46-526: The nundinae ( / n ə n ˈ d ɪ n aɪ / , /- n iː / ), sometimes anglicized to nundines , were the market days of the ancient Roman calendar , forming a kind of weekend including, for a certain period, rest from work for the ruling class ( patricians ). The nundinal cycle , market week , or 8-day week ( Latin : nundinum or internundinum ) was the cycle of days preceding and including each nundinae. These were marked on fasti using nundinal letters from A to H. The earliest form of
92-549: A contio being held in the Circus Flaminius despite the nundinae. Following the 46 BC Julian reform of the calendar, the inalterable nature of its leap day intercalation meant that the nundinae began to fall upon the supposedly unlucky days of 1 January and the nones of each month. Early on in the Julian calendar, though, the strength of this superstition caused the priests to insert an extra day as under
138-563: A "customary occasion" ( sollemnes ) and the Roman pontiffs themselves told the augur Messala that they did not consider the nones or nundinae to be religious occasions. Like feriae and the names of most other recurring days of the Roman calendar, nundinae always appeared as a plural in classical Latin , even in references to a single day. The English form "nundine", following French nundines , similarly appeared only as
184-504: A divided linguistic geography, as the people of the countryside continued to use forms of Norman French , and many did not even know English. English became seen in the Channel Islands as "the language of commercial success and moral and intellectual achievement". The growth of English and the decline of French brought about the adoption of more values and social structures from Victorian era England. Eventually, this led to
230-595: A large part of the country's population due to language revival measures aimed at countering historical anglicisation measures such as the Welsh not . In the early parts of the 19th century, mostly due to increased immigration from the rest of the British Isles, the town of St Helier in the Channel Islands became a predominantly English-speaking place, though bilingualism was still common. This created
276-514: A nundinae occurred on them. The theoretical proscriptions concerning the nundinae were not always observed. The rebellion of M. Aemilius Lepidus in 78 BC was later remembered as an example of the pernicious effects of having the nundinae occur on the January kalends ; the New Year was allowed to coincide with a market again in 52 BC. Cicero complains in one of his letters about
322-406: A plural at first, although it is now used in the singular number for individual days. In Roman inscriptions , the word was abbreviated NVN . The form nundinum for the span between the nundinae seems to have been standard in early Latin, but only appears in compounds ( internundinum , trinundinum , &c.) and phrases ( inter nundinum ) in the classical period. The name of
368-590: A right seems to have been universally granted to the capitals of Italy's prefectures ( praefecturae ) but also extended to some smaller localities where markets were necessary for local trade. These local fairs used the same calendrical system as Rome's, marking out the days of the year into cycles from A to H, but each town or village in an area typically used a separate day, permitting itinerant traders ( circumforanei ) to attend each in turn. A pre-existing system of rural markets in North Africa's Maghreb
414-503: A time to settle disputes among themselves and to convene their own institutions. This was emended somewhat by the Hortensian Law in the early 3rd century BC , which made plebiscites binding on the whole population. If plebeian assemblies had previously been permitted on market days, any public assemblies —including their informal sessions ( contiones )—were now positively banned. At the same time, these provisions meant that
460-520: Is a form of cultural assimilation whereby something non-English becomes assimilated into or influenced by the culture of England . It can be sociocultural, in which a non-English or place adopts the English language or culture; institutional, in which institutions are influenced by those of England or the United Kingdom ; or linguistic , in which a non-English term or name is altered due to
506-899: The Danish city København ( Copenhagen ), the Russian city of Moskva ( Moscow ), the Swedish city of Göteborg ( Gothenburg ), the Dutch city of Den Haag ( The Hague ), the Spanish city of Sevilla ( Seville ), the Egyptian city of Al-Qāhira ( Cairo ), and the Italian city of Firenze ( Florence ). The Indian city of Kolkata used to be anglicised as Calcutta , until the city chose to change its official name back to Kolkata in 2001. Anglicisation of words and names from indigenous languages occurred across
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#1732773284752552-616: The English-speaking world in former parts of the British Empire . Toponyms in particular have been affected by this process. In the past, the names of people from other language areas were anglicised to a higher extent than today. This was the general rule for names of Latin or (classical) Greek origin. Today, the anglicised name forms are often retained for the more well-known persons, like Aristotle for Aristoteles, and Adrian (or later Hadrian ) for Hadrianus. During
