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161-483: Due to the belief that she could intercede with higher ranking deities, Ninshubur was popular in everyday religion, and many theophoric names invoking her and other references to personal worship are known. Her original cult center was Akkil, but in the Early Dynastic Period she was already worshiped in nearby Uruk . She was also introduced to the pantheon of the state of Lagash , where her cult center

322-610: A Proto-Euphratean goddess, who was only later accepted into the Sumerian pantheon . This idea was supported by Inanna's youthfulness, as well as the fact that, unlike the other Sumerian divinities, she seems to have initially lacked a distinct sphere of responsibilities. The view that there was a Proto-Euphratean substrate language in Southern Iraq before Sumerian is not widely accepted by modern Assyriologists. The name Ishtar occurs as an element in personal names from both

483-504: A genitive suffix ( -ak ) is attested in a variety of sources as well, including personal names from the Ur III period and Old Babylonian literary texts. Wiggermann additionally argues that sometimes the name was rendered simply as Shubur, but this assumption is not universally accepted. Additionally, two forms of Ninshubur's name in the Emesal dialect are known, Gashanshubur, referring to

644-525: A nin-dingir priestess. While Ninshubur's position in offering lists indicates she was a major deity in the local pantheon, very few theophoric names invoking her are attested. Ninshubur is also attested in Early Dynastic texts from Shuruppak , the cult center of Sud . In Umma , she was worshiped alongside Inanna of Zabalam . According to Jennie Myers, Ninshubur is also attested in Sippar, where

805-555: A theophoric element in names from the Ur III period. From the Old Babylonian period onwards, it starts to alternate with sukkal-zi- Eanna , which according to Frans Wiggermann likely indicates that the element anna was understood as the abstract noun "heaven" and not as a reference to the god Anu . A total of fourteen names and titles of Ninshubur are listed in the god list An = Anum (tablet I, lines 31-44). In addition to

966-457: A Sumerian text dated to the Old Babylonian period. Ninshubur was not the only Mesopotamian deity whose gender varied in ancient sources, other examples include Ninkasi (the deity of beer, female in earlier sources but at times male later on), the couple Ninsikila and Lisin , whose genders were in some instances switched around, Uṣur-amāssu , described as a son of Adad in the god list An = Anum but as his daughter in sources from Uruk from

1127-484: A deity possibly analogous to Namtar , and invokes both of them to bless the recipient. Lugalnamtarra, as well as a deity whose name was written as SUKKAL, who according to Odette Boivin might be analogous to Ninshubur, both appear in association with Shamash in texts from the archives of the First Sealand dynasty in place of his usual attendants (such as Bunene ). Akurduana , one of the kings of Sealand, included

1288-484: A deity related to him. The constellation Orion , known in ancient Mesopotamia as Sipazianna, "the true shepherd of heaven", was regarded as the astral symbol of Ninshubur, as well as Ilabrat and Papsukkal. No clear evidence exists regarding Ninshubur's parentage, which is considered unusual in the light of her importance in Mesopotamian religion. In early sources she usually did not have a spouse. In Girsu , she

1449-456: A deity worshiped by commoners at first, and only started to receive offerings from the official administration during the period of the latter monarch's rule. A temple dedicated to her, E-ešbarmeluḫḫa, "house of decisions which cleans the me ," existed in Girsu. It is possible, though not certain, that E-mekilibbasagil, "house which lifts on high all the me ," known from later royal inscriptions,

1610-492: A designation for specific goddesses in contexts in which their functions were analogous to these usually fulfilled by this category of deities, with Gudea occasionally calling the Anuna (in this context a collective term for the major deities) gods "Lamma of all countries". The nature of Lamma can be compared to that of the modern concept of guardian angel . In Mari Kakka, a local healing goddess, attested only in personal names,

1771-454: A different myth, The Return of Dumuzid Inanna instead mourns over Dumuzid's death and ultimately decrees that he will be allowed to return to Heaven to be with her for one half of the year. Dina Katz notes that the portrayal of their relationship in Inanna's Descent is unusual; it does not resemble the portrayal of their relationship in other myths about Dumuzi's death, which almost never pin

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1932-496: A distinct goddess linked to Ningishzida rather than to Ishtar. Another epithet highlighting this aspect of Ishtar's nature was Anunitu ("the martial one"). Like Irnina, Anunitu could also be a separate deity, and as such she is first attested in documents from the Ur III period. Assyrian royal curse-formulas invoked both of Ishtar's primary functions at once, invoking her to remove potency and martial valor alike. Mesopotamian texts indicate that traits perceived as heroic (such as

2093-583: A divine attendant and that of "mother of the land". In addition to this metaphorical role, Ninshubur was also referred to as a "mother" in personal names. However, references to her as an actual "birth mother" are uncommon and unusual according to Julia M. Asher-Greve. It is possible that this aspect of her character was responsible for her unusual and unparalelled placement in the Old Babylonian Mari god list, where she occurs after Ninhursag and Nintur and before Aruru . Some hymns indicate that

2254-651: A female deity who presided over the arts of love. Among the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, the name of the male god eventually supplanted the name of his female counterpart, but, due to extensive syncretism with Inanna, the deity remained as female, although her name was in the masculine form. Inanna has posed a problem for many scholars of ancient Sumer due to the fact that her sphere of power contained more distinct and contradictory aspects than that of any other deity. Two major theories regarding her origins have been proposed. The first explanation holds that Inanna

2415-450: A giant dove emerging from a palm tree in the temple of Ishtar, indicating that the goddess herself was sometimes believed to take the form of a dove. Inanna was associated with the planet Venus , which is named after her Roman equivalent . Several hymns praise Inanna in her role as the goddess or personification of the planet Venus. Theology professor Jeffrey Cooley has argued that, in many myths, Inanna's movements may correspond with

2576-715: A god list from the Early Dynastic period , a hymn of Ishme-Dagan relaying how Enlil and Ninlil bestowed Inanna's powers upon her, a late syncretic hymn to Nanaya , and an Akkadian ritual from Hattusa . While some authors assert that in Uruk Inanna was usually regarded as the daughter of the sky god An , it is possible that references to him as her father are only referring to his status as an ancestor of Nanna and thus his daughter. In literary texts, Enlil or Enki may be addressed as her fathers but references to major gods being "fathers" can also be examples of

2737-429: A heavily armed warrior goddess with a lion as one of her attributes. Doves were also prominent animal symbols associated with Inanna/Ishtar. Doves are shown on cultic objects associated with Inanna as early as the beginning of the third millennium  BCE . Lead dove figurines were discovered in the temple of Ishtar at Aššur, dating to the thirteenth century  BCE and a painted fresco from Mari, Syria shows

2898-470: A king's ability to lead his troops and to triumph over enemies) and sexual prowess were regarded as interconnected. While generally classified as a goddess, Inanna/Ishtar could seem at times to have ambiguous gender. Gary Beckman states that "ambiguous gender identification" was a characteristic not just of Ishtar herself but of a category of deities he refers to as "Ishtar type" goddesses (such as Shaushka , Pinikir or Ninsianna ). A late hymn contains

3059-535: A male deity, it is possible that the goddess Amasagnudi , worshiped alongside Papsukkal in Seleucid Uruk, was originally an epithet of female Ninshubur, a manifestation of her or at least a similar goddess sharing the role of sukkal of Anu. Frans Wiggermann translates this name as "mother who cannot be pushed aside". Julia Krul suggests that the conflation between two deities from the court of Enki , male Isimud and female Ara , might have been influenced by

3220-520: A new temple dedicated to her there. A year name of either this king or his predecessor Ur-Nammu mentions the building of a "temple kitchen" of Ninshubur, which might be related to a foundation tablet dedicated to her found in Uruk, though this remains uncertain. A document from the reign of Shu-Sin indicates that Ninshubur was also worshiped in Bad-tibira. Ninshubur is well attested in sources from

