Misplaced Pages

#871128

133-681: They are closely related to the Tày and the Zhuang . In China, the Nùng together with the Tày are classified as Zhuang people. There are several subgroups among the Nùng: Nùng Xuồng, Nùng Giang, Nùng An, Nùng Phàn Slình, Nùng Lòi, Nùng Cháo, Nùng Quý Rỉn, Nùng Dín, Nùng Inh, Nùng Tùng Slìn etc. Many of the Nùng's sub-group names correspond to the geographic regions of the Nùng homeland. Hoàng Nam (2008:11) lists

266-410: A Nong chieftain was given a banquet at a Song prefecture. The Viets reacted to this with anger and pillaged the area. In 1038, there was a disturbance at Rongzhou and Yizhou which took troops from three prefectures the loss of six high-ranking officials to suppress. The prefect of Yizhou blamed the unrest on bad administration and that the problem was the result of systematic neglect of the south on

399-823: A Tai -speaking ethnic group who mostly live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in Southern China . Some also live in the Yunnan , Guangdong , Guizhou , and Hunan provinces. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China . With the Bouyei , Nùng , Tày , and other Northern Tai speakers, they are sometimes known as the Rau or Rao people. Their population, estimated at 18 million people, makes them

532-630: A 133% increase from the Tang census of 742. Some of the increase can be attributed to including indigenous populations and improved recording methods, but the trend of increased Han Chinese settlement is clear. With the increase of Han Chinese population also came more northern-oriented cultural practices. Before the Tang, this county was settled by the Miao barbarian people. There were no traces of Han settlers. In 1053, The ‘Great Martial Leader’ Di (Qing) put down

665-463: A 1908 military dispatch by Commandant LeBlond, they had been "subjugated and held ransom during many long centuries, sometimes by the one, sometimes by the other, the [Nùng] race has become flexible and is frequently able to ascertain the stronger [neighbor], to which it would turn instinctively. French domination appears soft to him and benevolent, compared with that of Annamites or the Chinese." During

798-570: A Romanized script has been created for the Nùng language, worshipers of the temple prefer Chinese, similar to the Zhuang in China, and sometimes Vietnamese. In the 1990s, the Doi Moi program shifted the policy of ethnic affairs towards liberalization and preservation. Part of this was the appeal of creating tourist attractions and revenue. The Kỳ Sầm Temple was renovated sometime prior to 2001 to portray

931-695: A Song garrison in 1004 after it held a banquet for a Nong chieftain. In 1005, a woman known as A Nong was born to a notable warrior chieftain who accepted titles from both the Song dynasty and the Early Lê dynasty of Đại Cồ Việt. A Nong learned to spin and weave from her mother. At some point she was separated from the other girls and learned the ways of a shaman. She married Nong Quanfu and became his primary political adviser. Her brother, Nong Dangdao, inherited Wulezhou near Guangyuanzhou. She gave birth to Nong Zhigao in 1025. A Nong induced Quanfu to kill his brother,

1064-495: A Vietnamese dynasty ruled over the Vietnamese northeast highlands, profited from the migration in that they were able to draw upon Nùng manpower for their own forces. In 1833, Nông Văn Vân , a Nùng chieftain, led a rebellion against Vietnamese rule. He quickly took control of Cao Bằng , Tuyên Quang , Thái Nguyên and Lạng Sơn provinces, aiming to create a separate Tày-Nùng state in the northern region of Vietnam. His rising

1197-571: A branch of the proto-Zhuang peoples who had a political relationship with Nan Zhao, and its successor, Dali. The language and culture of the Nong is the same as the Zhuang, and only an accident of history prevents us from simplifying this description by simply referring to them as "Zhuang." People who would today in China be termed Zhuang because of their language and culture, but who live in Vietnamese territory are designated by several different terms, including Nung, Tho/Tay, Thai, and possibly others. Like

1330-451: A combined Tày-Nùng minority. However these ethnonyms are a recent phenomenon and did not exist until the modern age. According to Keith Taylor, the Vietnamese terms were "categories of French colonial knowledge" used to differentiate highlanders from lowlanders. The ethnic Zhuang was a product of the "ethnic identification project" pursued in 1950s China. Many scholars of the Tai peoples consider

