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98-504: Nipekamew Creek is a river in the boreal forest ecozone in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan . Its source is in muskeg approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) west of Piprell Lake , near Highway 913 . From the muskeg, the creek flows in a northerly direction through forests, rolling hills, glacier formed valleys, first into Stuart Lake, then Nipekamew Lake . The creek can be accessed from Highways 927 , 913 , and 912 . After

196-500: A band of aspen parkland marks a different kind of transition along the south-central flank from boreal forest to grassland . In Central Canada , the southeastern flank is marked by the Eastern forest-boreal transition of Central Ontario and western Quebec . It consists mainly of mixed coniferous and broad-leaf woodlands. South of this transition can be found the deciduous woodlands of Southern Ontario . Canada's boreal forest

294-624: A broad spatial scale. Because plant productivity is limited by grassland precipitation, carbon stocks are highest in regions where precipitation is heaviest, such as the high grass prairie in the humid temperate region of the United States. Similarly, as annual temperatures rise, grassland carbon stocks decrease due to increased evapotranspiration . Grasslands have suffered large losses of organic carbon due to soil disturbances, vegetation degradation, fires, erosion, nutrient deficiencies, and water shortages. The type, frequency and intensity of

392-585: A consequence they have relatively low biological productivity. Owing to the short growing season, generally infertile soils, generally shallow soils, and frequent waterlogging, most of these forest types are slow-growing species, which generally tend to predominate in stressed habitats. Similarly, many of the understory shrubs are in the Ericaceae , a family known to tolerate acid, infertile and flooded habitats: examples include Labrador tea , sheep-laurel and blueberry . Since nutrient levels are so low, overall,

490-758: A continental climate favourable to the evolution of grasslands. Around 5 million years ago during the Late Miocene in the New World and the Pliocene in the Old World, the first true grasslands occurred. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. It is known that grasslands have existed in Europe throughout the Pleistocene (the last 1.8 million years). Following

588-428: A discount in biodiversity as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process. Misguided afforestation efforts, for example as part of the global effort to increase carbon sequestration, can harm grasslands and their core ecosystem services. Forest centric restoration efforts can create

686-622: A new pine forest begins (see also fire ecology ). It has been estimated that prior to European settlement, this renewal process occurred on average every 75 to 100 years, creating even-aged stands of forest. Fire continues to cause natural forest disturbance, but fire suppression and clear-cutting has interrupted these natural cycles, leading to significant changes in species composition . Boreal vegetation never attains stability because of interactions among fire , vegetation, soil–water relationships, frost action, and permafrost (Churchill and Hanson 1958, Spurr and Barnes 1980). Wildfires produce

784-561: A preference for burnt over forests, where it forages for insects burrowing in the dead trees that remain standing. Fireweed , as the name suggests, is a plant that similar thrives in recently burned areas. Blueberries and huckleberries are also stimulated by fires, probably benefiting from the removal of shade, and the nutrients released in ashes. The resulting berries are an important food source for boreal forest animals. Few species of boreal wildlife are classified under government conservation regimes as being at risk of extinction. However,

882-522: A range of marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services that are fundamental to the livelihoods of an estimated one billion people globally. Grasslands hold about twenty percent of global soil carbon stocks. Herbaceous (non-wooded) vegetation dominates grasslands and carbon is stored in the roots and soil underground. Above-ground biomass carbon is relatively short-lived due to grazing, fire, and senescence . Grassland species have an extensive fibrous root system, with grasses often accounting for 60-80% of

980-489: A result of human activity. Hunting cultures around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the U.S. Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois , Indiana , and Ohio by human agency. Much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period when people gradually cleared

1078-407: A sawmill, pulp and paper mill, mine or railway maintenance facility. Boreal forestry activities support almost 400,000 direct and indirect jobs across Canada. Forestry, pulp and paper, mining, and oil and gas exploration and development are the largest industries along with tourism, trapping, recreation, light manufacturing and the services to support industry and communities. The forest products sector

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1176-565: A vegetation mosaic supporting an ever-changing diversity of plant and animal populations (Viereck 1973). In the absence of fire, the accumulation of sphagnum peat on level upland sites would eventually oust coniferous vegetation and produce muskeg . Despite today's sophisticated and expensive fire-spotting and fire-fighting techniques, forest fires in Canada still burn, on average, about 28,000 km (11,000 sq mi) of boreal and other forest area annually. That average annual burn area