3381-975: A person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that deity. For example, names embedding Apollo , such as Apollonios or Apollodorus , existed in Greek antiquity. Theophoric personal names, containing the name of a god in whose care the individual is entrusted (or a generic word for god ), were also exceedingly common in the ancient Near East and Mesopotamia . Some names of theophoric origin remain common today, such as Theodore ( theo- , "god"; -dore , origin of word compound in Greek: doron , "gift"; hence "God's gift"; in Greek: Theodoros ) or, less recognisably, Jonathan (from Hebrew Yonatan/Yehonatan , meaning "Yahweh has given"). Certain names of classical gods are sometimes given as personal names. The most common

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3542-537: A reputation for engaging in anal sex with men. During the Akkadian Period, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of Ishtar who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples. Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also had homosexual proclivities. Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to

3703-471: A temple of Papsukkal in Kish also known as Akkil, and from a sanctuary of Manungal , the goddess of prisons, also bearing such a name. A number of objects dedicated to "Ninshubur of Akkil" are known, including artifacts from the Early Dynastic period and a vessel inscribed by a sanga priests of Inanna from Uruk in the Ur III period. Some of the former have been dedicated to her by an individual Ur-Akkilla, who

3864-421: A town or as a temple , and favors the latter interpretation due to lack of references to it in economic texts. Joan Goodnick Westenholz in a more recent publication instead concluded it was a town located close to Bad-tibira . Ninshubur's temple located in that settlement was E-(a)akkil, whose ceremonial name has been translated as "house of lamentation" by Andrew R. George . The city is to be distinguished from

4025-654: A variety of sexual rites , was continued by the East Semitic -speaking peoples ( Akkadians , Assyrians and Babylonians ) who succeeded and absorbed the Sumerians in the region. She was especially beloved by the Assyrians , who elevated her to become the highest deity in their pantheon, ranking above their own national god Ashur . Inanna/Ishtar is alluded to in the Hebrew Bible , and she greatly influenced

4186-460: A war deity. Inanna's twin brother was Utu (known as Shamash in Akkadian), the god of the sun and justice. In Sumerian texts, Inanna and Utu are depicted as extremely close; some modern authors even perceive their relationship as bordering on incestuous . In the myth of her descent into the underworld, Inanna addresses Ereshkigal , the queen of the underworld, as her "older sister," yet

4347-518: A widespread hypocoristic name in the third millennium BCE, being considered possible. Ninḫedubi is also attested alongside Papsukkal in a ritual dealing with the restoration of a door. The names of this goddess, as well as her sister Ḫedu, likely were originally derived from the term ḫé-du 7 , literally "may it befit", metaphorically "adornment", but later came to be reinterpreted as references to architectural terms, since ḫé-du 7 ( loaned into Akkadian as ḫittu ) could also mean " architrave ". It

4508-535: Is Diana and its variants, such as Diane ; others include Minerva , Aphrodite , Venus , Isis , or Juno . The first pope to take a regnal name , Pope John II , had the given name Mercurius and changed his name as he considered it inappropriate for the pope to have a pagan deity's name. Some Christian saints have polytheistic theophoric names (such as Saint Dionysius , Saint Mercurius , Saint Saturninus , Saint Hermes , Saint Martin of Tours , Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki ). Rarely, Germanic names contain

4669-516: Is already regarded as a servant of Inanna in the Zame Hymns from Early Dynastic Abu Salabikh . Frans Wiggermann describes the relation between them as very close. It was believed that Inanna bestowed Ninshubur's titles upon her and made her a sukkal . In a hymn (CBS 14073), Inanna addressed Ninshubur endearingly as "my mother". In another, she is called the "beloved attendant" and appears right after Dumuzi and before other relatives. Ninshubur

4830-401: Is also attested in the Early Dynastic god list from Fara , between two separate entries for Ninshubur, but is absent from an analogous text from Abu Salabikh , where only the two Ninshuburs occur. Ultimately the identity of this deity remains uncertain. Sukkalanna, "heavenly vizier", is attested as a further alternate name of Ninshubur. It is her most common epithet, and additionally occurs as

4991-502: Is also possible that Ninkita's name can be interpreted as "lady of the doorstep". An = Anum refers to Māgiru ("obedient") as the " herald " ( gu-za-lá ) of Ninshubur's sanctuary in Akkil (tablet I, line 255), though the same deity is also mentioned alongside Šeri as one of the two bulls of Adad (tablet III, lines 233-234), which according to Wilfred G. Lambert should be considered unusual. Daniel Schwemer  [ de ] states

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5152-485: Is attested as an administrative rank and in this context refers to an official responsible for managing the activities of multiple people holding the rank of sukkal , there is no indication that it had a similar meaning when applied to deities, and in this context its use is most likely only meant to exalt the bearer. Ninshubur was also referred to as sukkalmaḫ in Malgium , though according to Raphael Kutscher in this case

5313-475: Is attested in the most ancient texts from both Ebla and Mari . He considers her, a moon god (e.g., Sin ) and a sun deity of varying gender ( Shamash / Shapash ) to be the only deities shared between various early Semitic peoples of Mesopotamia and ancient Syria, who otherwise had different not necessarily overlapping pantheons. Gwendolyn Leick assumes that during the Pre-Sargonic era, the cult of Inanna

5474-401: Is concerned", Papsukkal being the name of a male messenger deity, Frans Wiggermann argues that the only texts from the third millennium BCE which identify Ninshubur's gender state that she was a goddess, rather than a god. However, Manfred Krebernik and Jan Lisman suggests that two separate Ninshuburs, one male (Inanna's) and one male (Anu's) were already recognized in the Early Dynastic period as

5635-593: Is dedicated to her. This identification is also supported by Joan Goodnick Westenholz . Manfred Krebernik  [ de ] and Jan Lisman in their commentary of this text argue that it cannot be established with certainty that AB.KID.KID and its deity NIN.AB.KID.KID are necessarily Akkil and Ninakkil, respectively, as usually assumed based on the later convention of writing the toponym Akkil as AB.KID, though they do not rule out this possibility. They ultimately conclude that NIN.AB.KID.KID must have been at least analogous to Ninshubur as both deities are described fulfilling

5796-624: Is described as the "beloved SAL.ḪÚB 2 of Inanna", and appears in a short list of members of her family right after Dumuzi . A number of references to Ninshubur as the "mother of the land" are known. A theological text composed during the reign of the Third Dynasty of Ur states that "Ninshubur occupies the land" and includes her among the highest ranking gods, alongside Enlil, Ninlil , Nanna, Inanna, Enki, Nergal , Ninurta and Nuska. The deified hero Gilgamesh appears in it as well, seemingly to elevate his standing among gods due to his role in

5957-668: Is emphasized in the later standard Akkadian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which Gilgamesh points out Ishtar's infamous ill-treatment of her lovers. However, according to assyriologist Dina Katz, the portrayal of Inanna's relationship with Dumuzi in the Descent myth is unusual. Inanna was also worshipped as one of the Sumerian war deities. One of the hymns dedicated to her declares: "She stirs confusion and chaos against those who are disobedient to her, speeding carnage and inciting

6118-571: Is fully grown. The tree grows and matures, but the serpent "who knows no charm", the Anzû -bird, and Lilitu (Ki-Sikil-Lil-La-Ke in Sumerian), seen by some as the Sumerian forerunner to the Lilith of Jewish folklore, all take up residence within the tree, causing Inanna to cry with sorrow. The hero Gilgamesh , who, in this story, is portrayed as her brother, comes along and slays the serpent, causing

6279-498: Is likely that they came from the same family and thus shared the same personal goddess, though he might also have considered her a divine mediator guaranteeing Lagash its territorial rights, regained from rulers of the Akkadian Empire . Another ruler of Lagash who regarded her as his personal goddess was Nammahani , brother in law of Gudea . Gudea himself referred to Ninshubur as his nin ("mistress"). Statues dedicated for

