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131-630: The first plans for a line through Numedal were launched after the Sørland Line reached in Kongsberg in 1871. After it was decided that the Bergen Line would instead follow Hallingdal , the Numedal plans lay dead until it was decided that a railway was necessary to build two hydroelectric power stations near Rødberg. The plans were passed in 1918, the first trains started running in 1924 and

262-745: A greenhouse gas . According to the World Commission on Dams report, where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant. In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate

393-463: A low-head hydro power plant with hydrostatic head of few meters to few tens of meters can be classified either as an SHP or an LHP. The other distinction between SHP and LHP is the degree of the water flow regulation: a typical SHP primarily uses the natural water discharge with very little regulation in comparison to an LHP. Therefore, the term SHP is frequently used as a synonym for the run-of-the-river power plant . The largest power producers in

524-519: A 10.5 kilometres (6.5 mi) tunnel between the two stations. In the tunnel there had to be a 900 metres (3,000 ft) long passing loop , to ensure even distances between passing loops along the line. In 1989 the Parliament of Norway approved the plans, including the upgrade of part of the line east of Finse. In total NOK 750 million was invested in rebuilding 32 kilometres (20 mi) of line, shortening it by 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi). At

655-402: A branch to Svene Gravel Pit, 3.48 kilometers (2.16 mi) from Kongsberg. The line continues past the halts Ramsrud, Svene, Furuly and Toresplassen before reaching Lampeland Station, 10.50 kilometers (6.52 mi) from Kongsberg. The line then passes over Lyngdalselva on a 27-meter (89 ft) bridge and continues past the stops Fløtterud, Ruud, Vangestad and Eie before reaching the branch to

786-421: A flood and fail. Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as

917-461: A gravel train from Svene to Kongsberg. For a short period during the 1980s, there were also school trains, but as this forced NSB to operate two multiple units on the line, it proved too expensive and was soon afterwards again provided by bus. Discussion about closing the line started in the 1950s, and the line became a candidate every time NSB and the parliament discussed closures. In 1988, the parliament decided to close many Norwegian lines, including

1048-600: A half months to clear it of snow. Even a rotary snowplow at 750 kW was not powerful enough to get rid of the snow. A new attempt to open the line in 1908 succeeded, and a train ran from Gulsvik to Bergen. The line from Roa to Gulsvik was still under construction, so passage was along the Drammen Line via the Krøder Line with ship over Krøderen to Gulsvik. The first scheduled train from Oslo West Station to Bergen departed on 10 June 1908. On 25 November 1909

1179-494: A hydroelectric complex is constructed, it produces no direct waste, and almost always emits considerably less greenhouse gas than fossil fuel -powered energy plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, where part of the forest is inundated, substantial amounts of greenhouse gases may be emitted. Construction of a hydroelectric complex can have significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and population displacement. They also disrupt

1310-809: A large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. A tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in a cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway. A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric station is: P = − η   ( m ˙ g   Δ h ) = − η   ( ( ρ V ˙ )   g   Δ h ) {\displaystyle P=-\eta \ ({\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h)=-\eta \ ((\rho {\dot {V}})\ g\ \Delta h)} where Efficiency

1441-451: A larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas. Like other non-fossil fuel sources, hydropower also has no emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other particulates. Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports , and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with

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1572-580: A limited mandate, which was expanded on 20 December. At the same time there was a dispute between the Ministry of Labour and Pihl about whether to prioritize the Bergen Line, but in July 1872 surveys were performed in person by Pihl and two engineers, and their report was positive. At the same time he launched the idea of a branch line up Valdres to Lærdal . By 1873, an agreement had been reached as to

1703-592: A positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place. While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington , United States for American World War II airplanes before it

1834-423: A railway through the valley to aid construction of Nore I and Nore II Power Station, despite the line not being on the railway plan. This was because machines weighing up to 40 tonnes (39 long tons; 44 short tons) would have to be transported up the valley. The initial estimates for the line was a cost of 8.3 million Norwegian krone (NOK). On 3 August 1918, the line was passed by the Parliament of Norway and it

1965-548: A relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project. Managing dams which are also used for other purposes, such as irrigation , is complicated. In 2021 the IEA called for "robust sustainability standards for all hydropower development with streamlined rules and regulations". Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of

2096-540: A result of climate change . One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%. Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in

2227-448: A small TV/radio). Even smaller turbines of 200–300 W may power a few homes in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). A Pico-hydro setup is typically run-of-the-river , meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before returning it to the stream. An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of

2358-455: A source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a grid, or in areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on

2489-414: A start-up time of the order of a few minutes. Although battery power is quicker its capacity is tiny compared to hydro. It takes less than 10 minutes to bring most hydro units from cold start-up to full load; this is quicker than nuclear and almost all fossil fuel power. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units

2620-581: A total of 1,500 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electrical energy in one full cycle" which was "about 170 times more energy than the global fleet of pumped storage hydropower plants". Battery storage capacity is not expected to overtake pumped storage during the 2020s. When used as peak power to meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than baseload power and a much higher value compared to intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar. Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years. Operating labor cost