1463-771: A confederation of tribes. Some time before 971, the Southern Han dynasty recognized him as the leader of "ten prefectures", which were actually eight jimi prefectures plus two valleys, namely Quảng Nguyên Prefecture ( 廣源州 ; modern Quảng Uyên ), Wule ( 武勒 ) or Wuqin Prefecture ( 武勤州 ; modern Fusui County ), Nanyuan Prefecture ( 南源州 ), Tây Nông Prefecture ( 西農州 ), Vạn Nhai Prefecture ( 萬涯州 or 萬崖州 ), Phú Hòa Prefecture ( 覆和州 ), Wen Prefecture ( 溫州 ; modern Hurun ), Nong Prefecture ( 弄州 ), as well as Gufu Valley ( 古拂洞 ) and Badan Valley ( 八耽洞 ). Altogether these constitute much of today's Cao Bằng Province , Vietnam plus

SECTION 10

#1732765079872

1596-482: A defeat against the Zhuang forces. Di Qing executed him and 31 officers. He then marched his forces under cover of night and blocked the Kunlun Pass east of Yongzhou. Zhigao attacked the Song forces in early 1054. The Zhuang wore bright crimson uniforms and fought in units of three armed with long shields that advanced "like fire." One man carried a shield while the other two hurled metal-tipped bamboo javelins. In

1729-426: A long and short double-edged sword. They were also capable of using crossbows, poisoned arrows, and elephants. A three man Zhuang unit had one man carrying a large shield while the other two hurled javelins. Although they fought for the Song, they only obeyed the orders of their Zhuang chieftains. In 1178, the vice-prefect of Guilin , Zhou Qufei, said that they "live and die at the orders of their leaders." Although

1862-490: A more nationalistic image. The exterior and interior pillars of the temple have been retouched and the Chinese-character inscriptions at the front and Quốc ngữ inscriptions on the walls have been removed. References to "King Nùng" who had "raised high the banner proclaiming independence" have been replaced with floral patterns and pictures of horses, generic symbols associated with local heroes. A large sign indicates

1995-437: A prolonged siege. Despite cutting off Guangzhou from water, the city was well stocked with provisions, and the defenders fought back with crossbow defenses. The district magistrate Xiao Zhu foiled a waterborne attack on Guangzhou by setting fire to their ships. After 57 days, Zhigao was forced to retreat as more Song reinforcements arrived. He held out at Yongzhou, defeating five Song commanders sent against him. The Song called in

2128-436: A prolonged siege. Despite cutting off Guangzhou from water, the city was well stocked with provisions, and the defenders fought back with crossbow defenses. The district magistrate Xiao Zhu foiled a waterborne attack on Guangzhou by setting fire to their ships. After 57 days, Zhigao was forced to retreat as more Song reinforcements arrived. He held out at Yongzhou, defeating five Song commanders sent against him. The Song called in

2261-584: A reference to Yao —as a counterweight against the Nùng. In 1908, for example, following an incident in which Sun Yat-sen 's mercenary Nùng warriors had killed several French officers, the French offered a bounty of eight dollars for each head brought in by the "Man". The bounty was paid 150 times. When the Indochinese Communist Party was founded in 1930, its policy suggested upland peoples and minorities should be given full autonomy once

2394-465: A result of the continuous drought of Guangxi which made the thinly occupied lands of northern Vietnam an attractive alternative habitation. The immigration process was generally a peaceful one as the Nùng purchased land from the "Tho" owners. The Nùng were superior to the Tho in cultivating wet rice and transformed poor lands, facilitating later migrations into adjoining areas. The repeated violent incursions of

2527-560: A small part of southwestern Guangxi ( Jingxi and Chongzuo ), China. In 971, on the eve of the Song conquest of Southern Han , the Dali Empire defeated Southern Han troops and extended its territory eastward to the modern Guangxi– Yunnan border. The Dali emperor gave Nong Minfu the title of "Tanchuo" ( 坦綽 ; "peaceful and generous"), which was often granted to princes by Dali's predecessor Nanzhao . Some historians believe Nong Minfu

2660-411: A specific signal banner to indicate their group's distinction. Groups of 30 men were organized into local governance units known as "tithings ( jia )", which were organized in groups of five under a troop commandant ( dutou ), groups of ten led by an aboriginal commander ( zhijunshi ), and in groups of 50 led by a commander-in-chief ( duzhijunshi ). It was perhaps this intensification of border defense that

2793-417: A tax that was usually more a customary and semi-voluntary exaction in practice, though this depended upon the power of the lord. Even when taxed, it was at a lower rate than that of regular prefectures. Many jimi prefectures did not pay taxes but "tribute." The Mo clan paid 100 ounces of silver as tribute annually. It is evident that the headmen entered into the tribute system with great enthusiasm. As part of