6440-415: Is listed as the title of Ninshubur as a deity associated with these goddesses ( ša la-ma-si ). Julia M. Asher-Greve explains the character of Lamma as that of "protective and tutelary goddesses" and notes that they are the figures most commonly appearing in so-called "presentation scenes" in ancient Mesopotamian art , in which a minor goddess (Lamma) leads a human to a seated major deity. Lamma could also be

6601-411: Is listed one of the possible diagnoses. There is evidence for creation of cult statues and votive offerings dedicated to Ninshubur from various locations in the Early Dynastic period already. Due to her intercessory role, she was popular in the sphere of personal worship, for example as a family deity. She was also among the deities invoked in theophoric names in many periods. Akkil, where Ninshubur

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6762-399: Is not presently known bore the name E-šatezu, "house which knows the soothing of the heart". It is attested in a hymn dedicated to king Shulgi , though it is uncertain if it corresponds to structures dedicated to Ninshubur mentioned in texts from his reign. The role of a mediator between a major deity and worshipers played by Ninshubur in the cult of Inanna has been compared to that played by

6923-439: Is paired with the otherwise unknown goddess Mārat-ūmi, "daughter of the day" or "daughter of the storm". In a single incantation dated to the end of the third millennium BCE, possibly a part of a building ritual, she appears alongside the divine potter Nunura . She is rare in magical texts otherwise, though she is attested in an incantation from the Ur III period alongside Asalluhi , and in a late liver omen text "hand of Ninshubur"

7084-587: Is possible she is the deity on seals of Lugal-ushumgal , governor of Lagash during the reigns of Naram-Sin of Akkad and his son Shar-Kali-Sharri . It is also known that during building rituals figures of Ninshubur were buried under temples of other gods in some cases. A "letter-prayer" possibly referring to a statue of Ninshubur mentions that the deity had a "face exuding allure", and describes Ninshubur's physique in terms similar to these sometimes applied to Inanna. It has been proposed that in Girsu , where Ninshubur

7245-440: Is possible this uncommon understanding was based on a local tradition associating Ninshubur with Nergal . The Sumerian term Shubur or Subir (Subartu) originally designated areas north of Mesopotamia. Both in ancient documents and in past scholarship the terms "Subartu" and "Subarians" usually refer to Hurrians . Ninshubur is described as a resident of the "mountain-lands of Subartu ( kur šubur )" brought to Mesopotamia by Utu in

7406-444: Is rarely if ever used as a personal name or a base for theophoric personal names. Some seemingly theophoric names may in fact be more related to the original etymology of the deity's name itself. For example, both Lakshmi (fortune, success, prosperity) and Lakshman (prosperous, principal, marked) are names of a deity and an avatar respectively, which are related to lakṣ meaning "to mark or see". Much Hebrew theophory occurs in

7567-569: Is the ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with sensuality, procreation, divine law , and political power. Originally worshipped in Sumer , she was known by the Akkadian Empire , Babylonians , and Assyrians as Ishtar (and occasionally the logogram 𒌋𒁯 ). Her primary title is "the Queen of Heaven" . She was the patron goddess of the Eanna temple at

7728-553: Is the abbreviation of YHWH when used as a suffix in Hebrew names; as a prefix it appears as "Y hō-", or "Yo". It was formerly thought to be abbreviated from the Masoretic pronunciation " Yehovah ". There is an opinion that, as Yahweh is likely an imperfective verb form, "Yahu" is its corresponding preterite or jussive short form: compare yiŝt hawe (imperfective), yiŝtáhû (preterit or jussive short form) = "do obeisance". In

7889-454: Is the better choice for a husband, arguing that, for every gift the farmer can give to her, the shepherd can give her something even better. In the end, Inanna marries Dumuzid. The shepherd and the farmer reconcile their differences, offering each other gifts. Samuel Noah Kramer compares the myth to the later Biblical story of Cain and Abel because both myths center around a farmer and a shepherd competing for divine favor and, in both stories,

8050-606: Is the goddess Ninshubur , later conflated with the male deities Ilabrat and Papsukkal . Inanna was worshipped in Sumer at least as early as the Uruk period ( c.  4000 – 3100 BCE ), and her cultic activity was relatively localized before the conquest of Sargon of Akkad . During the post-Sargonic era, she became one of the most widely venerated deities in the Sumerian pantheon, with temples across Mesopotamia . The cult of Inanna/Ishtar, which may have been associated with

8211-491: Is the most frequently invoked deity. In the Old Babylonian period, her main cult centers were Uruk, Zabalam, Agade, and Ilip. Her cult was also introduced from Uruk to Kish. During later times, while her cult in Uruk continued to flourish, Ishtar also became particularly worshipped in the Upper Mesopotamian kingdom of Assyria (modern northern Iraq , northeast Syria , and southeast Turkey ), especially in

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8372-515: Is the only deity referred to as SAL.ḪÚB 2 in more than one or two sources, with seven instances known as of 2014. NIN.AB.KID.KID, who might be identical with Ninshubur, is already described as the SAL.ḪÚB 2 of Inanna in the thirty ninth of the Zame Hymns . Ninshubur is also referred to with this title in an Old Babylonian dedicatory inscription from the reign of Samsu-iluna . In another text, she

8533-425: Is the result of a syncretism between several previously unrelated Sumerian deities with totally different domains. The second explanation holds that Inanna was originally a Semitic deity who entered the Sumerian pantheon after it was already fully structured, and who took on all the roles that had not yet been assigned to other deities. As early as the Uruk period ( c.  4000–3100  BCE ), Inanna

8694-432: Is the story of her descent into and return from the ancient Mesopotamian underworld , ruled by her older sister Ereshkigal . After she reaches Ereshkigal's throne room, the seven judges of the underworld deem her guilty and strike her dead. Three days later, Ninshubur pleads with all the gods to bring Inanna back. All of them refuse her, except Enki, who sends two sexless beings to rescue Inanna. They escort Inanna out of

8855-461: Is uncertain if a statue found in the Ninshubur chapel represents any deity, or a human. for example a princess or en priestess, though it has been noted that she lacks the horned crown associated with divinity. A "letter-prayer" to Ninshubur (UET 6/1, 7) which indicates that such texts were presented to a statue of the deity, is also assumed to be from Ur, though it is regarded as likely that it

9016-630: Is very rare until the time of King Saul, when it began to be very popular. The name of the Israelite deity YHWH (usually shortened to Yah or Yahu, and Yeho or Yo) appears as a prefix or suffix in many theophoric names of the First Temple Period . For example, Yirme-yahu ( Jeremiah ), Yesha-yahu ( Isaiah ), Netan-yah , Yedid-yah , Adoni-yah , Nekhem-yah , Yeho-natan ( Jonathan ), Yeho-chanan ( John ), Yeho-shua ( Joshua ), Yeho-tzedek , Zekharya ( Zechariah ). "Yahū" or "Yah"

9177-455: The galla demons sent to find someone to replace her in the land of the dead. Ninshubur's mourning is contrasted with Dumuzi 's attitude which leads to his death in this composition. In Inanna and Enki , Ninshubur helps Inanna escape from Enki's servants after theft of the me . Frans Wiggermann translates Ninshubur's name as "Lady of Subartu ". or alternatively "Lady of servants" (or "Lady of Subarian servants") based on another meaning of

9338-492: The Anzû -bird and Lilitu to flee. Gilgamesh's companions chop down the tree and carve its wood into a bed and a throne, which they give to Inanna, who fashions a pikku and a mikku (probably a drum and drumsticks respectively, although the exact identifications are uncertain), which she gives to Gilgamesh as a reward for his heroism. The Sumerian hymn Inanna and Utu contains an etiological myth describing how Inanna became

9499-515: The Bible , particularly in the Old Testament . The most prominent theophoric names are: In later times, as the conflict between Yahwism and the more popular pagan practices became increasingly intense, these names were censored and Baal was replaced with Bosheth , meaning shameful one . But the name Yahweh does not appear in theophoric names until the time of Joshua, and for the most part