2751-611: A train en route from Bergen rolled into Oslo Østbanestasjon , and two days later the railway was officially opened at Voss. King Haakon VII stated upon the opening that the line was the Norwegian engineering masterpiece of his generation. In World War II , during the German occupation of Norway , it was a demanding time for the Norwegian State Railways as a whole. This railway line was also very busy. The track

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2882-452: Is hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small community or industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the upper limit. This may be stretched to 25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United States. Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as

3013-690: Is 493 kilometres (306 mi), while the Bergen Line proper is 372 kilometres (231 mi). The line has 182 tunnels, totaling ca. 73 kilometres (45 mi), of which ten are over 2.0 kilometres (1.2 mi). Finse Station remains the highest elevated station at 1,222.2 metres (4,010 ft), while the highest point is now in the Finse Tunnel at 1,237 metres (4,058 ft). Section Oslo – Drammen see → Main article: Drammenbanen Section Drammen – Hønefoss see → Main article: Randsfjordbanen Hønefoss in Storelva (Ringerike) valley

3144-415: Is 87.39 kilometers (54.30 mi) from Kongsberg, there is a branch to Nore II Power Station . The line then runs through six tunnels, named Gvamsås I through V, and Hvilsten. These are between 156 and 16 metres (512 and 52 ft) long. The line then passes past Rødberg vokterbolig, which is 90.92 kilometers (56.50 mi) form Kongsberg and is, at 395.0 metres (1,295.9 ft) AMSL the highest point on

3275-717: Is a 371-kilometre (231 mi) long scenic standard gauge railway line between Bergen and Hønefoss , Norway . The name is often applied to the entire route from Bergen to Oslo , including the Randsfjord  and Drammen lines between Hønefoss and Oslo, covering a total distance of 496 kilometres (308 mi). It is the highest mainline railway line in Northern Europe, crossing the Hardangervidda plateau at 1,237 metres (4,058 ft) above sea level. The railway opened from Bergen to Voss in 1883 as

3406-635: Is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation. Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. However, some data shows that in most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver

3537-683: Is available on the section from Veggli to Rødberg. In 2013, Jernbaneverket reopened a 30 km stretch between Kongsberg and Flesberg , to support the forestry industry. Following a derailment in April 2014, the entire stretch was upgraded with new sleepers. The Numedal Line branches off from the Sørland Line at Kongsberg Station , which is located 99.37 kilometers (61.75 mi) from Oslo Central Station and 161.9 meters (531 ft) above mean sea level (AMSL). The line runs past four stops, Spiten, Pikerfoss, Gleda and Herbru, before reaching

3668-469: Is double track service between Bergen central station and Arna station. In January 2016, Norwegian National Rail Administration had plans for doubling the Ultriken tunnel, but it was abolished at the end of that year. Bane NOR who took over the responsibilities for the network, authorised its contractors to start building a second single-track tunnel through the mountain adjacent to the 1960s tunnel. It

3799-563: Is from 2019 consisting of Stadler FLIRT Electric multiple units after a process of which led to phasing out the old NSB Class 69 . The first part to Arna represents an important part of the public transport in Bergen, since the rail direct line through the mountain Ulriken is considerably faster than driving over and around. Express trains operated by NSB have always been the primary passenger service on Bergensbanen. Passenger trains follow

3930-470: Is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum. Pico hydro is hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW . It is useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For example, the 1.1 kW Intermediate Technology Development Group Pico Hydro Project in Kenya supplies 57 homes with very small electric loads (e.g., a couple of lights and a phone charger, or

4061-445: Is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane is given off annually by reservoirs, hydro has one of the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generation. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates . Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in tropical regions produce

Numedal Line - Misplaced Pages Continue

4192-584: Is left by the line northwest into the Sogna valley, where the route uses its northern valley flanks to Sokna . To get to the Krøderen (lake) valley, Bergen Line follows Rudselva , passes by Langevannet and Breidvanne t lakes and also through the 2.3 kilometer Haversting tunnel , which runs parallel to the Norwegian National Road 7 , ( Riksvei 7 ), Ørgenvik tunnel . Hallingdal valley

4323-542: Is located behind Herland , immediately followed by the 7.6 kilometer long Ulriken Tunnel , by which the original, much longer, route via Nesttun could be shortened in 1964. Having reached the urban area of Bergen , the route follows a short part of the old line to the Bergen terminus . Vy Tog operates a commuter rail service from Bergen with two hourly departures to Arna, plus fourteen daily departures to Voss, of which up to six continue to Myrdal. The entire rolling stock

4454-620: Is more important than speed for freight trains. CargoNet operates up to four daily trains from Oslo, plus one from Drammen. Rail freight on (the Bergensbanen ), the Bergen line, increased by 80% from 2001 to 2005, but further growth is not possible without better infrastructure. In 2006, CargoNet indicated they wanted five more passing loops , as well as lengthening them to increase freight train length from 400 metres (1,300 ft) to 600 metres (2,000 ft), claiming they could double freight traffic with adequate infrastructure. Parts of

4585-462: Is not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings. Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river. A tidal power station makes use of

4716-452: Is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators. The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. In 2021, the IEA estimated that the "reservoirs of all existing conventional hydropower plants combined can store

4847-410: Is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations, the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year. Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have