1274-576: Is Canada's largest uranium producing zone in northern Saskatchewan and Quebec's largest hydroelectric generating facilities in the La Grande watershed. About eighty percent of the Indigenous population of Canada resides in forested areas – including one million in over five hundred First Nations and Métis settlements in boreal zones. Of that amount, over 17,000 work in the forest products industry, mostly in silviculture and woodlands operations in

1372-508: Is a lack of agreement on the amount of carbon that can be stored in grassland ecosystem. This is partly caused by different methodologies applied to measure soil organic carbon and limited respective datasets. Further, carbon accumulation in soils changes significantly over time and point in time measurements produce an insufficient evidence base. Grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems. Global losses from grassland degradation are estimated to be over $ 7 billion per year. According to

1470-468: Is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses ( Poaceae ). However, sedge ( Cyperaceae ) and rush ( Juncaceae ) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes , like clover , and other herbs . Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth . Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate

1568-525: Is approximately 10% of the total boreal area. Most large forest products companies have certified their boreal forestry operations to one of three third-party, independently audited standards for sustainable forest management: Sustainable Forest Management refers to managing a forest ecosystem in a manner that maintains and enhances its long-term health. In July 2008 the Ontario government announced plans to protect 225,000 km (87,000 sq mi) of

1666-428: Is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with around three million square kilometres still undisturbed by roads, cities and industrial development. Its high level of intactness has made the forest a particular focus of environmentalists and conservation scientists who view the untouched regions of the forest as an opportunity for large-scale conservation that would otherwise be impractical in other parts of

1764-414: Is equivalent to more than three times the current annual industrial timber harvest. It can be many more times that in intense fire years. However, although logging also removes trees, fire is not the same as logging, since fire has been a part of coniferous forests for millennia. Fire not only stimulates regeneration of many plant species, it recycles phosphorus and removes accumulated organic matter. Fire

1862-467: Is in the boreal, government statistics suggest that the harvest declined 18% from 2005 to 2006. Given the high number of mill closings from 2005 onward, mostly in Ontario and Quebec, it is a trend that most likely persisted through 2007 and 2008. Most of Canada's conventional onshore oil and gas production, including the rapidly expanding oil sands production in Alberta, is located in the boreal region as

1960-454: Is increasingly used as a management tool to maintain forest health in some parts of North America (see fire ecology ). Different parts of the boreal have different burn cycles. The drier western region, which receives lower average rainfall, had higher natural fire frequencies. Hence, more area is burned annually on average in the west than in central and eastern Canada. When natural burn cycles are interrupted by fire suppression, natural renewal

2058-454: Is largely Crown land . Over 90% of the boreal forest is provincial Crown land; another 5% is federally controlled and includes national parks, First Nations reserves and national defence installations. About 1,400 communities within the Boreal region rely on resource industries for at least part of the livelihood and stability. Many of these communities were carved out of the forest to support

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2156-485: Is obstructed and species composition is changed. In addition, fire suppression causes fuel loads to increase so that fires, when they do occur, become more intense. One can argue that fire suppression actually creates a positive feed back loop, where ever more expensive fire suppression generates the conditions for ever larger fires. The negative effects of fire suppression are still under study, and not fully measured, but they need to be considered when making decisions about

2254-627: Is often a plagioclimax ; it remains dominant in a particular area usually due to grazing , cutting, or natural or man-made fires, all discouraging colonization by and survival of tree and shrub seedlings . Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in the African savanna, and these are maintained by wild herbivores as well as by nomadic pastoralists and their cattle , sheep or goats. Grasslands have an impact on climate change by slower decomposition rates of litter compared to forest environments. Grasslands may occur naturally or as

2352-454: Is one of Canada's largest export industries, representing approximately 3% of GDP, with about half of the annual wood harvest coming from the boreal forest. Roughly one quarter of the boreal forest is managed for industrial forestry. The remaining three-quarters is either in parks, conservation areas, model forests or is considered non-timber-productive, generally defined as unsuitable for managed forestry or inaccessible. As recently as 2003, it

