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62-509: Njaba flows in an almost east-western direction, taking off from Amucha and Ekwe passing through several towns including Okwudor , Awo-Omamma and Mgbidi before emptying into Oguta Lake . Some of the oil fields in the river basin include Ossu, Izombe and Njaba operated under ChevronTexaco ’s OML 53 and Addax Petroleum 's OML 124 both in Izombe . OML 124 contains another undeveloped Njaba 2 well onshore Nigeria discovered December 2008 in

124-572: A daily occurrence. Following the civil war, local communities increasingly demanded social and environmental justice from the federal government, with Ken Saro Wiwa and the Ogoni tribe as the lead figures for this phase of the struggle. Cohesive oil protests became most pronounced in 1990 with the publication of the Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous people protested against the lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, and hospitals, in

186-567: A dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the small territory of Bakassi . A new phase of the struggle saw the declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian president Ironsi's administration, just before the Nigerian Civil War . Also just before the Nigerian civil war, Southeastern State of Nigeria was created (also known as Southeastern Nigeria or Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), which had

248-684: A government initiative, and the Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization based in Port Harcourt . Uz and Uz Transnational, a company with a strong commitment to the Niger Delta, has introduced ways of developing the poor in the Niger Delta, especially in Rivers State. In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an " oil war " throughout

310-430: A part of the eastern region of Nigeria , which came into being in 1951 (one of the three regions, and later one of the four regions). The majority of the people were those from the colonial Calabar and Ogoja divisions, the present-day Ogoja , Annang , Ibibio , Oron , Efik , Ijaw and Ogoni people. The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) was the ruling political party of the region. The NCNC later became

372-452: A sense of displacement and identity crisis among the affected groups/communities. Additionally, when communities fight back against the oil industries as an act of protest, violence is often perpetuated. Since the 1990s there has been continuous violence in an effort to give local communities control of the oil in the delta. These acts of violence include the kidnapping of foreign oil workers and holding them for ransom, vandalization, and even

434-628: A target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m ) of oil per day within four years. Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to the First Republic's high degree of regional autonomy, and as low as 10% during the military dictatorships. * State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation. **The derivation formula refers to

496-402: Is characteristic of densely populated rural areas. Fallow period rarely exceeds one year and in some areas continuous cropping is the rule. Low crop yield and loss of land to erosion have combined to induce people to migrate in search of jobs and even farmland in other parts of the state or country in search of greener pastures. The people of Ekwe are mostly subsistence farmers and traders but on

558-710: Is known about the number of wives, daughters and granddaughters he had, however it is assumed that Ekwe had two wives. Ekwe-Nwe-Orie is the Diokwara (first son) of Ekwe from his first wife and Ekwe-Nwe-Nkwo is the second son of Ekwe and the first son of the second wife of Ekwe. Ekwe-Nwe-Orie had SIX sons that later gave rise to SIX villages. The villages are Umudibi, Ibeama, Umuduru, Eluama, Obara, and Ebenano. Ekwe-Nwe-Nkwo had SIX sons that also gave rise to seven villages. The villages are (in order of seniority) Umuduruewuru, Eziekwe, Eluama, Umuduruehie, Odicheku, Umukorokoro and Umuokwara Eluama, Umuduruewuru, Umukorokoro later crossed

620-552: Is made of Umudibi, Ibeoma, Umuduru, Eluama, Obara, Umudiwoha and Ebanano and the headquarters is at Umudibi. Eze Charles Chukwuemeka Anyakudo who was enthroned in May 2014 is the current traditional ruler of Ekwe-Nwe-Orie. Uburu Ekwe is made up of Eziekwe, Umuduruehie, Odicheku and Umuokwara and its headquarters is at Eziekwe. Ibekwe is the traditional ruler of Uburu Ekwe. Ebenator Ekwe is made up of Eluama, Umuduruewuru and Umukorokoro. Eze Remigius Nwokeforo- Ejirijiegbu III of Ebenator Ekwe

682-484: Is mostly free-range system and farm animals such as poultry, goat, sheep and ram are usually kept. The agricultural produce and by-products such as palm oil , palm kernels, coconuts fruits and various animals, e.g., goats, sheep, fowls, eggs, etc. are taken to the Orie Ekwe Market on Orie Market Day or neighboring communities markets e.g. Afor Umuaka and Nkwo Ihitte to be sold. There is freedom of worship in