4978-515: Is reached by its branch Bolstadfjord , the route crosses over to the southern valley flank. With the more than eight kilometer long Trollkona Tunnel, opened in 1987, the route reaches lower Bergsdal and Dale (Vaksdal) . Trollkona had become necessary due to the expansion of the European route E16 (main road connection between Oslo and Bergen ) alongside the Bolstadfjord using partly

5109-436: Is used as a natural corridor further north-west, mostly on the left river bank, serving the larger settlements of Flå and Nesbyen . At Svenkerud to the north of Nesbyen the valley flank is changed. Soutwestbound to Gol , the ascent becomes gradually steeper in the following section to Geilo . The Hardangervidda is actually crossed behind Geilo. Located in the valley of one of the two upper tributaries of Hallingdalselva,

5240-679: The Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as "white coal". Hoover Dam 's initial 1,345 MW power station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942. The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as

5371-542: The Class 73 tilting trains , branded as Signatur and capable of 210 kilometres per hour (130 mph). However, they cannot be used at those speeds on any part of the Bergen Line, and only some parts of the Asker Line and around Finse can they operate quicker than the other rollingstock used. There has also been reason to doubt their winter capability on the very demanding Bergen Line. Occasionally they have been stuck in

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5502-806: The International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism , with over one million visitors 1925. By 1920, when 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. As the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes, including flood control , irrigation and navigation . Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development, and federally owned corporations, such as

5633-597: The Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications . In 2018 the fastest line used 6 hours and 32 minutes from Oslo to Bergen. Freight trains are operated by CargoNet , hauled by El 14 and El 16 locomotives. Most transport is from the terminal at Alnabru in Oslo to the terminal at Bergen Station. Freight trains use the Roa-Hønefoss Line instead of going via Drammen since it is shorter—distance

5764-611: The Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority was unable to establish a clear and demonstrable direct cause for the fire: but they stated that the highest risks were Hot work , electrical installations, or hot particles from trains. The Bergen Line as a through line is used for up to five express trains operated by Norwegian State Railways, as well as freight trains by CargoNet . From Myrdal to Bergen there are commuter rail services operated by NSB. The total distance from Oslo to Bergen via Drammen

5895-587: The Numedal Line would later be built). In the end Hallingdal was chosen, connecting to Hønefoss and on to Oslo via Sandvika. To save costs a preliminary line would connect Hønefoss to Roa with the branch Roa–Hønefoss Line . The final line would run along the Gjøvik Line to Oslo. The line would also connect to the rest of the network via the Randsfjorden Line at Hønefoss. Local financing

6026-633: The Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created. Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had begun a series of western US irrigation projects in the early 20th century, was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam . The United States Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing

6157-497: The Usteåne , the railway line runs alongside a number of smaller lakes to the culmination point near Finse . Before Finse, the 2.7 kilometer long Gråskallen tunnel at Haugastøl station is the first important improvement of the section. Immediately after the highest station Finse, the more than 10 kilometer long Finsetunnel was built, which replaced the original open route at over 1200 meters above sea level. At Høgheller junction,

6288-583: The Vulcan Street Plant , began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin , with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts. By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the United States and Canada; and by 1889 there were 200 in the United States alone. At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble , France held

6419-746: The catchment area of the Vosso is pierced: Now the railway line, built partly high on the northern flanks of the valleys, uses the merging upper valleys of the Uppsetf , the Kleielva and the Raundalselva westwards until lake Vangsvatnet in Voss is reached. From here, the Vosso valley corridor is used on its northern flank as far as Bulken station . At Bolstadøyri , where the Atlantic Ocean

6550-473: The narrow gauge Voss Line . In 1909 the route was continued over the mountain to Oslo and the whole route converted to standard gauge , and the Voss Line became part of the Bergen Line. The line is single track , and was electrified in 1954–64. The Bergen Line is owned and maintained by Bane NOR , and served with passenger trains by Vy Tog and freight trains by CargoNet . The Flåm Line remains as

6681-506: The potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator . The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head . A large pipe (the " penstock ") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine. This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand,

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6812-424: The right-of-way to Voss, but not onwards towards Oslo. On 13 January 1874, the Bergen city council started issuing stock for the Voss Line, to begin with 400,000 Norwegian speciedaler (NOK 1.6 million ) were issued. In the 1873 parliamentary election the railway supporter Peter Jebsen was elected, spending the next few years furiously defending the railway. Parliament chose to not issue new railway projects in

6943-457: The sawmill Numedal Bruk, 29.69 kilometers (18.45 mi) from Kongsberg, which is located just south of Flesberg Station. The line continues past the stops Bjørnsrud, Bakkerud and Fossan before reaching the 228-meter (748 ft) Helle Tunnel and then Djupdal Station 40.63 kilometers (25.25 mi) after Kongsberg. The line then runs through the 78-meter (256 ft) Ulvik Tunnel and the 57-meter (187 ft) Gygrestigen Tunnel. It then passes

7074-584: The tracks were used from other railways. Five of the station buildings, at Vangestad, Flesberg, Djupdal, Tråen and Kravikfjord, were workmen's sheds which had been placed on a foundation. From 1924, the railway was taken partially into use. Trains could run the 36 kilometers (22 mi) from Kongsberg to Bakkerød from 15 November 1924, the 65 kilometers (40 mi) to Kjærre from 1 December 1925 and to Rødberg from 1 December 1926. These trains included transport of 950 tonnes (930 long tons; 1,050 short tons) of cement and 590 tonnes (580 long tons; 650 short tons) for