9660-537: The Early Dynastic UD.GAL.NUN text CUT 4, a narrative dealing with the sun god traveling to various mountainous areas to bring deities or animals from them. It is possible that echoes of Ninshubur's association with Subartu survived as late as in the Neo-Assyrian period in texts pertaining to Papsukkal . While nin -šubur was the standard writing of Ninshubur's name in cuneiform , a variant with

9821-488: The Early Dynastic period . Many god lists compiled by ancient scribes contained entire "Inanna group" sections enumerating similar goddesses, and tablet IV of the monumental god list An-Anum (7 tablets total) is known as the "Ishtar tablet" due to most of its contents being the names of Ishtar's equivalents, her titles and various attendants. Some modern researchers use the term Ishtar-type to define specific figures of this variety. Some texts contained references to "all

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9982-532: The Huluppu Tree", found in the preamble to the epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld (ETCSL 1.8.1.4 ), centers around a young Inanna, not yet stable in her power. It begins with a huluppu tree, which Kramer identifies as possibly a willow , growing on the banks of the river Euphrates . Inanna moves the tree to her garden in Uruk with the intention to carve it into a throne once it

10143-468: The Old Babylonian period Bau , introduced from Lagash , became his spouse (an example of a couple consisting out of a warrior god and a medicine goddess, common in Mesopotamian mythology ) and Ishtar of Kish started to instead be worshipped on her own. Inanna is not usually described as having any offspring; however, in the myth of Lugalbanda , as well as in a single building inscription from

10304-470: The Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 – c. 2004  BCE ), the warrior god Shara is described as her son. She was also sometimes considered the mother of Lulal , who is described in other texts as the son of Ninsun . Wilfred G. Lambert described the relation between Inanna and Lulal as "close but unspecified" in the context of Inanna's Descent. There is also similarly scarce evidence for

10465-610: The Ugaritic goddess Ashtart and later the Phoenician goddess Astarte , who in turn possibly influenced the development of the Greek goddess Aphrodite . Her cult continued to flourish until its gradual decline between the first and sixth centuries CE in the wake of Christianity . Inanna appears in more myths than any other Sumerian deity. She also has a uniquely high number of epithets and alternate names, comparable only to Nergal . Many of her myths involve her taking over

10626-463: The Biblical book of Jeremiah , the prophet condemns Judean female refugees for worshipping the Queen of Heaven (a syncretism of Ishtar and Asherah) by baking cakes with the goddess's image upon them and pouring libations to her (Jer. Ch. 7 and 44). The women and their husbands defy him, and state that they will follow the practices of their ancestors, who performed these acts "in the towns of Judea and

10787-425: The Early Dynastic period already, and it is possible she was introduced to the local pantheon directly from Akkil, like in the case of Uruk. In the Old Babylonian period, she received offerings in the temple complexes of Enlil and Ninurta . Her temple in this city was Eakkilduku, "house of lamentation, the pure mound ". It is possible it can be identified with a nameless sanctuary mentioned in an inscription dated to

10948-631: The Ishtars" of a given area. In later periods Ishtar's name was sometimes used as a generic term ("goddess") in Babylonia, while a logographic writing of Inanna was used to spell the title Bēltu , leading to further conflations. A possible example of such use of the name is also known from Elam , as a single Elamite inscription written in Akkadian refers to " Manzat -Ishtar", which might in this context mean "the goddess Manzat". The poem Enki and

11109-518: The Old Babylonian and Kassite periods in Nippur Ninshubur was also considered female. However, whether her name on Kassite seals refers to a god or a goddess is presently unknown. Uri Gabbay proposed that Ninshubur's identity was a mirror of the gala clergy, but this view is not supported by other researchers, as regardless of gender Ninshubur was never described as a gala , and the only similarity between her and this class of clergy

11270-638: The Sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as a single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period indicates that the ancient Sumerians knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. The discontinuous movements of Venus relate to both mythology as well as Inanna's dual nature. Modern astrologers recognize

11431-533: The World Order ( ETCSL 1.1.3 ) begins by describing the god Enki and his establishment of the cosmic organization of the universe. Towards the end of the poem, Inanna comes to Enki and complains that he has assigned a domain and special powers to all of the other gods except for her. She declares that she has been treated unfairly. Enki responds by telling her that she already has a domain and that he does not need to assign her one. The myth of "Inanna and

11592-465: The ancient Mesopotamians regarded as a symbol of power. Her associations with lions began during Sumerian times; a chlorite bowl from the temple of Inanna at Nippur depicts a large feline battling a giant snake and a cuneiform inscription on the bowl reads "Inanna and the Serpent", indicating that the cat is supposed to represent the goddess. During the Akkadian Period, Ishtar was frequently depicted as

11753-415: The ancient Near East worshipped Ishtar by dedicating to her cakes baked in ashes (known as kamān tumri ). A dedication of this type is described in an Akkadian hymn. Several clay cake molds discovered at Mari are shaped like naked women with large hips who are clutching their breasts. Some scholars have suggested that the cakes made from these molds were intended as representations of Ishtar herself. In

11914-529: The basis of the connection between those two deities suggests that a tradition connecting Ninshubur to the underworld might have existed in early periods, but notes that no potential references to it occur in any sources postdating the Old Babylonian period. An = Anum contains lists of five daughters (tablet I, lines 48-52) and fourteen sons (tablet I, lines 53-66) of the male Ninshubur, who are not attested anywhere else. According to Frans Wiggermann it cannot be automatically assumed that they were associated with

12075-417: The blame for it on Inanna, but rather on demons or even human bandits. A large corpus of love poetry describing encounters between Inanna and Dumuzi has been assembled by researchers. However, local manifestations of Inanna/Ishtar were not necessarily associated with Dumuzi. In Kish , the tutelary deity of the city, Zababa (a war god), was viewed as the consort of a local hypostasis of Ishtar, though after

12236-499: The cities of Nineveh , Aššur , and Arbela (modern Erbil). During the reign of the Assyrian king Assurbanipal , Ishtar rose to become the most important and widely venerated deity in the Assyrian pantheon, surpassing even the Assyrian national god Ashur . Votive objects found in her primary Assyrian temple indicate that she was a popular deity among women. Individuals who went against the gender binary were heavily involved in

12397-434: The city of Uruk , her early main cult center. In archaic Uruk she was worshipped in three forms: morning Inanna (Inana-UD/hud), evening Inanna (Inanna sig) and princely Inanna (Inanna NUN), the former two reflecting the phases of her associated planet Venus . Her most prominent symbols include the lion and the eight-pointed star . Her husband is the god Dumuzid (later known as Tammuz), and her sukkal (attendant)

12558-540: The city of Agade. A hymn from that period addresses the Akkadian Ishtar as "Inanna of the Ulmaš" alongside Inanna of Uruk and of Zabalam. The worship of Ishtar and syncretism between her and Inanna was encouraged by Sargon and his successors, and as a result she quickly became one of the most widely venerated deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon. In inscriptions of Sargon, Naram-Sin , and Shar-Kali-Sharri , Ishtar

12719-497: The conjunction, seven more days elapse before Venus appears as the morning star, corresponding to the ascent from the underworld. Inanna in her aspect as Anunītu was associated with the eastern fish of the last of the zodiacal constellations, Pisces . Her consort Dumuzi was associated with the contiguous first constellation, Aries . The Sumerians worshipped Inanna as the goddess of both warfare and love. Unlike other gods, whose roles were static and whose domains were limited,

12880-421: The contemporary Indian hijra . In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women. Throughout the latter half of the twentieth century, it was widely believed that the cult of Inanna involved a " sacred marriage " ritual, in which a king would establish his legitimacy by taking on the role of Dumuzid and engaging in ritual sexual intercourse with the high priestess of Inanna, who took on

13041-502: The court of Nanna is also known. In the Early Dynastic Abu Salabikh god list she appears next Nanna's wife Ningal . In Malgium in the Old Babylonian period, she seemingly fulfilled the role of a sukkal in relation to Ulmašītum . In Nippur at least in the sphere of cult she was linked to the circle of the local goddess Nintinugga . In a greeting formula in a latter from Old Babylonian Larsa , Ninshubur