2450-527: Is spread across the Northern Hemisphere. These forests contain three structural types: forest tundra in the north, open lichen woodland further south, and closed forest in more southern areas. White spruce, black spruce and tamarack are most prevalent in the four northern eco-zones of the Taiga and Hudson Plains, while spruce, balsam fir, jack pine, white birch and trembling aspen are most common in

2548-553: Is still controversial. A study in Brazilian Subtropical Highland Grasslands found that grasslands without traditional land management—which uses fire every two years and extensive cattle grazing—can disappear within 30 years. This study showed that grasslands inside protected areas , in which fire is not allowed and cattle grazing is banned, grasslands were quickly replaced by shrubs ( shrub encroachment ). Land cover has always changed during

2646-918: The Everglades of Florida , the Pantanal of Brazil , Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del Ibera in Argentina , are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. The Everglades—the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland—is rich in 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of orchids , 300 bird species, and 150 fish species. Water-meadows are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods. High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around

2744-551: The Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River basin, are among the ten largest wetlands in the world. The boreal forest wetlands provide wildlife habitat (particularly for migratory birds), they maintain water flow in rivers, and they store significant amounts of carbon that otherwise would be released to the atmosphere. In contemporary times, the boreal forest has suffered little deforestation , defined as

2842-463: The Pleistocene ice ages (with their glacials and interglacials ), grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. Since the grasslands have existed for over 1.8 million years, there is high variability. For example steppe-tundra dominated in Northern and Central Europe whereas a higher amount of xerothermic grasslands occurred in

2940-480: The encroachment of woody species . Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low soil fertility such as serpentine barrens and calcareous grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired photosynthesizing organisms, with

3038-871: The prairie and Pacific grasslands of North America , the Pampas of Argentina , Brazil and Uruguay , calcareous downland , and the steppes of Europe . They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome . Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores , such as bison , gazelles , zebras , rhinoceroses , and wild horses . Carnivores like lions , wolves , cheetahs and leopards are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include deer , prairie dogs , mice , jack rabbits , skunks , coyotes , snakes , foxes , owls , badgers , blackbirds, grasshoppers , meadowlarks , sparrows , quails , hawks and hyenas . Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like

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3136-509: The tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome . The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90 and 150 centimeters per year. Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large mammals , such as wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) and zebra ( Equus zebra ). Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of South America . Mid-latitude grasslands, including

3234-778: The African savannas or the Iberian deheza. As flowering plants and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in). The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place. Grasslands support the greatest aggregations of large animals on Earth, including jaguars, African wild dogs, pronghorn , black-footed ferret , plains bison , mountain plover , African elephant, Sunda tiger, black rhino, white rhino, savanna elephant, greater one-horned rhino, Indian elephant and swift fox . Grazing animals, herd animals, and predators in grasslands, like lions and cheetahs live in

3332-510: The American West—and introduction of invasive species , like cane toads in northern Australia, have disrupted the balance in these ecosystems and damaged a number of other species. Grasslands are home to a number of the foremost magnificent animals on the planet—elephants, bison, lions—and hunters have found them to be enticing prey. But when hunting is not controlled or is conducted illegally, species can become extinct. Grasslands provide

3430-654: The Boreal Shield, at 1,630,000 square kilometres the largest of the eight zones, the Boreal Plains and Boreal Cordillera. A typical ecoregion of this southern tier would be the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga that covers northern Quebec and most of Labrador. Within the boreal region, there are about 1,890,000 square kilometres that are 80% to 100% forested and another 650,000 square kilometres with 60% to 80% forest cover. Most trees native to

3528-497: The Canadian boreal are conifers , with needle leaves and cones. These include: black spruce , white spruce , balsam fir , larch (tamarack), lodgepole pine , and jack pine . A few are broad-leaved species: trembling and large-toothed aspen , cottonwood and white birch , and balsam poplar . There are large areas of black spruce, a species which is tolerant of shallow soil, permafrost and waterlogged substrates, although as

3626-539: The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most significant threat to grasslands is human land use, especially agriculture and mining. The vulnerability of grasslands stems from a range of factors, such as misclassification, poor protection and cultivation. Grasslands have an extensive history of human activity and disturbance . To feed a growing human population, most of