7205-401: The 1874 session, and instead adopt a complete plan for all railway construction in the country—to be proposed by a committee. When the committee reported on 20 March 1875, the Voss Line was not included since it could not show a higher profitability than 1%. During the 1875 session there was not a majority for the Voss Line, partially due to the lack of capital available from local investors. This

7336-479: The 1930s, with the line seeing the use of both NSB Class Cmb 16 and Kristine Valdresdatter . During World War II , the line was again entirely hauled by steam locomotives and the service was reduced considerably. By 1945, there were three round trips per week, but after the war ended, the frequency increased and by 1947 there were four daily round trips. Various classes of multiple units have been used, including NSB Class 86 , NSB Class 87 and NSB Class 91 . During

7467-511: The 1950s, there were sometimes also trains that operated just from Kongsberg to Veggli. Because the conductors and engineers often knew where the locals lived or were headed, trains would make non-scheduled stops to disembark passengers to allow them a shorter walk. In the 1960s, the number of round trips was reduced to three per day, allowing the whole service to be operated with a single unit. NSB used steam power for freight trains until 1970, when NSB's last scheduled steam locomotive service hauled

7598-490: The 65-meter (213 ft) Bruhaug Bridge, past the stops Laugi, Vamre, Risteigen and then passes over the river Veggli elv on a 30-meter-long (98 ft) bridge. At 60.81 kilometers (37.79 mi) after Kongsberg the line reaches Veggli Station, before continuing past the stops Tveitkåsa, Kjerre, Fossebrekke and then through two tunnels, Gjeiteryggen I and Gjeiteryggen II, which are 572 meters (1,877 ft) and 246 meters (807 ft) long, respectively. The line then passes by

7729-455: The Arna end are to be blasted between the old and the new tunnels to allow trains to switch from one to the other; as well as blasting 16 other common interconnections for escape and for installing infrastructure. Double running will only be achieved when the refurbishment of the old 1960s tunnel is complete; and the second half of Arna station, linked to the old tunnel has been rebuilt. To obtain

7860-404: The Bergen Line through Numedal. However, instead the Bergen Line was decided to run through Hallingdal. What finally spurred the construction was the construction of hydroelectric power stations in the valley. In 1907, the government, through its power agency , had secured rights to build a power station in the rivers Numedalslågen and Tunnhovdfjorden . The state saw it as advantageous to build

7991-411: The Bergen Line, unlike the Voss Line, was to be built with standard gauge . So, the newly laid line from Bergen to Voss had to be converted in time for the opening of the Bergen Line. This was especially challenging because of the continuous traffic on the line, with 36 departures per day to Nesttun, six to Garnes and four to Voss. In preparation a few curves had to be straightened, the tunnels widened and

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8122-678: The Drammen Line and the Asker Line to Drammen, before heading north to Hønefoss on the Randsfjord Line. The express trains offer both transport from villages along the line to either Bergen or Oslo, as well travel between Norway's two largest cities. Expresses are locomotive -hauled trains with modernized coaches. Six nights a week there is a night train service. Several parts of the line service places without road access, such as Finse and Myrdal. Operating deficits are covered by

8253-661: The Finse snow removal facility was closed. Snow drifts and harsh weather (see "Construction of the Bergen Line" section above) had been a problem in the higher-altitude regions of the Bergen line: in one case causing the abandonment of an official opening in December 1909. Hallingskied station is a station built on the Hardangervidda plateau, within an area without population or road access, at an elevation of 1,110 meters (3,640 ft) above mean sea level . The station therefore serves trekkers and mountaineers. The first station, built in

8384-463: The IEA released a main-case forecast of 141 GW generated by hydropower over 2022–2027, which is slightly lower than deployment achieved from 2017–2022. Because environmental permitting and construction times are long, they estimate hydropower potential will remain limited, with only an additional 40 GW deemed possible in the accelerated case. In 2021 the IEA said that major modernisation refurbishments are required. Most hydroelectric power comes from

8515-465: The Numedal Line, although it was decided that the section from Kongsberg to Rollag was to be kept for freight traffic. The last passenger train operated on 31 December 1988 and the line north of Rollag was officially closed on 1 January 1989. By the time the line closed in 1989, manning remained at only three stations: Flesberg, Veggli and Rødberg. NSB retained some traffic south of Flesberg; in 1993

8646-411: The Randsfjord Line to Hønefoss. This allows the trains to pass through more densely populated areas and on trackage with more capacity. However, the change of route actually increased the length between the two termini by 23 kilometres (14 mi). But the better track standard via Drammen results in about the same travel time. Freight trains still goes via Roa. During winter NSB had large costs keeping

8777-464: The ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during

8908-595: The balance between stream flow and power production. Micro hydro means hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power networks. There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an economical source of energy without purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy systems because in many areas water flow, and thus available hydro power,