13202-426: The cult of Inanna. During Sumerian times, a set of priests known as gala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations. Men who became gala sometimes adopted female names, and their songs were composed in the Sumerian eme-sal dialect, which, in literary texts, is normally reserved for the speech of female characters. Some Sumerian proverbs seem to suggest that gala had

13363-483: The deified hero Gilgamesh and his mother Ninsun . References to Ninshubur receiving offerings there appear in texts from Puzrish-Dagan too. In one case, Ninshubur of Enegi is called the "small Ninshubur" (Ninshubur-banda), in contrast with Ninshubur of Akkil or Uruk, referred to as "great Ninshubur" (Ninshubur-gula). During excavations of Ur, chapels of Ninshubur and Hendursaga , as well as votive objects to dedicated to them from Isin-Larsa period have been found. It

13524-474: The deities she served "not as cause and effect, but as command and execution". Her two main functions were these of "intercessory goddess" and "archetypal attendant of the gods". She served Inanna, but also Anu and by extension the entire divine assembly. The association with Anu is known from sources from the reign of Third Dynasty of Ur onward, and might be a secondary development, with Inanna being her primary and original mistress. As Inanna's sukkal , Ninshubur

13685-482: The devastating flood, clothed in terrifying radiance. It is her game to speed conflict and battle, untiring, strapping on her sandals." Battle itself was occasionally referred to as the "Dance of Inanna". Epithets related to lions in particular were meant to highlight this aspect of her character. As a war goddess she was sometimes referred to with the name Irnina ("victory"), though this epithet could be applied to other deities as well, in addition to functioning as

13846-417: The divine assembly treated as a whole indicates that even though she shared many of her roles with another well attested sukkal , Nuska , she was ultimately considered the higher-ranked member of the pantheon. In addition to her usual title, Ninshubur could also be called sukkal anna, "heavenly attendant". An inscription of Rim-Sîn I refers to her as a sukkalmaḫ . According to Wiggermann, while this term

14007-506: The domains of other deities. She is believed to have been given the mes , which represent all positive and negative aspects of civilization, by Enki , the god of wisdom. She is also believed to have taken over the Eanna temple from An , the god of the sky. Alongside her twin brother Utu (later known as Shamash), Inanna is the enforcer of divine justice ; she destroyed Mount Ebih for having challenged her authority, unleashed her fury upon

14168-440: The eight-pointed star. On boundary stones and cylinder seals , the eight-pointed star is sometimes shown alongside the crescent moon , which was the symbol of Sin (Sumerian Nanna) and the rayed solar disk , which was a symbol of Shamash (Sumerian Utu). Inanna's cuneiform ideogram was a hook-shaped twisted knot of reeds, representing the doorpost of the storehouse, a common symbol of fertility and plenty. The rosette

14329-408: The element Wod (such as Woðu-riðe ), potentially pointing to an association with the god Odin . In connection, numerous names containing wulf "wolf" have been taken as totemistic, expressing association with Odin in the earliest period, although -ulf degenerated into a mere suffix from an early time (Förstemann 1856). The personal names of almost all gods and goddesses of various deities from

14490-464: The female Ninshubur in earlier periods, though due to her greater importance it is nonetheless possible at least some of the information pertaining to family and courtiers mentioned in An = Anum originated in texts focused on her rather than any of her male counterparts. The daughters include PAP.PAP, Ḫedu, Ninḫedubi, Ninkita and Munus-saga. The reading of the first name is uncertain, with both Kurkur and Papa,

14651-401: The female form of this deity, and Umunshubur, referring to the male one. Ninakkil, "lady and Akkil", was a title applied to Ninshubur as the tutelary goddess of Akkil. Frans Wiggermann assumes that it already occurs in the Zame Hymns , based on the possible identification of the teoponym AB.KID.KID as Akkil and its namesake tutelary deity as Ninakkil. The thirty ninth (out of seventy) hymn

14812-432: The female version of this deity being worshiped there too, despite attested connection to Anu. In most Akkadian texts Ninshubur was regarded as male, though it is possible exceptions did exist. According to Raphael Kutscher, Ninshubur might have been viewed as female in Malgium when worshiped alongside Ulmašītum , though Douglas Frayne treats this deity as male in his translation of an inscription from this location. In

14973-525: The first millennium BCE, and the Venus deity Ninsianna , whose varying gender might be connected to dual role as personification of both the morning star and the evening star. It has been proposed that the variance in Ninshubur's gender is related to syncretism between her and the male Akkadian god Ilabrat . In texts from the second millennium BCE, Ninshubur and Ilabrat coexisted. It is assumed that at least some cases Ninshubur's name, when treated as masculine,

15134-522: The gardener Shukaletuda after he raped her in her sleep, and tracked down the bandit woman Bilulu and killed her in divine retribution for having murdered Dumuzid. In the standard Akkadian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh , Ishtar asks Gilgamesh to become her consort. When he disdainfully refuses, she unleashes the Bull of Heaven , resulting in the death of Enkidu and Gilgamesh's subsequent grapple with his own mortality. Inanna's most famous myth

15295-478: The goddess of sex. At the beginning of the hymn, Inanna knows nothing of sex, so she begs her brother Utu to take her to Kur (the Sumerian underworld), so that she may taste the fruit of a tree that grows there, which will reveal to her all the secrets of sex. Utu complies and, in Kur, Inanna tastes the fruit and becomes knowledgeable. The hymn employs the same motif found in the myth of Enki and Ninhursag and in

15456-424: The goddesses Nanaya, Kanisurra , Gazbaba , and Bizila , all of them also associated with each other in various configurations independently from this context. In addition to the full conflation of Inanna and Ishtar during the reign of Sargon and his successors, she was syncretised with a large number of deities to a varying degree. The oldest known syncretic hymn is dedicated to Inanna, and has been dated to

15617-473: The heavens, but, by the Old Babylonian Period ( c. 1830 – c. 1531  BCE ), it had come to be specifically associated with the planet Venus , with which Ishtar was identified. Starting during this same period, the star of Ishtar was normally enclosed within a circular disc. During later Babylonian times, slaves who worked in Ishtar's temples were sometimes branded with the seal of

15778-461: The later Biblical story of Adam and Eve . The poem Inanna Prefers the Farmer (ETCSL 4.0.8.3.3 ) begins with a rather playful conversation between Inanna and Utu, who incrementally reveals to her that it is time for her to marry. She is courted by a farmer named Enkimdu and a shepherd named Dumuzid . At first, Inanna prefers the farmer, but Utu and Dumuzid gradually persuade her that Dumuzid

15939-407: The latter attestation is likely to be a scribal mistake, as Šeri was conventionally paired with Ḫurri , not Māgiru. Both the Old Babylonian forerunner of An = Anum and An = Anum itself (tablet I, line 48) also provide Ninshubur with an udug (in this context a type of minor protective deity) named Egubidugga ("who lets the house resound pleasantly"). Ninshubur, under the variant name Ninakkil,

16100-640: The life of a ruler to Ninshubur and to Ningishzida are also known from the periods of Nammahani's and Ur-Ningirsu II 's rule. Ninshubur is first attested in Ur in the Ur III period. E-ninbitum ("house fit for a lady"), a temple dedicated to her, or according to Wolfgang Heimpel a cella in a temple dedicated to Inanna, is attested in texts from this city. It might be the same temple as E-aggasummmu, "house which gives decrees," also presumed to be located in Ur. Shulgi referred to her as "mistress". However, she does not appear in

16261-462: The love goddess Nanaya being regarded as her daughter, but it is possible all of these instances merely refer to an epithet indicating closeness between the deities and were not a statement about actual parentage. Inanna's sukkal was the goddess Ninshubur , whose relationship with Inanna is one of mutual devotion. In some texts, Ninshubur is listed right after Dumuzi as a member of Inanna's circle, even before some of her relatives; in one text