3724-556: The Mediterranean area. Within temperate Europe, the range of types is quite wide and also became unique due to the exchange of species and genetic material between different biomes. The semi-natural grasslands first appeared when humans started farming. So for the use of agriculture, forests got cleared in Europe. Ancient meadows and pastures were the parts that were suitable for cultivation. The semi-natural grasslands were formed from these areas. However, there's also evidence for

3822-612: The Northern Boreal lands. In February 2010 the Canadian government established protection for 5,300 square miles (14,000 km ) of boreal forest by creating a new reserve of 4,100 square miles (11,000 km ) in the Mealy Mountains area of eastern Canada and a waterway provincial park of 1,200 square miles (3,100 km ) that follows alongside the Eagle River from headwaters to sea. A report issued in 2011 by

3920-497: The Pew Environment Group described the Canadian boreal forest as the largest natural storage of freshwater in the world. The boreal forest is deeply ingrained in the Canadian identity and the images foreigners have of Canada. The history of the early European fur traders , their adventures, discoveries, aboriginal alliances and misfortunes is an essential part of the popular colonial history of Canada. The canoe,

4018-596: The Yukon . In this western part of the boreal forest, there are, for example 127 species of grass ( Poaceae ), 118 species of Asteraceae , 115 species of sedge ( Cyperaceae ), 93 species of crucifer ( Brassicaceae ), 52 species of Rosaceae , 37 species of Saxifragaceae and 36 members of the snapdragon family ( Scrophulariaceae ). Overall, the flora has 1112 species – there are even 15 species of orchids. Canada's boreal landscape contains more lakes and rivers than any comparably sized landmass on Earth. It has been estimated that

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4116-399: The accumulated peat in the soil, and the predominance of coniferous trees, lightning-caused fire has always been a natural part of this forest. It is one of many ecosystems that depend upon such recurring natural disturbance. For example, fire dependent species like lodgepole and jack pine have resin sealed cones. In a fire, the resin melts and the cones open, allowing seeds to scatter so that

4214-528: The arts. The Canadian boreal forest is a very large bio-region that extends in length from the Yukon-Alaska border right across the country to Newfoundland and Labrador. It is over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in width (north to south) separating the arctic tundra region from the various landscapes of southern Canada. The taiga growth (as defined in North America) along the northern flank of

4312-572: The atmosphere). It can have severe negative consequences on key ecosystem services, like land productivity and groundwater recharge. Despite growing recognition of the importance of grasslands, understanding of restoration options remains limited. Cost of grassland restoration is highly variable and respective data is scarce. Successful grassland restoration has several dimensions, including recognition in policy, standardisation of indicators of degradation, scientific innovation, knowledge transfer and data sharing. Restoration methods and measures include

4410-573: The beaver pelt, the coureur des bois , the voyageurs , the Hudson's Bay Company and the North-West Mounted Police , the construction of Canada's transcontinental railways – all are symbols of Canadian history familiar to school children that are inextricably linked to the boreal forest. The forest – and boreal species such as the caribou and loon – are or have been featured on Canadian currency. Another iconic and enduring image of

4508-478: The biomass carbon in this ecosystem. This underground biomass can extend several meters below the surface and store abundant carbon into the soil, resulting in deep, fertile soils with high organic matter content. For this reason, soil carbon accounts for about 81% of the total ecosystem carbon in grasslands. The close link between soil carbon and underground biomass leads to similar responses of these carbon pools to fluctuations in annual precipitation and temperature on

4606-663: The boreal and other forest regions. Since the early 1990s, a strong impetus has been created to focus on conserving Canada's boreal legacy and sustainably managing economic activity within the entire region. The Canadian boreal is largely intact and available for multiple uses like timber harvest, recreation and hunting. Forestry companies have come to adopt the management practices known as eco-system based management, which takes into consideration criteria and indicators for sustainability – social, economic and environmental. A number of key principles have come to underpin Canadian forestry practices as mandated by forestry legislation, including

4704-483: The boreal forest creates a transition to the tundra region at the northern tree line . On the southwestern flank, the boreal forest extends into sub-alpine and lower elevation areas of northern British Columbia . The central interior of the province is occupied by a sub-boreal transition zone between the main boreal forest and the dry forests of the southern interior. However, across the Prairie Provinces ,