SECTION 20

#1732765079872

2926-513: A veteran of the Song–Xia wars , Di Qing , to assume command of the anti-rebel forces. He gathered 31,000 men and 32 generals, including Fanluo tribal cavalry from the northwest that "were able to ascend and descend mountains as though walking on level ground." Lý Thái Tông also offered to send 20,000 troops but the offer was refused out of fear that the troops would not leave afterwards. One general, Chen Shu, attacked early with 8,000 men and suffered

3059-406: A veteran of the Song–Xia wars , Di Qing , to assume command of the anti-rebel forces. He gathered 31,000 men and 32 generals, including Fanluo tribal cavalry from the northwest that "were able to ascend and descend mountains as though walking on level ground." Lý Thái Tông also offered to send 20,000 troops but the offer was refused out of fear that the troops would not leave afterwards. As for all

3192-628: Is closely related to the Zhuang language . Sawndip is a writing system based on Chinese characters to represent their language. In Vietnam, the Tay and Nùng people can no longer read Chinese and write the pronunciation of the characters next to them in the Vietnamese alphabet for their ritual manuscripts. Many Nùng practice an indigenous religion with animistic , totemic and shamanic features similarly to other Tai ethnic groups. In addition, Nùng religious practices are heavily influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism . The Nùng worship Quan Âm ( Guanyin ) as

3325-560: Is patrilineal and grouped into clans denoted by the region in China they came from. In the past, men could marry outside the clan but women could only marry within the clan, however this practice has declined in the present day. Men could have multiple wives. The Nùng language is part of the Tai language family . Both the Nùng and Tay people used Sawndip script, also known as the Old Zhuang Script, to represent their language, which

3458-400: Is similar to other highlanders. They live on higher elevation with houses built with clay on stilts near rivers to avoid flooding. Like the Tày, they are known for silversmithing , weaving , basketry , papermaking , and embroidery . Indigo , which represents faithfulness, is a popular choice of color for clothing. Typical motifs for embroidery are the sun, flowers, and stars. Nùng society

3591-553: The Chang Qi Guo and styled himself the first king of Dali, Tu Dan Chao . The local prefect of Tianzhou requested assistance from Yongzhou to deal with the rebellion, but officials there appear to have feared involvement and refused to offer aid. In 1039, the emperor of the Lý dynasty , Lý Thái Tông , invaded the newly found kingdom, captured Quanfu and four other male members of the Nong clan, and executed them. A Nong escaped with

3724-445: The Chang Qi Guo and styled himself the first king of Dali, Tu Dan Chao . The local prefect of Tianzhou requested assistance from Yongzhou to deal with the rebellion, but officials there appear to have feared involvement and refused to offer aid. In 1039, the emperor of the Lý dynasty , Lý Thái Tông , invaded the newly found kingdom, captured Quanfu and four other male members of the Nong clan, and executed them. A Nong escaped with

3857-540: The Cần Vương movement to restore Viet independence, the Nùng showed little interest in supporting the lowland Kinh Viets against the French. Some of the upland peoples supported the Black Flag Army who fought against the French, while others sided with the French. The French, however, perhaps having less choice, tended to support the Tho and other minorities, often undifferentiated as "Man" in their reports—usually

3990-563: The Huang Chao rebellion (874–884), the Zhuang took part in anti-rebel efforts as irregular units in the Ningyuan Army led by Pang Zhuzhao. After the collapse of the Tang dynasty in 907, the Southern Han recruited Zhuang archers to outfit its riverine forces. They took part in campaigns against Ma Chu . The Zhuang do not seem to have aspired to creating an empire after the collapse of the Tang and sought merely autonomy. In fact

4123-627: The Kingdom of Dali 大理). Đại Cồ Việt sent troops and captured him. He was held prisoner for a year before he was released with an honorary title and given control of Guangyuan, Leihuo, Ping'an, Pinpo, and Silang in return for a share of their natural resources, particularly gold. In 1048, Zhigao declared another state, the Kingdom of the Southern Heavens ( Nantian Guo ), and took a reign title, "Auspicious Circumstances" ( Jingrui ). He called