16422-579: The mountains, replicating the rising and setting of Inanna to the West. In Inanna and Shukaletuda , Shukaletuda is described as scanning the heavens in search of Inanna, possibly searching the Eastern and Western horizons. In the same myth, while searching for her attacker, Inanna herself makes several movements that correspond with the movements of Venus in the sky. Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to

16583-510: The movements of Venus across the sky. In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld , Inanna, unlike any other deity, is able to descend into the netherworld and return to the heavens. The planet Venus appears to make a similar descent, setting in the West and then rising again in the East. An introductory hymn describes Inanna leaving the heavens and heading for Kur , what could be presumed to be

16744-440: The name occurs twice in the god lists from Abu Salabikh and Fara. Gábor Zólyomi nonetheless translates a passage related to Ninshubur's role as a servant of Anu as referring to her as a female deity. Texts from Lagash from the Early Dynastic period refer to Ninshubur exclusively as a goddess according to Toshiko Kobayashi. According to Marcos Such-Gutiérrez, the evidence from Adab is not entirely conclusive, though might point at

16905-600: The name of Inanna are known, such as a bead in the name of King Aga of Kish c.  2600  BCE , or a tablet by King Lugal-kisalsi c.  2400  BCE : For An , king of all the lands, and for Inanna, his mistress, Lugal-kisalsi , king of Kish , built the wall of the courtyard. During the Akkadian period ( c.   2334–2154  BCE ), following the conquests of Sargon of Akkad , Inanna and originally independent Ishtar became so extensively syncretized that they became regarded as effectively

17066-504: The names are provided with complex Sumerian explanations, Ryan D. Winters proposes that this section might have been incorporated into An = Anum from another source. The Old Babylonian forerunner of An = Anum only lists two names of Ninshubur, Ninshubur and ḫa-mun- ŠUBUR. Additional names of Ninshubur can be found in An = Anum ša amēli (lines 61-69), an explanatory god list focused on epithets of major deities, in which her section appears between Shala 's and Ninurta 's. In addition to

17227-497: The official cultic calendars and offering lists from this location from the reign of his dynasty, despite being a popular deity, which according to Julia M. Asher-Greve finds a parallel in Nanshe 's position in the local pantheon. References to "Ninshubur of Enegi " appear in texts from Ur as well. It has been suggested she was introduced to the latter city from Uruk, as the local pantheon included other typically Urukean deities, such as

17388-415: The original patron deity of this fourth-millennium BCE city was An . After its dedication to Inanna, the temple seems to have housed priestesses of the goddess. Next to Uruk, Zabalam was the most important early site of Inanna worship, as the name of the city was commonly written with the signs MUŠ 3 and UNUG, meaning respectively "Inanna" and "sanctuary". It is possible that the city goddess of Zabalam

17549-417: The phrase "Ninshubur, beloved vizier" appears. In another text Ninshubur is listed even before Nanaya , originally possibly a hypostasis of Inanna herself, in a list of deities from her entourage. In an Akkadian ritual text known from Hittite archives, Ishtar's sukkal is invoked alongside her family members Sin, Ningal, and Shamash. Other members of Inanna's entourage frequently listed in god lists are

17710-422: The phrase "she [Ishtar] is Enlil, she is Ninil" which might be a reference to occasionally "dimorphic" character of Ishtar, in addition to serving as an exaltation. A hymn to Nanaya alludes to a male aspect of Ishtar from Babylon alongside a variety of more standard descriptions. However, Ilona Zsolnay only describes Ishtar as a "feminine figure who performed a masculine role" in certain contexts, for example as

17871-523: The polytheistic Hindu pantheon are considered common and traditional names for people from the Indian subcontinent. Many traditional Hindu names are in fact from various names or epithets of Hindu gods or goddesses. This is in addition to compound theophoric names using the name of a deity in addition to possessive qualifiers. Brahma , the Hindu creator god, is one of the only deities of the pantheon whose name

18032-521: The pre- Sargonic and post-Sargonic eras in Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. It is of Semitic derivation and is probably etymologically related to the name of the West Semitic god Attar , who is mentioned in later inscriptions from Ugarit and southern Arabia. The morning star may have been conceived as a male deity who presided over the arts of war and the evening star may have been conceived as

18193-468: The primary name they include Kakka , Meninnuanna ("fifty ordinances of heaven"), Iggalla ("big door", originally a distinct deity), Kabaninukurru ("whose promise cannot be changed"), Anzaggalla ("seat of honor"), Anšarkin ("who directs the totality of heaven"), Anšargia ("who exercises authority over the totality of heaven"), Enḫun ("appeasing lord"), en-ḫun-ga 2 - ŠE 3 ("lord involved in appeasing"), ŠUBUR -ḫa-mun and Sagilla ("who exalts"). Since all of

18354-524: The primary name they include SUKKAL (a logographic writing of the name), Papsukkal, Papgal, Iggalla, Gandu, Gangu, LAMMA and Dukuga. The names Gandu and Gangu are likely variants of each other and might be related to a term referring to a part of a door; Dukuga is derived from the Duku , a mythical location after which a type of seat located in temples was named. Ninshubur is regarded by Assyriologists as "the earliest and most important" sukkal , linked to

18515-519: The reign of Ibbi-Sin . Since before the Sargonic period , Ninshubur was also present in the pantheon of Adab . Meskigal , a ruler of this city, considered her his personal deity and dedicated a statue to her for the life of himself, his wife and children. A document dealing with distribution of bread to the Adab's temples indicates that one of them was dedicated to Ninshubur, and that its staff included

18676-507: The reign of Sargon of Akkad and came to be regarded as effectively the same goddess under two different names. Inanna's name may derive from the Sumerian phrase nin-an-ak , meaning "Lady of Heaven", but the cuneiform sign for Inanna ( 𒈹 ) is not a ligature of the signs lady ( Sumerian : nin ; cuneiform: 𒊩𒌆 SAL.TUG 2 ) and sky (Sumerian: an ; cuneiform: 𒀭 AN). These difficulties led some early Assyriologists to suggest that Inanna may have originally been

18837-419: The report of contributions to Inanna at Uruk from cities supporting her cult. A large number of similar seals have been discovered from phase I of the Early Dynastic period ( c.  2900–2350  BCE ) at Ur , in a slightly different order, combined with the rosette symbol of Inanna. These seals were used to lock storerooms to preserve materials set aside for her cult. Various inscriptions in

18998-408: The role of a divine healer was occasionally ascribed to Ninshubur. The modern consensus view among Assyriologists is that Ninshubur was always identified as a female deity when associated with Inanna . At the same time, many authors propose that Ninshubur was male when associated with Anu . While the second millennium BCE god list An = Anu ša āmeli explains that "Ninshubur is Papsukkal when Anu

19159-432: The role of the goddess. This view has been challenged, however, and scholars continue to debate whether the sacred marriage described in literary texts involved any kind of physical ritual enactment at all and, if so, whether this ritual enactment involved actual intercourse or merely the symbolic representation of intercourse. The scholar of the ancient Near East Louise M. Pryke states that most scholars now maintain, if

19320-497: The royal ideology of that time period. Gábor Zólyomi notes that a hymn focusing on Ninshubur in the role of "mother of the land" (BL 195, known from the tablet Ash. 1911.326 from the Ashmolean Museum ) employs multiple topoi related to abundance in Sumerian literature , for example building of cattle pens and sheepfolds under her command, otherwise not associated with her. Another hymn (CBS 14073) mentions both her role as

19481-468: The sacred marriage was a ritual that was actually acted out, then it involved only symbolic intercourse. The cult of Ishtar was long thought to have involved sacred prostitution , but this is now rejected among many scholars. Hierodules known as ishtaritum are reported to have worked in Ishtar's temples, but it is unclear if such priestesses actually performed any sex acts , and several modern scholars have argued that they did not. Women across