4802-459: The boreal forest, there is a considerable diversity of other kinds of plants. An accurate summary is difficult, since most compendia on plants are organized by political, rather than ecological boundaries; one exception addresses the flora of the Hudson Bay Lowland , but much of this area is not forested. One portion of the boreal forest can be used to illustrate plant diversity; consider the Flora of

4900-470: The boreal makes an important contribution to the rural and aboriginal economies of Canada, primarily through resource industries, recreation, hunting, fishing and eco-tourism. Hundreds of cities and towns within its territory derive at least 20% of their economic activity from the forest, mainly from industries like forest products, mining, oil and gas and tourism. The boreal forest also plays an iconic role in Canada's history, economic and social development and

4998-624: The boreal region contains over 1.5 million lakes with a minimum surface area of 40,000 m (430,000 sq ft) as well as some of Canada's largest lakes. Soft water lakes predominate in central and eastern Canada and hard water lakes predominate in Western Canada. Most large boreal lakes have cold water species of fish like trout and whitefish, while in warmer waters, species may include northern pike , walleye , and smallmouth bass . The boreal forest also has vast areas of wetland , particularly bogs and fens . Two wetland areas,

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5096-488: The boreal was created by 20th-century landscape painters, most notably from the Group of Seven , who saw the uniqueness of Canada in its boreal vastness. The Group of Seven artists largely portrayed the boreal as natural, pure and unspoiled by human presence or activity and hence only partly a reflection of reality. [REDACTED] Media related to Boreal forest of Canada at Wikimedia Commons Grassland A grassland

5194-456: The creek leaves Stuart Lake, it follows the course of Highway 912 from there until it empties into Nipekamew Lake. Nipekamew Creek travels along the western edge of the Cub Hills and along its course, it travels through forests of jack pine , spruce , birch , and poplar . It arrives at the southern end of Nipekamew Lake, just south of East Trout-Nipekamew Lakes Recreation Site , and from

5292-722: The creeks of McDougal , White Gull , and Lost Echo and Mossy River . All seven of Saskatchewan's trout species can be found in the Cub Hills. Boreal forest of Canada The boreal forest zone consists of closed-crown conifer forests with a conspicuous deciduous element (Ritchie 1987). The proportions of the dominant conifers (white and black spruces, jack pine ( Pinus banksiana Lamb.), tamarack, and balsam fir) vary greatly in response to interactions among climate , topography , soil , fire , pests, and perhaps other factors. The boreal region contains about 13% of Canada's population. With its sheer vastness and forest cover ,

5390-799: The decline of some major species of wildlife is a concern. Boreal woodland caribou , whose lichen-rich, mature forest habitat spans the boreal forest from the Northwest Territories to Labrador , is designated as a threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada . The Newfoundland population of marten is threatened by habitat loss, accidental trapping and prey availability. The boreal forests keeps large amounts of carbons in biomass, dead organic matter, and soil pools. Due to cold temperatures, significant amounts of carbon stocks have been built up, this combined with

5488-417: The disturbance can play a key role in the soil organic carbon ( SOC ) balance of grasslands. Bedrock , irrigation practices, soil acidification , liming , and pasture management can all have potential impacts on grassland organic carbon stocks. Good grassland management can reverse historical soil carbon losses. The relationship of improved biodiversity with carbon storage is subject of research. There

5586-501: The economics that the world's grasslands have to offer, from producing grazing animals, tourism, ecosystems services such as clean water and air, and energy extraction. Vast areas of grassland are affected by woody encroachment , which is the expansion of woody plants at the expense of the herbaceous layer. Woody encroachment is caused by a combination of human impact (e.g. fire exclusion, overstocking and resulting overgrazing ) and environmental factors (i.e. increased CO 2 levels in

5684-804: The following: For the period 2021–2030 the United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed the UN Decade on Restoration, involving a joint resolution by over 70 countries. It is led by the United Nations Environment Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization . Grassland types by Schimper (1898, 1903): Grassland types by Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967): Formation-class V. Terrestrial herbaceous communities Grassland types by Laycock (1979): These grasslands can be classified as

5782-421: The forest carbon balance as well, including the combustion emissions and the after effects. The particular mixture of tree species depends upon factors including soil moisture, soil depth, and organic content. Upland forests can be closely mixed with forested peatlands. The resulting conifer forests are produced by and dependent upon recurring disturbance from storms, fires, floods and insect outbreaks. Owing to