598-462: The Welsh educational system . English "was perceived as the language of progress, equality, prosperity, mass entertainment and pleasure". This and other administrative reforms resulted in the institutional and cultural dominance of English and marginalisation of Welsh, especially in the more urban south and north-east of Wales. In 2022, the Commission for Welsh-speaking Communities warned that
644-569: The day of rest by declaring the Lord's day the Day of the Sun ( dies Solis ) a legal holiday. Different scholars have placed the end of 8-day markets at various dates from the late 1st to early 5th centuries. The nundinal cycle formed a rhythm within quotidian Roman life. Farmers and craftsmen from Rome's hinterland would rest from work on the nundinae to visit the city, selling groceries and supplies which
690-399: The late republican and imperial period , moved a day forward or backward to avoid interference with a religious festival or important public assembly, they are thought to have been absolutely fixed at eight days under the republic . Scholars therefore use them when trying to find Julian or Gregorian dates for events in Roman history. Anglicized Anglicisation or Anglicization
736-547: The 8-day cycle is based upon the Latin word for "nine" because the Romans tended to count dates inclusively . Each nundinae was thought to follow the next after a 9-day interval because the first day was included in the count. The Etruscans also celebrated an 8-day week which may have been the basis of the Roman system. They supposedly used each day for royal audiences and councils with their various kings. According to Macrobius ,
782-564: The British Isles became increasingly anglicised. Firstly, the ruling classes of England, who were of Norman origin after the Norman Conquest of 1066, became anglicised as their separate Norman identity, different from the identity of the native Anglo-Saxons , became replaced with a single English national identity . Secondly, English communities in Wales and Ireland emphasised their English identities, which became established through
828-601: The Channel Islands and Britain, but also provide economic prosperity and improved "general happiness". During the 19th century, there was concern over the practise of sending young Channel Islanders to France for education, as they might have brought back French culture and viewpoints back to the Islands. The upper class in the Channel Islands supported anglicising the Islands, due to the social and economic benefits it would bring. Anglophiles such as John Le Couteur strove to introduce English culture to Jersey . Anglicisation
874-543: The Channel Islands's culture becoming mostly anglicised, which supplanted the traditional Norman-based culture of the Islands. From 1912, the educational system of the Channel Islands was delivered solely in English, following the norms of the English educational system . Anglicisation was supported by the British government , and it was suggested that anglicisation would not only encourage loyalty and congeniality between
920-550: The Roman calendar is sometimes said to have included exactly 38 such cycles, running for 304 days from March to December before an unorganized expanse of about 50 winter days. The lengths of the Republican and Julian calendars , however, were not evenly divisible by 8; under these systems, the nundinae fell on a different letter each year. These letters formed the basis of the later Christian dominical letters . The name nūndinae ( Latin: [ˈnuːn.dɪ.nae̯] )
966-722: The Romans or their slaves would purchase for the next eight days. Auctions were held. Children and adolescents were exempted from school . It was a time of public merrymaking and Roman farming and slave manuals included stern warnings about permitting the vilicus , an enslaved overseer, too much free time during the visit to town lest he get caught up in mischief. The church authorities later issued similar admonitions concerning its clerics, priests, and bishops. Nundinae were used for dinner parties and public announcements , especially of coming assemblies and legislation. Later writers praising early Rome's rusticity and spartanness claimed that its farmers would busy themselves with labor during
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#17327732847521012-429: The buying and selling of things that should not be sold such as virginity and love , medical treatment , education , government and church offices and favors , and judicial decisions . This bias endured into medieval Latin , where nundinatio ("marketing") without other qualification meant corruption, especially the purchase of judicial verdicts. Although nundinae are known to have been manipulated during
1058-584: The continued prominence of the Welsh language and customs within them. However, other scholars argue that industrialisation and urbanisation led to economic decline in rural Wales, and given that the country's large towns and cities were anglicised, this led to an overall anglicisation of the nation. The Elementary Education Act 1870 and the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889 introduced compulsory English-language education into