19642-416: The same role in relation to Inanna . The theonym Nin- ŠUBUR.AL might be either an alternate form of Ninshubur's name or a separate, though similarly named, deity. Manfred Krebernik and Jan Lisman suggest reading this name as Ninšuburmaḫ. In the Zame Hymns the sixty fourth hymn is dedicated to this deity, with the corresponding cult center being GIN 2 .U 9 .ŠA 3 .GA (reading uncertain). The same deity

19803-469: The same. The Akkadian poet Enheduanna , the daughter of Sargon, wrote numerous hymns to Inanna, identifying her with Ishtar. As a result of this, the popularity of Inanna/Ishtar's cult skyrocketed. Alfonso Archi, who was involved in early excavations of Ebla, assumes Ishtar was originally a goddess venerated in the Euphrates valley, pointing out that an association between her and the desert poplar

19964-416: The second element, šubur , "servant," and in reference to her role as a benevolent intercessory deity. Earlier translations, for example Wilfred G. Lambert 's from 1976, which relied on two lexical lists from the first millennium BCE explaining it as bel erseti - "lord of the earth" or "lord of the underworld " - are regarded as erroneous, as no other sources explain the meaning of šubur as erseti . It

20125-624: The similar process involving Ninshubur. In An = Anum (tablet II line 275) Ninshubur is also equated with another deity associated with Enki, Gadala-abzu, " linen -clad of the abzu ", though in this case both figures are understood as male. Ninshubur's attribute was a staff, a sign of her office as a sukkal representing right to rule granted to her by her masters, It is possible that it was believed Ninshubur therefore bestowed similar privileges upon kings. Other gods' divine attendants were depicted holding staffs too, including Alla ( Ningishzida 's), Isimud ( Enki 's) and Nuska ( Enlil 's). A sukkal

20286-425: The so-called "antiquarian theology" relying largely on god lists, which developed in Uruk under Achaemenid rule, he was fully identified with Ninshubur and thus became Anu's sukkal and one of the eighteen major deities of the city. The late syncretic Papsukkal was not regarded as the sukkal of Anu and Ishtar, but rather Anu and Antu as a pair instead. Despite the syncretism leading to perception of Ninshubur as

20447-527: The specific role of "one who holds the great scepter" (tablet I, line 31). The connection is not yet attested in the Old Babylonian An = Anum forerunner, in which Kakka occurs in a context indicating the female deity is meant. According to Ryan D. Winters it is possible that the male Kakka was a secondary development and his role in literary texts was patterned on male Ninshubur. A single Old Babylonian letter associates Ninshubur with Lugalnamtarra,

20608-535: The spouses of other major gods, for example Aya in the relation to Shamash or Shala in relation to Adad . Sumerian literary catalogs list at least 7 hymns dedicated to Ninshubur which based on surviving incipits described her lamenting over something that happened to Inanna. Ninshubur was associated with the Lamma , a class of minor goddesses, likely due to their shared role in intercession between mortals and higher ranking deities. In An = Anum ša amēli , Lamma

20769-450: The state of Lagash . Offerings were typically made to her in the city of Girsu . She was already worshiped there when the area was under the rule of Lugalanda (around 2400 BCE), during whose reign she was celebrated during festivals of Nanshe and Ningirsu and received offerings from the king's wife, Barnamtarra. There is no evidence pertaining to Ninshubur from the reign of Lugalanda's predecessor Enentarzi , which makes it possible she

20930-403: The stories of Inanna describe her as moving from conquest to conquest. She is portrayed as young and impetuous, constantly striving for more power than had been allotted to her. While she was worshipped as the goddess of love, Inanna was not the goddess of marriage, nor was she ever viewed as a mother goddess. Andrew R. George goes as far as stating that "According to all mythology, Ištar

21091-406: The story of Inanna's descent into the underworld as a reference to an astronomical phenomenon associated with retrograde Venus. Seven days before retrograde Venus makes its inferior conjunction with the sun, it disappears from the evening sky. The seven day period between this disappearance and the conjunction itself is seen as the astronomical phenomenon on which the myth of descent was based. After

21252-413: The streets of Jerusalem" (Jer. 44:15-19). In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet has a vision of the women of Jerusalem weeping for Tammuz. Inanna/Ishtar's most common symbol was the eight-pointed star, though the exact number of points sometimes varies; six-pointed stars also occur frequently, but their symbolic meaning is unknown. The eight-pointed star seems to have originally borne a general association with

21413-572: The table below, 13 theophoric names with "Yeho" have corresponding forms where the letters eh have been omitted. There is a theory by Christian Ginsburg that this is because Hebrew scribes omitted the "h", changing Jeho ( יְהוֹ ‎) into Jo ( יוֹ ‎), to make the start of "Y ho-" names not sound like an attempt to pronounce the Divine Name. Theophoric names containing " Baal " were sometimes "censored" as -bosheth = "shameful one", whence Ishbosheth etc. Inanna Inanna

21574-440: The theonym according to her should be read phonetically in Sumerian names, and as "Ilabrat" in less common Akkadian ones. The worship of Ninshubur in this city is no longer attested after the reign of Sin-Muballit . The reasons behind this are unknown. Theophoric name A theophoric name (from Greek : θεόφορος , theophoros , literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or God's name in

21735-519: The title "servant of Utu and Ninshubur" in his royal titulature. In Isin , Ninshubur was seemingly instead incorporated into the entourage of the medicine goddess Ninisina . She accordingly appears in the Isin god list in the section enumerating deities linked to both Ninisina and Inanna. Other members of this group who shared this status include Ninigizibara and Ninḫinuna . Frans Wiggermann states an attestation of Ninshubur appearing alongside Alammuš in

21896-498: The two goddesses almost never appear together elsewhere in Sumerian literature and were not placed in the same category in god lists. In some Neo-Assyrian sources, Ishtar is also associated with Adad , with the relationship mirroring that between Shaushka and her brother Teshub in Hurrian mythology . The most common tradition regarded Nanna and his wife Ningal as her parents. Examples of it are present in sources as diverse as

22057-483: The two twisted reeds of the doorpost, while the male figure holds a box and stack of bowls, the later cuneiform sign signifying the En , or high priest of the temple. Seal impressions from the Jemdet Nasr period ( c.  3100–2900  BCE ) show a fixed sequence of symbols representing various cities, including those of Ur , Larsa , Zabalam , Urum , Arina , and probably Kesh . This list probably reflects

22218-455: The underworld but the galla , the guardians of the underworld, drag her husband Dumuzid down to the underworld as her replacement. Dumuzid is eventually permitted to return to heaven for half the year, while his sister Geshtinanna remains in the underworld for the other half, resulting in the cycle of the seasons. Scholars believe that Inanna and Ishtar were originally separate, unrelated deities, but were conflated with one another during

22379-402: The use of this title should be considered the result of Elamite cultural influence. Ninshubur could also be referred to as SAL.ḪÚB 2 . This term is sparsely attested overall, and it assumed that it referred to a deity considered to be a sukkal who was viewed as emotionally close to their lord or lady. In most of cases SAL.ḪÚB 2 appears in literary texts in parallel with "sukkal". Ninshubur

22540-403: The use of this word as an epithet indicating seniority. Dumuzid (later known as Tammuz), the god of shepherds, is usually described as Inanna's husband, but according to some interpretations Inanna's loyalty to him is questionable; in the myth of her descent into the Underworld, she abandons Dumuzid and permits the galla demons to drag him down into the underworld as her replacement. In

22701-511: Was Girsu . Multiple kings of this area regarded her as their personal deity. In the Ur III period she was also introduced to Ur . Further cities where Ninshubur was worshiped include Adab , Nippur , Malgium , and more. In myths, Ninshubur is portrayed as a companion of Inanna and helps her during various exploits. In Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld , she is responsible for securing Inanna's return by pleading with Enlil , Nanna and Enki . After being resurrected, Inanna protects her from