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744-684: Is multi-faceted and extends beyond health problems. Fishing and agriculture are central to the livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills contaminate water sources and farmlands, severely affecting fish stocks and crops. This disruption can lead to food shortages and economic hardship for those dependent on these activities. Another facet of the people's livelihoods is their culture. The Niger Delta's people have strong spiritual and cultural ties to their environment. The harm inflicted on their land and waterways caused by oil spills deeply disrupts sacred sites and interferes with their cultural practices. The loss of these cultural elements contributes to

806-599: Is needed to solve many of these infrastructure and environmental issues in the villages of Awo-Omamma , Izombe , Oguta , the greater oil-rich river basin and many other farming communities in Imo State . Assistance is needed in development of motorable access roads to these fishing villages and ports such as Umuezukwe , Ubahaeze , Abiaziem, Izombe et al. as well as in support of modern fish and crop processing activities through electricity generation and agricultural subsidies On Monday, January 28, 2013, angry youths protested

868-506: Is the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture that is majority-owned by the Nigerian government. In Nigeria, "...despite regulations introduced 20 years ago to outlaw the practice, most associated gas is flared, causing local pollution and contributing to climate change." The environmental devastation associated with the industry and the lack of distribution of oil wealth have been

930-400: Is the traditional ruler of Ebenator. He was secretary of Nigeria Disabled Federation. The population of Ekwe community is a predominantly rural settlement. It has a high population density and the estimated census population is put at about 56,000. This high population density has led to intensified pressure on land, forests and other natural resources, leading to increasing rural poverty which

992-702: The Ijaw (including the Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari people , Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika , Engenni and Andoni clans), the Ogoni people (Khana, Gokana, Tai and Eleme), the Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye and Ndoki in Rivers State. Eastern Niger Delta consists of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. It has the homogeneous Annang , Efik and Ibibio people. Nigeria has become West Africa 's biggest producer of petroleum. Some 2 million barrels (320,000 m ) per day are extracted in

1054-564: The Ijaw people in the Kaiama Declaration in 1998, the Nigerian government sent troops to occupy the Bayelsa and Delta states. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. Since then, local indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries and pipelines in the region has increased in frequency and militancy. Recently foreign employees of Shell ,

1116-774: The Niger Coast Protectorate . The delta is a petroleum-rich region and has been the center of international concern over extensive pollution which is often used as an example of ecocide . The principal cause is major oil spills by multinational corporations of the petroleum industry. The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian government, extends over 70,000 km (27,000 sq mi) and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present-day Bayelsa , Delta , and Rivers States . In 2000, however, Obasanjo's regime included Abia , Akwa-Ibom , Cross River State , Edo , Imo and Ondo States in

1178-532: The Niger Delta , the continuous flaring of gases at flow stations constitutes a threat to ambient air in the area. It is projected that upon completion, Izombe Gas Processing Plant would be a major inland gas processing hub for most stranded gas within Njaba River axis. It would contribute to meeting not only the energy demand of Imo State and Nigeria , but it would create much needed jobs to support

1240-611: The South South geopolitical zone, one state ( Ondo ) from South West geopolitical zone and two states ( Abia and Imo ) from South East geopolitical zone. The Niger Delta is a very densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil . The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became

1302-475: The natural gas extracted in oil wells in the delta is immediately burned, or flared , into the air at a rate of approximately 70 million m per day. This is equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption and forms the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. In 2003, about 99% of excess gas was flared in the Niger Delta, although this value has fallen to 11% in 2010. (See also gas flaring volumes ). The biggest gas flaring company

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1364-515: The Iyi Abalaka stream to discover a land mass later called Okwuotiri. The three villages founded the Eke market. Today they are collectively known as Ebenator-Ekwe. Eziekwe, Umuduruehie, Odicheku and Umuokwara are now known as Uburu Ekwe. Ekwe is located in the southern part of Isu local government area of Imo state . The town lies on an undulated plain, with a natural boundary caused by the flow of

1426-608: The National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decided to separate from Nigeria. The ruling party of eastern Nigeria did not seek to preclude the separation and even encouraged it. The then Eastern Region had the third, fourth and fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups in the country, which are the Igbo , Ibibio and Ijaw . In 1953, the Old Eastern region had a major crisis when professor Eyo Ita

1488-526: The Niger Delta against both, pipelines and oil-production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Nigerian Government claim to have inflicted heavy casualties on one another. In August 2009, the Nigerian government granted amnesty to the militants; many militants subsequently surrendered their weapons in exchange for a presidential pardon, rehabilitation programme, and education. Western Niger Delta consists of