1104-508: The country plebeians and used as an occasion for the king to settle disputes among them. Supposedly, retail trading was long restricted to foreigners or slaves out of concern for its spiritual effects. Under the Republic , the gatherings on the nundinae were overseen by the aediles . The days were originally diēs nefāstī upon which no patrician business could be conducted. Plebeians, however, seem to have continued to use them as
1150-529: The cultural influence of the English language. It can also refer to the influence of English soft power , which includes media, cuisine, popular culture, technology, business practices, laws and political systems. Anglicisation first occurred in the British Isles , when Celts under the sovereignty of the king of England underwent a process of anglicisation. The Celtic language decline in England
1196-554: The emigration of Anglophones to Welsh-speaking villages and towns was putting the Welsh language at risk. During the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a nationwide effort in the United States to anglicise all immigrants to the US . This was carried out through methods including (but not limited to) mandating the teaching of American English and having all immigrants change their first names to English-sounding names. This movement
1242-452: The former system; it was accommodated by removing another day sometime later in the year; this seems to have occurred in 40 BC and AD 44. The nundinae of the late Republic and early Empire were possibly centered on the Circus Flaminius . Augustus supposedly avoided new undertakings on the days after nundinae ( postridie nundinas ), owing either to superstitions concerning homophones of non ("no, not") or analogy with
1288-528: The land the English settled was not intensively used or densely populated. The culture of settling English populations in Wales and Ireland remained heavy influenced by that of England. These communities were also socially and culturally segregated from the native Irish and Welsh, a distinction which was reinforced by government legislation such as the Statutes of Kilkenny . During the Middle Ages , Wales
1334-487: The nones but it was uncertain which. All patrician business was originally suspended during the nundinae but it seems to have been fasti by the time of the Twelve Tables and, among its provisions, the Hortensian Law ( Lex Hortensia ) of 287 BC permitted their use for most legal and business purposes. Dates otherwise permitted for public assemblies ( dies comitialis ) were still downgraded if
1380-589: The nundinae now could be used for sessions of the Senate . Trebatius noted that officials could free slaves and render judgments on nundinae. The nundinal cycles were an important pattern in the business of the Centuriate Assembly . All proposed legislation or official appointments were supposed to be publicly announced three weeks ( trinundinum ) in advance. The tribunes of the plebs were obliged to conduct and conclude all of their business on
1426-401: The nundinae, such that if any motion was not carried by dusk it needed to be proposed and announced anew and discussed only after a further three-week period. This was occasionally exploited as a kind of filibuster by the patricians and their clients . Although their religious nature was never very pronounced, the nundinae were allegedly dedicated to Saturn and Jupiter . The flaminica ,
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1472-503: The people of the Roman countryside were first obliged to gather in the city on the nones of each month, about a week after the new moon , to hear from the king or his equivalent what the holy days would be and what they were to do over the course of the coming month. The regular nundinae were credited by Roman legend variously to Romulus when he ruled jointly with Titus Tatius and first established Rome's religious observances, to Servius Tullius when he aimed to improve commerce in
1518-687: The power of the Welsh Tudor dynasty in the rest of England. Scholars have argued that industrialisation prevented Wales from being anglicised to the extent of Ireland and Scotland, as the majority of the Welsh people did not move abroad in search of employment during the early modern era, and thus did not have to learn to speak English. Furthermore, migration patterns created a cultural division of labour, with national migrants tending to work in coalfields or remain in rural villages, while non-national migrants were attracted to coastal towns and cities. This preserved monocultural Welsh communities, ensuring
1564-563: The settlement of various parts of Wales and Ireland between the 11th and 17th centuries under the guidance of successive English kings. In Wales, this primarily occurred during the conquest of Wales by Edward I , which involved English and Flemish settlers being "planted" in various newly established settlements in Welsh territory. English settlers in Ireland mostly resided in the Pale , a small area concentrated around Dublin . However, much of