Nùng people - Misplaced Pages Continue

4256-449: The Kingdom of Dali 大理). Đại Cồ Việt sent troops and captured him. He was held prisoner for a year before he was released with an honorary title and given control of Guangyuan, Leihuo, Ping'an, Pinpo, and Silang in return for a share of their natural resources, particularly gold. In 1048, Zhigao declared another state, the Kingdom of the Southern Heavens ( Nantian Guo ), and took a reign title, "Auspicious Circumstances" ( Jingrui ). He called

4389-406: The Kunlun Pass east of Yongzhou. Zhigao attacked the Song forces in early 1054. The Zhuang wore bright crimson uniforms and fought in units of three armed with long shields that advanced "like fire." One man carried a shield while the other two hurled metal-tipped bamboo javelins. In the initial stages of battle, one Song commander was killed, and the Song army was momentarily forced to fall back. In

4522-596: The Song dynasty with river transportation during the Song conquest of Southern Han (970–971). Some 20,000 Zhuang also fought for Southern Han but they were defeated. Afterwards, the Mo clan of Nandan submitted to Song authority in 974 and the Meng clan of Yizhou rebelled in 1038 but was put down. In 980, the Zhuang participated in the Song–Đại Cồ Việt war as Song allies, however the expedition ended in defeat. In 1000,

4655-719: The Vietnam War , Nùng villages in the Việt Bắc region received very little damage and avoided the devastation of upland communities in the Central Highlands. Although the Democratic Republic of Vietnam supervised state-sponsored migration to upland areas, the north did not experience a massive influx of Kinh Viets, so the ethnic balance around the Nùng Trí Cao temples remained fairly consistent. However

4788-487: The Yao people , who were far less numerous. Zhuang leaders sought Song approval to legitimate their position. After being recognized, they also received a salary and their family was guaranteed hereditary succession to the post. Song authority was bestowed through seals, which theoretically went to the hereditary leader, but in practice usually went to the claimant put forward by the locals, often after military conflicts. When there

4921-621: The You and Zuo rivers. The Wei had settled on the Song-Viet border. However the power of the Nong clan increased and began to upset Huang supremacy. By the early Song, they ruled over an area known as Temo, which stretched from modern Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in the west to Jingxi in the east and Guangyuanzhou (Quảng Nguyên, now Cao Bằng province) in the south. Emperor Taizong of Song (r. 976-997) bestowed special favors on Nong leadership, acknowledging that they had succeeded

5054-458: The "Nong Bandit" and his kin had strayed far from their frontier duties and might never be incorporated into the Song administration. However in 1062 when Zongdan requested his territory be incorporated into the Song empire, Renzong accepted his request. According to The Draft Documents Pertaining to Song Official Matters , Zongdan was regarded by the Song as the prefect of Leihuo prefecture, renamed "Pacified Prefecture" ( Shun'anzhou ), and possessed

5187-406: The "Nùng Inh" clan from Long Ying in the southwest of Guangxi. Other names also reflected the locations from where they came, indicating that they were primarily from the immediate frontier region of the southwest of Guangxi. The Nùng became increasingly numerous in the region, and were spread out through a long stretch of the Vietnamese northern border from Lạng Sơn to Cao Bằng . The Mạc dynasty ,

5320-633: The 14-year old Zhigao into Song territory. In 1041, Nong Zhigao and his mother seized Dangyouzhou (modern Jingxi , Guangxi ) and the Leihuo grotto settlement (modern Daxin County ). A Nong married a wealthy merchant but Zhigao murdered this man. A Nong married a third time to Nong Xiaqing, expanding their territory further into Temo. In 1042, Zhigao declared the founding the Kingdom of the Great Succession ( Dali Guo 大歷國, not to be confused with

5453-456: The 14-year old Zhigao into Song territory. In 1041, Nong Zhigao and his mother seized Dangyouzhou (modern Jingxi , Guangxi ) and the Leihuo grotto settlement (modern Daxin County ). A Nong married a wealthy merchant but Zhigao murdered this man. A Nong married a third time to Nong Xiaqing, expanding their territory further into Temo. In 1042, Zhigao declared the founding the Kingdom of the Great Succession ( Dali Guo 大歷國, not to be confused with

Nùng people - Misplaced Pages Continue

5586-556: The 19th century, imperial presence was not guaranteed. Central expansion and assertion of authority by the Nguyễn dynasty over these areas was often met by violent local opposition. Unlike the Chinese however, the Viets did offer princesses to the thổ ty to cement allegiances. Despite this, most Nùng communities were self ruled as late as 1953 when the Viet Minh took the Việt Bắc region. As