9039-417: The bridges strengthened. On the night of 10–11 August 1904 all the track was changed and in the morning the trains could operate on standard gauge to Voss. The first services started on 1 July 1907 from Voss to Myrdal . An official opening train attempted to cross part of the line to Gulsvik on 9 December 1907, but got stuck in heavy snow and had to return. The railway had to close and it took one and

9170-595: The closed sections of Vossebanen, from Midttun to Garnes have been converted to a heritage railway —the Old Voss Line —that is operated with steam trains by the Norwegian Railway Club during the summer. At Finse there is a navvy museum, and the old navvy road has become a cycle track. Hydroelectric Hydroelectricity , or hydroelectric power , is electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies 15% of

9301-441: The cold weather is believed to have caused the accident. With Norway's abundance of hydroelectricity and the high cost of importing coal to run the steam locomotives, there was considerable economic benefit to be realised by electrifying the line. Plans for the electrification of the line had existed since the line was opened. In 1912 the line from Nesttun to Bergen was proposed electrified and rebuilt to double track, following

9432-444: The company hauled 30,000 tonnes (30,000 long tons; 33,000 short tons) of gravel and 25,000 tonnes (25,000 long tons; 28,000 short tons) of lumber along the line. After the closure, the non-profit organization Friends of the Numedal Line was established and offered occasional heritage rides along the line. It maintains the tracks between Rollag and Rødberg and offers draisine rental between Veggli and Rødberg. Irregular transport from

9563-423: The construction of three single-track tunnels, Ulriken Tunnel (7,660 metres or 25,130 feet), Arnanipa Tunnel (2,177 metres or 7,142 feet) and Tunestveit Tunnel (40 metres or 130 feet). This plan was approved by parliament in 1956, based on private financing from the businessman Fritz Rieber . Construction started in 1959 with the tunnels being finished in 1963, while track laying was finished on 29 May 1964, when

9694-404: The daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels . Tidal power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around

9825-505: The dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir. Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of

9956-408: The early 1900s, did not have a snow tunnel when it opened, but snow tunnels and snow fences were progressively added after the autumn of 1909 to cover the running line, the passing loop and the station itself. Part of the snow tunnel caught fire in 1948 and spread to the station; and, there was another fire in the snow tunnel in 1953. Yet another fire in 1960, this time external to the tunnel, caused

10087-705: The effect of forest decay. Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40–80 million people worldwide. Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure. During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam in Southern China failed when more than

10218-481: The electrical supply to the catenary failed; and Telenor telephone cables and communications systems in the area. There were no injuries to the passengers, but they lost all their belongings left behind in the train. This closed the line for seven-days between Myrdal and Finse ; and through traffic on the Bergen line did not reopen until the evening of 23 June 2011. The official accident report, published in May 2012 by

10349-399: The excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir, thus providing demand side response . When the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. In 2021 pumped-storage schemes provided almost 85% of the world's 190 GW of grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage

10480-495: The financing was private, it would still have to use the same funding as government debt, and would jeopardize other projects, like the Nordland Line . Shortly afterwards a revised plan, the "Little Rieberplan" was accepted. The first 32 kilometres (20 mi) of the line from Bergen to Takvam represented a very roundabout way, and it was clear that it would be possible to reduce the line by 21 kilometres (13 mi) with

10611-439: The first train entered the tunnel. As the new tunnel line deviated from the original line near Arna, a new Arna station had to be constructed adjacent to the tunnel mouth. This also opened in May 1964. The opening of this tunnel meant that it replaced part of the original and that part was no longer needed as a main line. It became a heritage line: the Old Voss Line ( Norwegian : Gamle Vossebanen ). As of May 2nd 2024 there

10742-461: The full benefit of this work, it is intended to double the track all the way from the tunnel to Bergen. In 1980, the Oslo Tunnel was opened, allowing trains along the Drammen Line to go to the new Oslo Central Station , an upgrade of the former Oslo Ø. As a consequence of this, passenger trains were since the late 1980s rerouted via Drammen instead of via Roa, following the Drammen Line and

10873-561: The gravel pit at Svene and the sawmill Numedal Bruk at Flesberg. The latter is operated by Tågåkeriet i Bergslagen and hauls lumber from Uddevalla , Sweden. The stretch from Flesberg to Rødberg is suggested preserved by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage . Bergen Line The Bergen Line , or the Bergen Railway ( Norwegian : Bergensbanen or Nynorsk : Bergensbana ),

11004-417: The halt Selsteigen before running through the 44-meter (144 ft) Selsteigen Tunnel. After passing through the halt Kjome, the line reaches Rollag Station, which is 46.80 kilometers (29.08 mi) from Kongsberg. Since 1989, this is the furthest north the line is kept operational, although the track remains all the way to Rødberg. The line continues past the stops Tråen, Rollag kirke, Bråten, Sjorsåte, over

11135-446: The investment costs. NOK 1.2 million was paid by Buskerud County Municipality , while NOK 2.17 million million was paid by the various municipalities. The largest amounts were paid by Flesberg with NOK 635,000, Nore with NOK 615,000 and Rollag with NOK 517,000, while Uvdal paid NOK 198,000, Kongsberg NOK 125,000 and Drammen NOK 80,000. Siting commenced in 1918, and by 1919, an administration for