5880-411: The forest sector are replanted or regenerated naturally. However, the resulting road network from logging has effects that persist long beyond the period of harvest; indeed, one can make the case that road construction is one of the most harmful and persistent effects of logging. There may be as many as five billion landbirds, including resident and migratory species. The Canadian boreal region contains

5978-463: The forest to create areas for raising their livestock. Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents

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6076-486: The further increasing temperatures and disturbance rates will lead to the high net source of carbon that will remain for more than a hundred years. This will result in global impacts which researchers are still uncertain about. Direct effects of herbivores can lead to boreal landscapes as there may be decreased regeneration in some local forest patches. This is altering the input of soils, which could affect soil compaction, and density, or reduce microbial and nitrogen levels in

6174-435: The future health of boreal forests. Because parts of the boreal forest region are found in nearly every province and territory in Canada, there has not been much in the way of coordinated planning to develop the region. Prime Minister Diefenbaker talked of his "northern vision" but little was done to see it come to pass. A proposal was authored by Richard Rohmer in 1967 called Mid-Canada Development Corridor: A Concept and

6272-759: The grassland areas have been turned to arable fields and disappeared again. The grasslands permanently became arable cropping fields due to the steady decrease in organic matter. Nowadays, semi-natural grasslands are rather located in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural farming. Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as grazing and cutting regimes. The semi-natural grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 plant-species per 100 square centimeters can be found. A European record that

6370-612: The grassland type and on how strong it is affected by human impact. Dominant trees for the semi-natural grassland are Quercus robur , Betula pendula , Corylus avellana , Crataegus and many kinds of herbs. In chalk grassland , the plants can vary from very tall to very short. Quite tall grasses can be found in North American tallgrass prairie , South American grasslands, and African savanna . Woody plants, shrubs or trees may occur on some grasslands—forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as

6468-443: The grasslands of the African savanna. Mites , insect larvae , nematodes , and earthworms inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20 feet) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic fungi , extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with urea and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make

6566-840: The lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights. When not limited by other factors, increasing CO 2 concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO 2 are limited by factors including water availability and available nutrients , particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO 2 on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air pollutants and increased mineralization from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among

6664-448: The land is also important, as it is then easier to fertilize, for example. For instance, if it is located near a road. With the development of technology, it is becoming increasingly easy to cultivate land with a steeper gradient, to the detriment of grasslands. The management of grasslands is also changing permanently. There is increased use of mineral fertilizers, furthermore borders and field edges are removed to enlarge fields and leveling

6762-437: The land, 49.7%, was covered with forest and there was also more semi-natural grassland (18.8%) than arable land (15.8%). In 2015 this has changed drastically. The forest cover has increased (50.8%) and arable land has also increased (20.4%), but the semi-natural grassland cover has decreased. Although it still covers a large area of the earth (10.6%). A quarter of semi-natural grassland was lost through intensification, i.e. it

6860-446: The landbirds in all of Canada and almost 30% of all landbirds in the United States and Canada combined. Many of the wildlife species, are, like the forests, dependent upon natural disturbance from fire and insect outbreaks. For example, at least three species of warbler (Cape May warbler, bay-breasted warbler and Tennessee warbler), have distributions and abundance related to spruce budworm outbreaks. The black-backed woodpecker shows

6958-545: The landscape change due to agriculture of the last century. The original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as perennial ryegrass and white clover . In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately. Grassland vegetation can vary considerably depending on

7056-569: The landscape worldwide. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands. They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area. Included among the variety of definitions for grasslands are: Semi-natural grasslands are a very common subcategory of the grasslands biome. These can be defined as: They can also be described as the following: There are many different types of semi-natural grasslands, e.g. hay meadows . The graminoids are among

7154-410: The largest area of wetlands of any ecosystem of the world, serving as breeding ground for over 12 million waterbirds and millions of land birds, the latter including species as diverse as vultures, hawks, grouse, owls, hummingbirds , kingfishers , woodpeckers , and passerines (or perching birds, often referred to as songbirds). It is estimated that the avian population of the boreal represents 60% of