1550-478: The Niger Delta, with an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves. The first oil operations in the region began in the 1950s and were undertaken by multinational corporations, which provided Nigeria with necessary technological and financial resources to extract oil. Since 1975, the region has accounted for more than 75% of Nigeria's export earnings. Together oil and natural gas extraction comprise "97 per cent of Nigeria's foreign exchange revenues". More than 70% of

1612-414: The Njaba River. The Njaba River separates the town from Amucha, Okwudor and some parts of Umuaka. There exists a stream - (Iyi -Eziakwo)(Isi iyi )(iyi Oba) which started as a spring from the thick Eziakwo forest rocks. It separates Ekwe-Nwe-Kwo (Uburu Ekwe) from Okwudor and finally gives rise to Iyi Agu, Iyi Abala and Njaba River. Ekwe is bounded on the north by Nkume and Amucha, on the south by Amurie, on

1674-456: The Oil producing States and, in fact, across Nigeria’s 36 States". In managing climate reality, Morgan K. Orioha thinks that "sustainability strategy should focus on discouraging inefficient and unsustainable practices through development and implementation of sustainable development policies, regulations, and attraction of sustainable investments and projects where applicable". Like many other areas of

1736-763: The Okwudor community. Ekwe stayed put in the area, which is now known as Ekwe.[1] Ekwe and Okwudor conjointly worshipped the common ancestral god of their fore-fathers (Eziekwo) and commonly performed Ozo title ceremonies together until recently. An accident on the bridge crossing the Njaba River led to the death of Nze and Ozo title holders. This led to the separation in performance of the Ozo title, between Ekwe and Okwudor. Today, people still pay homage and perform sacrificial rituals at Eziakwo shrine, their common ancestral deity. Ekwe had two sons named Ekwe-Nwe-Orie and Ekwe-Nwe-Nkwo, along with fourteen grandsons. No definite information

1798-476: The Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks, more than 1300 different chemicals can be put into the environment as a result of oil and gas exploration. Then, humans come in contact with these harmful substances through eating contaminated food as well as breathing in the air pollution. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are especially concerning because of their persistence in

1860-698: The State Government’s insensitivity to plight of their people whose roads linking Awo-omamma to Okwudor and other neighbouring communities, they alleged had been abandoned for years by successive administrations in the state. According to Morgan Orioha "the mitigation of potential, and/or, arrest of real, environmental hazards and changes go beyond advocacy to implementation of ideas, policies and established Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs)". Therefore, "environmental laws should be developed (where none exists) and implemented, to educate and enforce sustainability across communities and businesses operating in

1922-613: The Western Niger was controlled by Kings of the four primary ethnic groups the Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, and, Itsekiri with whom the British government had to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" in their formation of "Protectorates" that later became southern Nigeria. Central Niger Delta consists of the central section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia and Imo States. The Central Niger Delta region has

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1984-637: The area that has been contaminated by oil/gas pollution. This population is especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses because of their pre-existing low life expectancy and large ratio of young people. Additionally, a 2006 report done by the United Nations Development Programme says “The Niger Delta is a region suffering from administrative neglect, crumbling social infrastructure and services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth and squalor, and endemic conflict,". These factors make it increasingly harder for

2046-408: The colonial Calabar division, and colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State was also created. Southeastern State and River State became two states for the minorities of the old eastern region, and the majority Igbo of the old eastern region had a state called East Central State. Southeastern State was renamed Cross River State and was later split into Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. Rivers State

2108-399: The community and religion occupies a central place in the lives of the people. Before the advent of Christianity, the people practiced traditional religions. With the advent of Christianity, the people are now predominantly Christians of different denominations but mostly Catholics and Anglican. Catholics and Anglican churches are still being considered as the official church in most villages in

2170-752: The creation of the COR state continued and was a major issue concerning the status of minorities in Nigeria during debates in Europe on Nigerian independence. As a result of this crisis, Professor Eyo Ita left the NCNC to form a new political party called the National Independence Party which was one of the five Nigerian political parties represented at the conferences on Nigerian Constitution and Independence. In 1961, another major crisis occurred when

2232-399: The delicate balance of the region's ecosystems. They impact both the environment and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on its resources. Two spills in 2008 and 2009 have been the largest and most harmful by far, collectively lasting for almost 150 days and causing flora death over a span of 393 km2. The extensive network of tidal rivers and mangrove swamps makes it even easier for

2294-452: The ecological damage. The exact impact of spills like these is hard to know due to the fact that traditional field studies are nearly impossible in this region. However, techniques such as the normalized difference vegetation index have been successful in measuring the impact of oil spills on the river's plant health. Additionally, independently collected field samples have confirmed the presence of hydrocarbon pollutants in high concentrations in