22862-498: Was a logographic spelling of Ilabrat's, for example in Mari in personal names. However, Ichiro Nakata nonetheless lists a single instance name from this city in which Ninshubur according to his analysis is treated as a female deity. Ninshubur was additionally syncretised with Papsukkal , originally the sukkal of Zababa , tutelary god of Kish . Papsukkal's rise to prominence at the expense of other similar figures, such as Ninshubur,

23023-515: Was already associated with the city of Uruk . During this period, the symbol of a ring-headed doorpost was closely associated with Inanna. The famous Uruk Vase (found in a deposit of cult objects of the Uruk ;III period) depicts a row of naked men carrying various objects, including bowls, vessels, and baskets of farm products, and bringing sheep and goats to a female figure facing the ruler. The female stands in front of Inanna's symbol of

23184-615: Was also located in this city. Only a single theophoric name invoking Ninshubur is known from the Lagash area from the Early Dynastic period, Ninshubur-amamu, "Ninshubur is my mother". A later ruler of Lagash, Urukagina , regarded Ninshubur as his personal deity. In offering lists from his reign she was placed above Mesandu, who possibly had an analogous role during the reigns of earlier local kings. Puzer-Mama , who ruled Lagash around 2200 BCE, mentions Ninshubur in his royal inscriptions, possibly in reference to Urukagina's reverence for her, as it

23345-472: Was another important symbol of Inanna, which continued to be used as a symbol of Ishtar after their syncretism. During the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 – 609  BCE ), the rosette may have actually eclipsed the eight-pointed star and become Ishtar's primary symbol. The temple of Ishtar in the city of Aššur was adorned with numerous rosettes. Inanna/Ishtar was associated with lions, which

23506-458: Was associated with Ninshubur, but also with the medicine goddess Ninkarrak . This deity most likely should be regarded as distinct from Kakka , the sukkal of Anshar , known from the god list An = Anum (where the medicine goddess Kakka appears separately in Ninkarrak's section) and from the later myth Enuma Elish . Ninshubur was identified with the latter Kakka in An = Anum , but only in

23667-597: Was believed to implement divine rules and regulations on her behalf. Her role as a popular intercessory deity in Mesopotamian religion was derived from her position as a servant of major deities, which resulted in the belief that she was capable of mediating with her masters on behalf of human petitioners. A hymn (CBS 14073) describes her as a servant of not only her usual masters, but also Enlil , Enki , Damgalnuna , Nanna , Ningal , Ninurta , Ninhursag and Utu . Frans Wiggermann notes that Ninshubur's association with

23828-502: Was expected to walk in front of their master, leading the way with their staff. Other objects associated with Ninshubur included doors and shoes, and her epithet in a single source is "pure minister of the lapis lazuli shoes." According to Julia Krul, said title is bestowed upon Ninshubur by Inanna in a late variant of one of the city laments , and might reflect her "arduous travels in her lady's service". Very few depictions of female Ninshubur have been identified with certainty, though it

23989-461: Was likely rooted in the presence of the word sukkal in his name. While an association between the two is attested in the god list An = Anum already, the conflation was only finalized in the Seleucid period in Uruk . Papsukkal was not worshiped in that city in earlier periods, and in contrast with Ninshubur appeared only infrequently as a family deity or in personal names, but in the context of

24150-445: Was male as a servant of An in Sumerian texts from the third millennium BCE relies on the widely accepted assumption that a deity's sukkal matched their gender. However, Amasagnudi , regarded as a goddess in known sources and in one case equated with female Ninshubur, was also said to be a sukkal of Anu in an Old Babylonian document. Ninshubur herself appears as the sukkal of Nergal instead of Ugur or Ishum (both of them male) in

24311-414: Was not   [...] temperamentally disposed" towards such functions. Julia M. Asher-Greve has even championed the significance of Inanna specifically because she is not a mother-goddess . As a love goddess, she was commonly invoked by Mesopotamians in incantations. In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld , Inanna treats her lover Dumuzid in a very capricious manner. This aspect of Inanna's personality

24472-536: Was originally a distinct deity, though one whose cult was absorbed by that of the Urukean goddess very early on. Joan Goodnick Westenholz proposed that a goddess identified by the name Nin-UM (reading and meaning uncertain), associated with Ishtaran in a zame hymn, was the original identity of Inanna of Zabalam. In the Old Akkadian period, Inanna merged with the Akkadian goddess Ishtar, associated with

24633-402: Was presumably particularly devoted to her, as reflected by his own name, as well as the name of his daughter Gan-Šubur. In the Early Dynastic period Ninshubur's cult was already established in Uruk, as indicated by votive inscriptions, and it is considered possible that it was transferred there from Akkil. She continues to appear in sources from this city in the Ur III period, when Shulgi built

24794-475: Was rather limited, though other experts argue that she was already the most prominent deity in Uruk and a number of other political centers in the Uruk period . She had temples in Nippur , Lagash , Shuruppak , Zabalam , and Ur , but her main cult center was the Eanna temple in Uruk , whose name means "House of Heaven" (Sumerian: e 2 -anna ; cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭 E 2 .AN). Some research assumes that

24955-419: Was regarded as a guardian of Inanna's secrets and as her adviser, though according to one text the latter could scoff at offered advice, both incorrect and correct. Ninshubur was also capable of "appeasing" Inanna, and one of her epithets was "who flatters the heart of Inanna". Various epithets related to this function are preserved in the god list An = Anum . Additionally, a temple dedicated to her whose location

25116-405: Was regarded as the wife of Meslamtaea (in this context a name of Nergal ), she can be identified as a goddess accompanied by his symbolic composite animal, the "lion-griffin", similar to how Geshtinanna was accompanied by mušḫuššu , a symbol of her husband Ningishzida , and that on Old Babylonian seals the double lion-headed mace associated with Nergal might represent Ninshubur in the role of

25277-411: Was sent by a king of Larsa , possibly Rim-Sîn I . Records indicate that he built temples of both female and male Ninshubur. In an inscription commemorating the building of a temple of Ninshubur in Ur, he refers to this deity as a goddess, while in a later one commemorating the defeat of Uruk - as a god. It is likely he was particularly devoted to this deity. Ninshubur appears in sources from Nippur in

25438-519: Was the only goddess sometimes regarded as his wife who had a well defined role other than that of his spouse, the other exception being Ereshkigal . He assumes that since many of Nergal's attested spouses, such as Mammitum or Admu , were possibly associated with the earth, this role of Ninshubur was tied to her function as "lady of the earth". No other examples of Ninshubur being regarded as another deity's wife are known. A single source refers to Ninshubur as Nergal's sukkal rather than wife. Dina Katz on

25599-454: Was the spouse of Meslamtaea , in this context to be understood as a byname used to refer to Nergal in early sources from southern Mesopotamian cities. Marcos Such-Gutiérrez notes that it is possible that this tradition was also known in Adab , where Ninshubur appears alongside Meslamtaea in two lists of offerings. Frans Wiggermann notes that the pairing of Nergal with Ninshubur is unusual, as she

25760-741: Was their shared ability to appease specific deities. Wolfgang Heimpel suggested another solution, namely that three separate deities shared the same name, one female (according to him found for example in association with Inanna in Ur ) and two male (one associated with Anu and yet another worshiped in Girsu ), with no ambiguity of gender in any case. However, the matter of Ninshubur's gender was in some cases already unclear to ancient scribes, with one Old Babylonian hymn (CBS 15119+) possibly being an attempt at reconciling conflicting accounts by describing Ninshubur (identified as female in this context by Frans Wiggermann) as dressed in both feminine (left side) and masculine (right side) robes. The view that Ninshubur

25921-458: Was worshiped as an attendant of Inanna , was considered her primary cult center. She is the goddess of this location in the Temple Hymns , though Walther Sallaberger notes that she can be considered one of the members of a group of deities associated with Uruk in this context nonetheless, similar to Dumuzi and Ningirima . Frans Wiggermann is uncertain if Akkil should be interpreted as

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