7252-408: The local persistence of natural grasslands in Europe, originally maintained by wild herbivores, throughout the pre-Neolithic Holocene. The removal of the plants by the grazing animals and later the mowing farmers led to co-existence of other plant species around. In the following, the biodiversity of the plants evolve. Also, the species that already lived there adapted to the new conditions. Most of

7350-433: The lower boreal regions. Large populations of trembling aspen and willow are found in the southernmost parts of the Boreal Plains. One dominant characteristic of the boreal is that much of it consists of large, even-aged stands, a uniformity that owes to a cycle of natural disturbances like forest fires, or outbreaks of pine beetle or spruce budworm that kill large tracts of forest with cyclical regularity. For example,

7448-521: The many stands of white spruce, black spruce, and balsam fir are vulnerable to the cyclical outbreaks of a species of the spruce budworm, the Choristoneura fumiferana . Since the melting of the great ice sheet, the boreal forest has been through many cycles of natural death through fire, insect outbreaks and disease, followed by regeneration. Prior to European colonization of Canada and the application of modern firefighting equipment and techniques,

7546-655: The most thinly treed areas where the growing season and average tree size progressively shrinks until the edge of the Arctic tundra is reached. The southern tier of the boreal meanwhile consists of three other ecozones that form the largely uninterrupted or continuous forest in stretching as far south as Lake Superior in Ontario (as the Central Canadian Shield forests ecoregion) and the Manitoba-North Dakota border. These three southern zones are

7644-544: The most versatile life forms . They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and coprolites of fossilized dinosaur feces have been found containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo . The appearance of mountains in the western United States during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created

7742-600: The natural burn/regeneration cycle was less than 75 to 100 years, and it still is in many areas. Terms like old growth and ancient forest have a different connotation in the boreal context than they do when used to describe mature coastal rain forests with longer-lived species and different natural disturbance cycles. However, the effects of forest fires and insect outbreaks differ from the effects of logging, so they should not be treated as equivalent in their ecological consequences. Logging, for example, requires road networks with their negative impacts, and it removes nutrients from

7840-592: The northern end of Nipekamew Lake, the waters carry on via Nipekamew River and into Lac la Ronge . Lac la Ronge flows into the Churchill River through Rapid River . Brook trout were first introduced to Nipekamew Creek in 1954 and a biannual stocking programme continues to supplement the creek's naturalised population. Brook trout have been introduced to 25 rivers in the Cub Hills with five of those rivers now supporting populations of naturalised, self-sustaining feral brook trout. The other four rivers include

7938-500: The obligation for forestry companies operating on public lands to fully regenerate all areas harvested for timber and to consult the public on the preparation of forest management/harvest plans submitted to the relevant provincial authorities. As a result of growing public concern with sustainable development and conserving the integrity of the boreal forests, conservation initiatives are progressing on various fronts. The area in national and provincial parks and protected conservation areas

8036-670: The original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers. Almost 90% of the European semi-natural grasslands do not exist anymore due to political and economic reasons. This loss took place during the 20th century. The ones in Western and Central Europe have almost disappeared completely. There are a few left in Northern Europe. Unfortunately, a large amount of red-listed species are specialists of semi-natural grasslands and are affected by

8134-464: The past four decades for hydroelectric projects. As of 2005 , Canada as a whole has 91% of the boreal forest cover that existed at the dawn of European settlement. More deforestation has occurred outside the boreal region, in more southerly areas of the country. The forest sector annually harvests approximately ½ of 1% of the region. However, this is not considered deforestation by some, given that provincial laws are meant to ensure that areas harvested by

8232-455: The permanent conversion of forest area to non-forest due to activities associated with agriculture, urban or recreational development, oil and gas development, and flooding for hydroelectric projects. In Alberta, the province with the largest oil and gas industry, more trees are cut for agriculture or oil and gas exploration than for timber. In Eastern Canada, over 9,000 km (3,500 sq mi) of peatlands and forest have been flooded over

8330-445: The plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks. Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the blue wildebeest , American bison , giant anteater , and Przewalski's horse . The plants and animals that live in grasslands are connected through an unlimited web of interactions. But the removal of key species—such as buffalo and prairie dogs within