2356-496: The economy of Njaba river basin, Imo State and Nigeria when developed. In line with directive of the Federal Government of Nigeria to stop gas flaring by year 2008, a plan has been underway to develop a gas processing plant in the river basin under Izombe Integrated Gas Processing Project. Njaba River route made its towns such as Oguta , Mgbidi , Osemotor and Awo-Omamma important commercial centres of trade in

2418-602: The environment. Even in low amounts, prolonged exposure can cause serious health issues such as cancer and other chronic illnesses. In general, the harmful pollutants emitted from oil spills and other pollution include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, and infertility. Less deadly, but still serious, health problems include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes on face and neck, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, and diarrhea are common issues caused from oil spills. Collectively, more than 1 million people live in

2480-449: The impacted areas. Oil and gas pollution/spills greatly increase the possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil are particularly concerning due to their link to the health problems caused by exposure. This includes organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene, as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium and cadmium. In fact, according to

2542-514: The increase, as development takes place - there is a higher number of civil servants, teachers, and professionals such as lawyers, engineers etc. Agricultural activities in the town include crop farming, economic tree planting and animal rearing. The principal crops include yams, cocoyam, cassava, three-leaved yams, maize, melon-fluted pumpkin and a variety of vegetables. The economic plants include – oil palm trees, coconut palms, pears, banana, breadfruit, plantains, pineapples, ukpo, etc. Animal rearing

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2604-590: The inhabitants of the political Niger Delta, speaking about 250 different dialects. Language groups spoken in the Niger Delta include the Igbo languages , Ijaw languages , Ibibio-Efik languages , Urhobo language , Isoko language , Edoid languages . The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. The core Niger Delta later became

2666-456: The local communities to deal with the negative effects caused by foreign oil exploration. The people affected by oil spills in the Niger Delta are diverse communities residing in the region. Their lives are intricately connected to the natural environment. These communities, often made up of indigenous groups, rely on the Niger Delta's resources for their food, water, livelihoods, and cultural practices. The impact of oil spills on these communities

2728-435: The oil to spread quickly, and the delta becomes a sink, trapping the oil that is not removed. The spills came from a pipeline operated by Shell Petroleum Development Company. In addition to smaller spills that took place over the years 2006–2019, it is estimated that a total of 92,479,170 liters (or 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil were released into the studied area. Since then, following spills have continued to exacerbate

2790-589: The past. Like many other areas of the Eastern Region , upon abolishment of slave trade in 1830, Oil Palm business traded in the River basin as a source of cash. Oil mill factories were established in many communities of the river basin including the then famous Umuezukwe Oil mill located near the waterfront in Awo-omamma . By 1903, exports in the oil trade increased due to new waterways developed to move

2852-724: The people of Ekwe community constructed a big slab at the Ishiyi with pipes to draw their drinking water. The evidence collected from here throws more lights on the past and ancient culture. Niger Delta The Niger Delta is the delta of the Niger River sitting directly on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria . It is located within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, which include: all six states from

2914-571: The percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state. World Bank Report The documentary film Sweet Crude , which premiered April 2009 at the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, tells the story of Nigeria's Niger Delta. The Niger Delta is a region of unparalleled ecological richness, characterized by its intricate network of waterways, lush mangrove forests, and diverse ecosystems. However,

2976-485: The primary corporation operating in the region, were taken hostage by local people. Such activities have also resulted in greater governmental intervention in the area and the mobilization of the Nigerian Army and State Security Service into the region, resulting in violence and human rights abuses. In April 2006, a bomb exploded near an oil refinery in the Niger Delta region, a warning against Chinese expansion in

3038-796: The products to the coast. Fishermen , Fish Landing sites and Fisheries Cooperative Societies exist in many Imo State communities; some are found in villages of Awo-Omamma , Oguta , Abiaziem, Nnebukwu, Nkwesi et al. in Njaba River Basin. Among them are Udoka Fish Farmers Group, Umuezukwe , Awo-omamma and Kalabari Beach Fishermen Coop. Society, Oguta . And their respective landing sites include Umuezukwe (Ughamiri), Umudei, K-beach, Osse Abiaziem and Osemotor located in Awo-Omamma and Oguta villages. These farmers experience economic constraints that militate against efficient operation of their fish and crop farming activities. Intervention