11266-409: The investments, the state covering the rest, mostly through foreign debt . On 20 October 1871 two engineers traversed the two possible routes from Bergen to Voss; the one via Fana , Os and Hardangerfjord , the other via Dale and Sørfjord . Though covering a less populated area, the latter would be cheaper to build, and have less elevation. A railway committee was created on 25 January 1872 with

11397-501: The largest amount for the region since 1990. Meanwhile, globally, hydropower generation increased by 70 TWh (up 2%) in 2022 and remains the largest renewable energy source, surpassing all other technologies combined. Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial Revolution . In

11528-750: The largest, producing 14 GW , but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5 GW . Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Paraguay and Brazil , with over 85% of their electricity. In 2021 the International Energy Agency (IEA) said that more efforts are needed to help limit climate change . Some countries have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth: Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%. In 2022,

11659-616: The late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand arising from the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. In 1878, the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland , England, by William Armstrong . It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1 , US, near Niagara Falls , began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station,

11790-503: The line from Hønefoss to Sandvika (the "proposed" Ringerike Line ) and electrify the railway. This would save 64 kilometres (40 mi). Since NSB based their fares on the route length travelled, financing would be covered by a surcharge equal to the distance saved; ticket price would remain the same and within twenty years the debt would be covered. The government opposed the suggestion — the newspaper editor and Norwegian Labour Party politician Trygve Bratteli commenting that even though

11921-433: The line snow-free. Large diesel-electric snowploughs were stationed at Finse , and tens of kilometers of snow sheds were built on the most vulnerable parts. Especially the 22 kilometres (14 mi) part between Finse Station and Hallingskeid was a drain on resources, and heavy snowfall and drifts regularly closed the entire line. A solution was proposed by NSB's director Robert Nordén in 1984, involving construction of

12052-517: The line was considered "difficult" because of tight curves, difficult track alignment; and also that the Overhead line might be vulnerable to bad weather, particularly snow and ice. A test 16.5KV transformer was set up at Finse to see if the catenary could be kept ice-free, and it could. The following year NSB launched the "away with the steam" campaign that would replace all steam locomotives with electric or diesel traction. Since electrification

12183-404: The line was officially opened in 1927. At first all services were provided with steam locomotives , but from the 1930s diesel multiple units were used for passenger trains. The line was frequented with classes Cmd 16 , 86 , 87 and 91 . The last regular train ran in 1988; since, there has been sporadic freight service and some heritage trains running from Kongsberg to Rollag. Draisine rental

12314-490: The line. The line then passes over Uvdalselva on a 35-meter (115 ft) combined road and rail bridge, before reaching Rødberg, 92.84 kilometers (57.69 mi) from Kongsberg. With the construction of the Sørland Line to Kongsberg, which opened on 10 November 1871, proposals were launched to extend the line up Numedal. On 16 August 1873, a meeting was held between representatives from the municipalities in Numedal to discuss how they could convince national politicians to build

12445-400: The line. There were some accidents, and several deaths among the workers. The construction work was finished in 1882 and some test services began, though not scheduled until the spring of 1883. Official opening commenced on 11 July 1883. Many of the navvies settled on Vossebanen after construction, and started working for the Norwegian State Railways (NSB) on the operation of the line. By

12576-495: The line. Up to 70 people worked on the line, in addition to station employees. In 1932, the operations were rationalized, cutting costs from NOK 426,000 to NOK 310,000 per year. This involved removing the station masters at fifteen stations and replacing them with a clerk. Initially, all trains on the line were hauled by steam locomotives , in particular NSB Class 20 and NSB Class 21 brought in used from other lines. The first diesel multiple units were taken into use in

12707-479: The longest, the 5,311-metre (17,425 ft) Gravehalsen Tunnel , alone costing NOK 3 million and was the longest tunnel north of the Alps. It took six years to build, and had to be excavated manually through solid gneiss . Laying of track was started in 1906, and in 1907 the two groups, both having started at their own end, met at Ustaoset. A small celebration was held at the spot (see image). It had been decided that

12838-410: The loss of the snow tunnel; the railway station, which was rebuilt in 1970; and the station hotel, which was not replaced. On 16 June 2011, a possible welding accident may have been the "cause behind a fire" in the snow tunnel at Hallingskeid Station . The fire lead to the complete destruction of all infrastructure in the snow tunnel, the twin Class 73 electric multiple unit trapped in the tunnel as

12969-526: The majority of the railway network in Norway between 1883 and the end of 1996. On 1 December 1996, Norwegian State Railways (NSB) was demerged to create three organisations: On 1 January 2017, as part of the railway reforms: In September 1954, Rieber suggested a package for the politicians, where he would create a company that would borrow money to build both the Ulriken Tunnel, a shortening of

13100-488: The mid-1700s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique , which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771 Richard Arkwright 's combination of water power , the water frame , and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices. In the 1840s, hydraulic power networks were developed to generate and transmit hydro power to end users. By

13231-651: The natural ecology of the river involved, affecting habitats and ecosystems, and siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the risks of flooding, dam failure can be catastrophic. In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1,400 GW, the highest among all renewable energy technologies. Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China. but there are geographical limits and environmental issues. Tidal power can be used in coastal regions. China added 24 GW in 2022, accounting for nearly three-quarters of global hydropower capacity additions. Europe added 2 GW,