1610-427: The town, or to the plebeians when they began to gather after the expulsion of Tarquin to offer sacrifices to Servius Tullius. Macrobius relates that the prohibition against the nundinae occurring on months' nones arose out of concern that these plebeians visiting the city would cause trouble out of remembrance of the popular Servius Tullius , since it was supposedly generally known that his birthday fell on one of
1656-648: The treatment of the days following kalends , nones , and ides . The 7-day week first came into use in Italy during the early imperial period. For a time, both systems were used together, but the nundinae are seldom mentioned in extant sources after the Julio-Claudian period . The nundinal cycle had probably fallen out of use by the time Constantine adopted the Hebrew weeks for official use in AD 321, altering
1702-470: The week and only groom and fully bathe on the nundinae. Pliny describes the superstition, "religiously believed by many", that trimming one's nails silently during the nundinae or doing so beginning with the index finger provoked bad luck for one's finances. The nundinae were not the only markets at Rome, though, as there were both daily markets ( macella ) and periodic fairs ( mercatus ). Under its monarchy , Rome's nundinae were market days for
1748-509: The wife of Rome's high priest of Jupiter , offered a ram to that god at each nundinae. Inscriptions have been discovered from cults to both Jupiter Nundinarius and Mercury Nundinator. Superstitions arose about the ill luck when a nundinae would fall upon January 1st or the nones of any month and the pontiffs who controlled the calendar's intercalation until the Julian reform took steps to avoid such coincidences, usually by making
1794-411: The year 354 instead of 355 days long by removing a day from February or the intercalary month . Since the nones were definitionally eight days before each ides , this also had the unstated effect of avoiding nundinae on them as well. Macrobius 's account of the origins of these superstitions is unsatisfying, however, and it is more likely that 1 January was avoided because its status as a general holiday
1840-525: Was also glossed by the Romans as a system of nundinae, although it did not necessarily occur at eight-day intervals. In the 3rd and 4th century, the annual fairs in Mesopotamia were also known as nundinae. The early Roman prejudice against commerce, especially the retail trade of the nundinal markets, means that the nundinae are usually referenced in negative contexts in Latin literature , particularly for
1886-589: Was an essential element in the development of British society and of the development of a unified British polity. Within the British Isles , anglicisation can be defined as influence of English culture in Scotland , Wales , Ireland , the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands . Until the 19th century, most significant period for anglicisation in those regions was the High Middle Ages . Between 1000 and 1300,
Nundinae - Misplaced Pages Continue
1932-474: Was apparently formed from an early form of nōnus ("ninth") and -din- ("day"), a root related to diēs and ultimately the Proto-Indo-European root reconstructed as * dyew- ("to shine"). It is now glossed as an adjective modifying an understood feriae ("festival; holiday"), but not all Romans considered it to be one: a writer named Titius listed the nundinae as
1978-461: Was bad for business and the nones because of the ill luck attending their lack of a tutelary deity. The 8-day nundinal cycle also seems to have been observed elsewhere in Italy, particularly Campania , as attested in stone calendars and graffiti , as at Pompeii . There are records from the imperial period of towns and villas petitioning for the right to hold such markets ( ius nundinarum ). Such
2024-700: Was gradually conquered by the English. The institutional anglicisation of Wales was finalised with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , which fully incorporated Wales into the Kingdom of England . This not only institutionally anglicised Wales, but brought about the anglicisation of the Welsh culture and language. Motives for anglicising Wales included securing Protestant England against incursions from Catholic powers in Continental Europe and promoting
2070-713: Was known as Americanization and is considered a subset of Anglicization due to English being the dominant language in the United States. Linguistic anglicisation is the practice of modifying foreign words, names, and phrases to make them easier to spell, pronounce or understand in English . The term commonly refers to the respelling of foreign words, often to a more drastic degree than that implied in, for example, romanisation . Non-English words may be anglicised by changing their form and/or pronunciation to something more familiar to English speakers. Some foreign place names are commonly anglicised in English. Examples include
2116-565: Was mostly complete by 1000 AD, but continued in Cornwall and other regions until the 18th century. In Scotland , the decline of Scottish Gaelic began during the reign of Malcolm III of Scotland to the point where by the mid-14th century the Scots language was the dominant national language among the Scottish people . In Wales , however, the Welsh language has continued to be spoken by
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