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy of Ferdinand II of Aragon from that of Isabella I of Castile when they married in 1469. The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII , as a hypothetical entity created for James II of Aragon under
6643-417: The population of the coastal cities. Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century Tharros was abandoned in favor of Oristano , after more than 1800 years of occupation; Caralis , Porto Torres and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from
6734-556: The principle of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along the ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during the Byzantine Empire , a monarchical republic , as it had been since Roman times. Starting from 705 to 706, Saracens from north Africa (recently conquered by Arab armies) harassed
6825-515: The reach of the French for the rest of the war and was, for the first time in centuries governed directly by its king instead of a viceroy. In 1814, the Crown of Savoy enlarged its territories with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa , now a duchy, and it served as a buffer state against France. This was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna , which returned the region of Savoy to its borders after it had been annexed by France in 1792. By
6916-460: The rules for each territory separately in respect and in consideration of local traditions and customs. In the second approach, each territory was governed as though “…the king who [governs them all] were king only of each one of them”. This method of rule meant intervention of the central government or ruler was infrequent or allowed diverse customs and legal arrangements to coexist. This allowed classes, ethnicities and traditions to exist peaceably in
7007-449: The same year the island of Sardinia, a Piedmontese dependency for more than a century, lost its own residual autonomy to the mainland through the so-called Perfect fusion issued by Charles Albert; as a result, the kingdom's fundamental institutions were deeply transformed, assuming the shape of a constitutional and centralized monarchy on the French model; under the same pressure, Charles Albert declared war on Austria. After initial success,
7098-466: The southern Apennines in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He quickly toppled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , which was the largest of the states in the region, stretching from Abruzzo and Naples on the mainland to Messina and Palermo on Sicily. He then marched to Gaeta in the central peninsula. Cavour was satisfied with the unification, while Garibaldi, who was too revolutionary for
7189-468: The territory and then to govern based on the consensus achieved. Composite rule in Spain involved consultation and negotiation between central state officials and each territory individually, often resulting in different agreements and laws for each territory. The composite and diverse nature of monarchical rule in Spain also included the diversity of social classes and the bargaining power that they had versus
7280-438: The territory to the Kingdom of Sardinia to avoid "embarrassing" the defeated Austrians. Cavour angrily resigned from office when it became clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept this arrangement. On 5 March 1860, Piacenza , Parma , Tuscany, Modena , and Romagna voted in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. This alarmed Napoleon III, who feared a strong Savoyard state on his south-eastern border and he insisted that if
7371-477: The viceroy's army in the 1470s, but was later crushed at the Battle of Macomer in 1478, ending any further revolts in the island. The unceasing attacks from north African pirates and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation. Although the " Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica " could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinary de jure state in 1297, its de facto existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of
7462-541: The village. Unfortunately, most of those who had caused the revolt had already run away. Bixio organised a military court which found 150 locals guilty, and sentenced 5 of them to death. This episode reflected Bixio's bias about Sicily, bringing him to write to his wife: "In these regions it is not enough to kill the enemy, it is necessary to torment them, to burn them alive in a slow flame... they are regions that need to be destroyed or at least depopulated, their people sent to Africa to become civilized." By August 21, Bixio and
7553-542: The war took a turn for the worse and Charles Albert was defeated by Marshal Radetzky at the Battle of Custozza (1848) . Like all the various duchies and city-states on the Apennine peninsula and associated islands, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability under alternating governments. After a short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated on 23 March 1849 in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II . In 1852,
7644-407: Was an accessory union. English rules and laws were granted to Wales in the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543 , and Wales was thus absorbed into the Kingdom of England. The Lordship and later Kingdom of Ireland were ruled separately in a personal union with the Kingdom of England (and Scotland after 1603; Great Britain after 1707) until they were legally united by the Acts of Union 1800 , forming
7735-436: Was divided into different customary tax regimes, the pays d'élection and pays d'état . This was abolished during the 1789 Revolution . The 17th-century Spanish jurist Juan de Solórzano Pereira distinguished a state whose components were aeque principaliter (equally important) from an "accessory" union in which a newly acquired territory was subsumed under the laws of an already existing one, such as when New Spain
7826-402: Was important to success of a composite state. Francesco Guicciardini praised the acquisition of the Kingdom of Navarre by the King of Aragon in 1512 on account of their conformità . Yet, differences could be persistent. Navarre retained its own law and customs separate from the rest of Spain down to 1841. In France, a far more unified state than Spain in the early modern period, the state
7917-553: Was in the following September given command of a division during the movement against Rome , took Civitavecchia , and on 20 September 1870, he participated in the capture of Rome , which completed the unification of Italy. On 16 December 1873, he died of cholera at Aceh Bay in Sumatra en route for Batavia (modern-day Jakarta ), where he was slated to take command of a commercial expedition. The exact location of his grave remained unclear. Locals reported that he had been buried on
8008-530: Was incorporated into the Crown of Castile , or when Wales was joined to the Kingdom of England . Composite monarchies were common during the early 15th century to the early to mid 18th century in Europe. A composite monarchy involved the unification of several diverse local territories under one ruler. There are two types of composite monarchy proposed by Sir John H. Elliott , "accessory" union and "aeque principali". The first type of composite monarchy involved
8099-520: Was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea. That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles. Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to Barisone II of Arborea and Enzio of Sardinia . The first could not reunify
8190-490: Was often treated very differently and was ruled by the King and central administrators in line with their power structures. Monarchical rule in early modern Spain was a balancing act, as the monarch attempted to preserve unity and loyalty among each part, which required placating local interests. The approach toward governing each of the Spanish territories was to negotiate to determine the needs of different societal groups within
8281-494: Was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the papacy , which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of the Italian states of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa
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