13362-471: The new line merges back into the original road, which runs along the northern flank of the Moldåtal with numerous enclosures. After bridging the river and thus changing the traveled on side of the valley, the route passes by Seltuftvatnet and Reinungavatnet lakes. Behind that, Myrdal and Flåmsbana is reached. With the following Gravhals tunnel, more than five kilometers long, the mountain massif to

13493-554: The new tunnel has a double portal at Arna station and is double-tracked for a short distance, before combining into a single running track. Bane NOR awarded a contract to Grupo Azvi to refurbish the old 1960s tunnel, with work due to start in February 2021 and due to finish in June 2023. The requirement is do this refurbishment without lifting the existing rail track. As part of this work it will be fire-proofed; two diagonal tunnels at

13624-586: The old railway line substructure. South of Dale, at Stanghelle , the Veafjord , which merges into the Sørfjord (Osterøy) , is reached. On its south-east bank, the route to Herland passes by the Osterøy Bridge . Worth mentioning is the six kilometer long Hananipa tunnel between Vaksdal and Trengereid , which was put into operation in 1970 as line improvement. The 2.2 kilometer long Arnanipa tunnel

13755-754: The only branch line, after the closure of the Hardanger Line . The western section from Bergen to Voss is also served by the Bergen Commuter Rail , and was shortened following the 1966 opening of the Ulriken Tunnel . The first documented proposal for building a railway between Norway's two largest cities was announced by Andreas Tanberg Gløersen on 24 August 1871 in Bergensposten . The forest supervisor in Voss suggested building

13886-487: The opening of the electrified Thamshavn Line in 1908. During the planning of the Hardanger Line and the Flåm Line during the 1930s it was again proposed to electrify the line. However, although both the branch lines were built with electric traction, the main line was not. Counter-suggestions were raised proposing a conversion to the locomotives running on oil or coal dust . In 1939 a plan for national electrification

14017-490: The parliament shifted. On 9 June 1875 parliament voted with 61 against 42 to build the Voss Line. The Voss Line was built with narrow gauge, 1,067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ). The first parts of the construction started in December 1875, while the largest part started in March 1876. During the winter the engineers had done the last finesses on the plans. At any given time at least 800 men worked on construction, and at

14148-486: The peak 1,800 men were employed. They worked 12 hours per day, for which they had a daily wage of NOK 2.55, the highest wage for navvies in the country. To a large extent the labor came from Sweden, who had just finished the Norway/Vänern Line and had an excess of skilled labor for construction. This import of labor had the effect of pumping money into the local economy, and several taverns were built along

14279-633: The plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. The turbines also will kill large portions of the fauna passing through, for instance 70% of the eel passing a turbine will perish immediately. Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed. Drought and seasonal changes in rainfall can severely limit hydropower. Water may also be lost by evaporation. When water flows it has

14410-400: The railway bridges. In total 4,300 wagon loads were transported before the official opening, of which about half was for the power stations. Because of the delay of building the line, it could only be used during part of the construction period for the power stations. The official opening took place on 19 November 1927 by King Haakon VII . When the line opened there were 21 staffed stations on

14541-643: The railway via Voss and Hallingdal , connecting with the Krøderen Line . In 1866, Gløersen had come up with the idea of the Jæren Line . Within days of his proposal for the Bergen Line, the city council expressed support for the suggestion. In 1872, the railway director Carl Abraham Pihl and two engineers went on a survey tour along suggested line. At the time it was common that proposals for railways came from local initiative, and that local municipalities and private investors would then pay for about 20% of

14672-450: The rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century. Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions. In lowland rainforest areas, where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary, it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants produce substantial amounts of methane . This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane,

14803-409: The same time the permitted speed could be increased from 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph) to 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph). The tunnel opened on 16 June 1992 while the rest of the upgrades opened in five steps between 1995 and 1998. The highest point on the line, previously at 1,301 metres (4,268 ft), became 1,237 metres (4,058 ft)—located inside the tunnel. After the tunnel opened,

14934-415: The snow, and on 21 February 2007, a multiple unit derailed after running into a pack of snow. As refurbished carriages become available, the multiple units will be removed from the line, and replaced by traditional locomotive-hauled trains. The Norwegian State Railways ( Norwegian : Norges Statsbaner or NSB ), a government agency / directorate, was the state-owned railway organisation which operated

15065-434: The stops Kravikfjord, Kittelsland, Eidsstrykken, a 30-meter (98 ft) bridge over Eidsåa , the stops Norefjord, Svendsrud and the 146-meter (479 ft) Rundberg Tunnel. The line then runs past the stop Midtstigen and Søndre Sandnes before running through five tunnels, named Sandnes I and II, Vrennedalen I and II, and Bondeberg, which are between 12 and 140 meters (39 and 459 ft) long. Just before Gvammen Station, which

15196-449: The time the Voss Line was completed Norway had entered a recession . Parliament was not willing to give more money to railways, and the country had to make do with a transport plan launched in 1886 that did not follow up with any funding. On 1 March 1894 parliament after five days of debate chose, with 60 against 53 votes, to build the Bergen Line. Several different routes had been proposed, including over Krøderen , or down Numedal (where