8428-484: The productivity of forest trees is highly dependent on the rate at which mineral elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus are recycled by litterfall and decomposition. After logging, the loss of nutrients may convert forested areas into shrub barrens dominated by shrubs such as sheep-laurel . Many of the plant species are fire-dependent, since fire removes neighbouring plants, and recycles nutrients locked in organic matter. Although there are rather few species of trees in

8526-824: The risk of misreading and misclassifying of landscapes. A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration . It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands. It is expected that non-native grasses will continue to outperform native species under warmer and drier conditions that occur in many grasslands due to climate change. The type of land management used in grasslands can also lead to grassland loss/degradation. Many grasslands and other open ecosystems depend on disturbances such as wildfires , controlled burns and/or grazing to persist, although this subject

8624-514: The site, which may deplete nutrients for the next cycle of forest growth. Fire, on the other hand, recycles nutrients on location (except for some nitrogen), it removes accumulated organic matter and it stimulates reproduction of fire-dependent species. Canada's boreal region can be divided into seven ecozones. These seven can be divided into two main groups. The northern regions of the boreal forest consists of four eco-zones – Taiga Cordillera, Taiga Plains, Taiga Shield and Hudson Plains – that are

8722-476: The soil. At high abundance, large herbivores often choose palatable, fast-growing plants which keep keystone species in boreal forests juvenile, which changes these forests. This moose-led transition in forest age class distribution and composition causes slower increases in net primary production with lower large herbivore populations. This means that they are not only changing boreal forests from carbon sinks to sources over moderate periods. Wildfires have impacts on

8820-413: The terrain to facilitate the use of agricultural machinery. The professional study of dry grasslands falls under the category of rangeland management , which focuses on ecosystem services associated with the grass-dominated arid and semi-arid rangelands of the world. Rangelands account for an estimated 70% of the earth's landmass; thus, many cultures including those of the United States are indebted to

8918-593: The wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the snipe and the little bustard . Owing to semi-natural grasslands being referred to as one of the most-species rich ecosystems in the world and essential habitat for many specialists, also including pollinators, there are many approaches to conservation activities lately. Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to

9016-467: The world's grasslands are converted from natural landscapes to fields of corn, wheat or other crops. Grasslands that have remained largely intact thus far, such as the East African savannas , are in danger of being lost to agriculture. Grasslands are very sensitive to disturbances, such as people hunting and killing key species, or plowing the land to make more space for farms. Grassland vegetation

9114-521: The world. The Canadian boreal forest in its current form began to emerge with the end of the last Ice Age. With the retreat of the Wisconsin Ice Sheet 10,000 years ago, spruce and northern pine migrated northward and were followed thousands of years later by fir and birch. About 5,000 years ago, the Canadian boreal began to resemble what it is today in terms of species composition and biodiversity. This type of coniferous forest vegetation

9212-483: The years. The following relates to the changes between 1960 and 2015. There has been a decrease in semi-natural grasslands and an increase in areas with arable land , forest and land used for infrastructure and buildings. The line style and relative thickness of the lines indicates the percentage of the total area that changed. Changes less than 1% and land-cover classes with all changes less than 1% (i.e. semi-natural wetlands and water) are not included. In 1960 most of

9310-412: Was converted into arable or pasture land and forests. It is more likely that intensification will occur in flat semi-natural grasslands, especially if the soil is fertile. On the other hand, grasslands, where the land is drought-prone or less productive, are more likely to persist as semi-natural grasslands than grasslands with fertile soil and low gradient of the terrain. Furthermore, the accessibility of

9408-536: Was discussed by officials and politicians but was never implemented. In 2014, John van Nostrand attempted to revive the concept. In the absence of a nationwide plan, private industry and the provinces have pursued development in particular products or certain regions. These include the Athabasca Oil Sands in Alberta, the Ring of Fire (Northern Ontario) , and Quebec's Plan Nord . Forest land in Canada

9506-465: Was estimated that the annual harvest in the boreal was about 7,500 square kilometres per year, equivalent to about 0.2% of the total Canadian boreal forest. The sharp downturn in the market for lumber because of the collapse of the housing market in the United States that began in 2006, coupled with import tariff and tax barriers, have knocked the bottom out of Canada's forest industry. In Ontario, Canada's most populous province, where most forestry activity

9604-627: Was found on a meadow in Estonia described 76 species of plants in one square meter. Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter. In many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing, or re-seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with

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