3100-542: The region, despite all the oil wealth created. They also complained about environmental pollution and the destruction of their land and rivers by foreign oil companies. Ken Saro Wiwa and nine other oil activists from Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) were arrested and killed under Sani Abacha in 1995. When long-held concerns about loss of control over resources to the oil companies were voiced by

3162-677: The region. The Niger Delta and the South-South geopolitical zone (which contains six of the states in the Niger Delta) are two different entities. The Niger Delta separates the Bight of Benin from the Bight of Bonny within the larger Gulf of Guinea . Some 31 million people of more than 40 ethnic groups including the Igbo , Ijaw , Ibibio , Urhobo , Annang , Oron , Efik , Ogoni , Abua , Bini , Esan , Isoko , Kalabari , Okrika , Epie-Atissa people and Obolo people , are among

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3224-644: The region. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) stated: "We wish to warn the Chinese government and its oil companies to steer well clear of the Niger Delta. The Chinese government, by investing in stolen crude, places its citizens in our line of fire." Government and private initiatives to develop the Niger Delta region have been introduced recently. These include the Niger Delta Development Commission,

3286-519: The river basin's economy. Ekwe Community The historical origin of Ekwe is based on oral myth and legend of tradition of common ancestors passed from generation to generation. According to this oral tradition -"Nnamike Onuoma", the founder of the Ekwe community had two sons -Ekwe and Okwudor. Okwudor later separated from his brother and settled at the other side of the Njaba River and founded

3348-456: The serene beauty of this landscape has been damaged by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Over the years, the Niger Delta has experienced a series of devastating oil spills, primarily caused by industrial activities related to the extraction and transportation of oil and gas. Due to this high amount of spills, the Niger Delta is considered one of the most polluted areas on Earth. These spills have inflicted severe and continuous damage on

3410-609: The source and/or key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements and inter-ethnic conflicts in the region, including recent guerrilla activity by MEND. In September 2012 Eland Oil & Gas purchased a 45% interest in OML 40, with its partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from the Shell Group. They intend to recommission the existing infrastructure and restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m ) of oil per day with

3472-464: The then-eastern region of Nigeria allowed present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from the region of what is now Akwa Ibom and Cross River states) through a plebiscite while the leadership of the Northern Region took the necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon in Nigeria, in present-day Adamawa and Taraba states. The aftermath of the 1961 plebiscite has led to

3534-415: The town of Awo-Omamma . According to Addax Petroleum , there are also several identified exploration prospects yet to be drilled and tested around Njaba. Jean Claude Gandur , president and chief executive officer of Addax Petroleum , was extremely proud to report the leading Njaba oil discovery. The field has potentials of being one of the company's largest fields in Nigeria as well as capable of developing

3596-405: The town. Recently other Christian denominations have been gaining ground in the town. Some people in the town still practice African Traditional religions. Ekwe tourist attractions include a number of natural springs located in Ekwe community. Uburu Ekwe and Ebenator springs are some of the notable spring sites. These springs are noted for their natural flowing Spring (water) . About 30 years ago,

3658-501: The west by Okwudor and Umuaka and on the east by Isu Njaba and Amandugba.[2] Ekwe covers an area of 6.4 square kilometres. Ekwe used to be one politically monolithic autonomous community with the headquarters at Umudibi. Ekwe was split into three autonomous communities by Achike Udenwa administration during the creation of autonomous community by the administration. Ekwe has three politically autonomous communities – Ekwe-Nwe-Orie, Uburu -Ekwe and Ebenator. Ekwe-Nwe-Orie autonomous community

3720-757: The western section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Delta, and the southernmost parts of Edo, and Ondo States. The western (or Northern) Niger Delta is a heterogeneous society with several ethnic groups including the Urhobo , Isoko , Ijaw (or Izon) and Ukwuani , Itsekiri the Bini , Esan , Auchi, Esako, oral, and Afenmai in Edo State; and the Ilaje Yoruba in Ondo State. Their livelihoods are primarily based on fishing and farming. History has it that

3782-539: Was expelled from office by the majority Igbo tribe of the Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar , was one of the pioneer nationalists for Nigerian independence. The minorities in the region, the Ibibio , Annang , Efik , Ijaw and Ogoja , were situated along the southeastern coast and in the delta region and demanded a state of their own, the Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. The struggle for

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3844-494: Was later divided into Rivers State and Bayelsa State. Niger Delta people suffered heavily with the great loss of lives and properties, hunger and starvation, and sustained many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War , also known as the Biafran War, in which the eastern region declared an independent state named Biafra that was eventually defeated. During this period, schools were shut down completely, and gunfire became

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