15327-565: The train. The new locomotive El 13 was put into service on the electric parts. The electrification cost NOK 143 million. The express trains have as one of the main lines always been allocated the newest locomotives by NSB. When the El 14 was delivered in 1968, it was put into service on Bergensbanen, as was the El 16 in 1977, the El 17 in 1981, and finally the El 18 in 1996. The older locomotives have been relegated to freight service. In 2000 electric multiple units were put into service with

15458-400: The tunnel and at Arna station , to replace the manually controlled system at Arna station that has been in use since 1964; and upgrading half of Arna station. The new tunnel opened on 13 December 2020 and the signalling system was linked into the train control centre in Bergen. Because of space constraints at Arna station, due to the need to move trains between platforms within the station,

15589-457: The works had been established in Kongsberg. Construction commenced on 2 July 1920, between Fossan and Bratterud. However, there quickly arose a strike , resulting in construction not being taken up until March 1921. Final approval by parliament was first made on 20 July 1921. Most of the construction was done using hand tools. 543,000 cubic meters (19,200,000 cu ft) of earth was moved, 217,000 cubic meters (7,700,000 cu ft) of rock

15720-524: The world are hydroelectric power stations, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations . Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts are generally considered large hydroelectric facilities. Currently, only seven facilities over 10 GW ( 10,000 MW ) are in operation worldwide, see table below. Small hydro

15851-533: The world's electricity , almost 4,210 TWh in 2023, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power . Hydropower can provide large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it a key element for creating secure and clean electricity supply systems. A hydroelectric power station that has a dam and reservoir is a flexible source, since the amount of electricity produced can be increased or decreased in seconds or minutes in response to varying electricity demand. Once

15982-539: The world. The classification of hydropower plants starts with two top-level categories: The classification of a plant as an SHP or LHP is primarily based on its nameplate capacity , the threshold varies by the country, but in any case a plant with the capacity of 50 MW or more is considered an LHP. As an example, for China, SHP power is below 25 MW, for India - below 15 MW, most of Europe - below 10 MW. The SHP and LHP categories are further subdivided into many subcategories that are not mutually exclusive. For example,

16113-399: Was blasted and 2.3 kilometers (1.4 mi) of tunnel were built. 190,000 cubic meters (6,700,000 cu ft) of ballast stone were used, most of it from the gravel pits at Bevergrenda, Guribråten and Stevningsmogen, Tjuvhaugen and Skarpsmoen. The whole construction used seven million work hours and for the tunneling, each work hour gave 7 millimetres (0.28 in) of progress. Most of

16244-586: Was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname , the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand 's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point . Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide . While carbon dioxide

16375-399: Was based on a claim from Johan Jørgen Schwartz , the chairman of the committee, that the investment costs were underestimated. This was countered by Nils Henrik Bruun , a constructor from Bergen, who was willing to construct all tunnels on the railway for less than the budgeted sum. When Jebsen in addition was willing to act as personal guarantee for Bruun in case of his death, the majority in

16506-419: Was decided that the line was to be built with standard gauge, which by then had become the norm. The decision was controversial, as the line was expected to have little traffic and would therefore not be profitable. A minority of the parliamentarians instead wanted the line to be built with narrow gauge to reduce construction costs. The state required that local municipalities and counties contributed to some of

16637-476: Was in heavy use for both German military and civilian transportation, and much of the equipment and maintenance was lacking. On 28 February 1944, a descending eastbound freight train loaded with oil and petrol lost its braking power and became a runaway train, finally ploughing into a westbound passenger train at Breifoss, just east of Geilo . The crash and subsequent fire killed 25 civilians and an unknown number of German soldiers. Poor lubrication oil combined with

16768-463: Was launched, and the Voss Line was top priority. But the breakout of World War II set the plans back, and not until the 1950s was it again possible to afford such investments. Vossebanen took electric traction into use on 2 July 1954. The electricity is supplied via an overhead line. In 1952 a new plan was launched by parliament to electrify 1,153 kilometres (716 mi) of railway, with the line from Voss to Hønefoss prioritized fourth. This section of

16899-450: Was not imminent, the NSB introduced diesel traction on the Bergen Line in 1958. The line was electrified in four stages, from Roa to Hønefoss on 1 February 1961, from Hønefoss to Ål on 1 December 1962, from Ål to Ustaoset on 15 December 1963 and finally from Ustaoset to Voss on 7 December 1964. As the point of electrification moved across the mountain, so did the point NSB changed locomotive on

17030-507: Was ready within a year, yet it took six years to survey the line properly, and construction start had to wait until 1901. Construction started with the building of roads to get in supplies to the construction sites, completed in 1902. The construction was exceptionally challenging, taking place at high altitudes in a region without roads and with a climate that saw many metres of snow in the winter and temperatures far below freezing. 113 tunnels, totaling 28 kilometres (17 mi) had to be built;

17161-473: Was to be constructed in a number of main contracts: the first was boring the single-bore 7.7 kilometres (4.8 mi)) tunnel, which began in January 2016, and was completed on 29 August 2017. The second was the installation of the infrastructure: installing the rails in the form of a cast fixed track ; the overhead catenary ; a tunnel drainage system; installing a remotely-controlled signalling system both in

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