5719-578: The Chinese tributary system while the Tai-speaking people south of the border in Đại Việt remained in a patron-client relationship with the Viet court. These Tai-speaking communities lived in the mountainous areas of Việt Bắc and most of their interaction with Viets was through the Các Lái, Kinh (Vietnamese) merchants who had obtained government licenses for trade in the uplands in return for tribute to

5852-558: The French colonial order was overthrown, however such policy was given little attention until 1941 when support from these communities became a strategic necessity. The Nùng assisted Ho Chi Minh in his activities. As a result of anti-French activities, temples of Nùng Trí Cao were destroyed. The French had more success with the Tai Dón people along the Lao -border, who established a regime known as Sip Song Chau Tai ( French: Pays Taï ) under

5985-526: The Guizhou prefect Lu Shen reported that a military delegation from Thăng Long had crossed the border seeking Nong Rixin (V. Nùng Nậht Tân), the son of Nong Zongdan. He also reported that the delegation showed interest in encroaching on Song territory, including Wenmen grotto ( Hurun , a village in Jingxi, Guangxi ). The Song court took no particular action but Lu was determined to expand Song military presence in

6118-514: The Huang in the Zuo River region. The Guangyuan zhou Man-barbarian Nong clan came from the south west... of Yongzhou and held the districts there. The terrain was steep mountains and inaccessible valleys; it produced gold and cinnabar. A good many people lived there. They wore their hair long and fastened their clothes on the left. They loved to fight and struggle and regarded death lightly. Earlier

6251-526: The Nùng, the Tày (originally Thổ) would have been classified as Zhuang had they lived in China. However unlike the Nùng, the Tày are considered the most Vietnamized of all the Thai peoples in Vietnam and lacquered their teeth black like the Viets. The Tày and Nùng frequently intermarried, although the Tày seem to have been held in higher regard. During the early Song dynasty , the Huang clan was left in charge of

6384-412: The Song bestowed titles on Nong Zhihui and acknowledged him as the sole leader of Quảng Nguyên. Nong Minfu Nong Minfu ( Chinese : 儂民富 ; pinyin : Nóng Mínfù , Vietnamese: Nùng Dân Phú ; fl. 970s) was a Tai -speaking Rau chieftain who ruled over an area in what is today's Sino-Vietnamese borderland . He could have been Nong Quanfu 's father. He was probably the leader of

6517-552: The Song court's early attention to the frontier leaders was largely symbolic, by the time of Song Shenzong (r. 1065-85), "local militia" ( tuding ) were being actively organized among the aboriginal villages so as to provide the first line of defense for the Chinese empire. Wang Anshi would comment in an essay on the administration of the Yong frontier command that the aboriginal communities of the Left and Right rivers should be relied upon for

6650-412: The Song dynasty and the Early Lê dynasty of Đại Cồ Việt. A Nong learned to spin and weave from her mother. At some point she was separated from the other girls and learned the ways of a shaman. She married Nong Quanfu and became his primary political adviser. Her brother, Nong Dangdao, inherited Wulezhou near Guangyuanzhou. She gave birth to Nong Zhigao in 1025. A Nong induced Quanfu to kill his brother,

6783-424: The Song. He was caught in 1045 and executed by vivisection. During the early Song period, the Huang clan was left in charge of the You and Zuo rivers. The Wei had settled on the Song-Viet boarder. However the power of the Nong clan increased and began to upset Huang supremacy. By the early Song, they ruled over an area known as Temo, which stretched from modern Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in

SECTION 50

#1732765079872

6916-732: The Song. They were executed. Zhigao failed to raise more troops in Dali. According to official accounts, Nong Zhigao was executed by the ruler of Dali and his head presented to Song authorities. However popular accounts claim he fled further south into modern northern Thailand , where his descendants thrive to this day. The Zhuang of Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture identify as survivors of Zhigao's rebel movement and other groups in Dali City , Xishuangbana , and northern Thailand claim to be descended from Zhigao. Many Zhuang songs refer to him as "King Nong." The Song took full control of

7049-527: The Taiping era and the Black Flag occupation accelerated the outflow of Tho as the bands from China were largely Zhuang who favored the Nùng at the expense of the Tho. The Tho who remained became alienated from the Vietnamese government which could not offer protection and became clients of the Chinese and the Nùng. The Nùng dominance became so pronounced that when Sun Yat-sen wished to raise fighters in

7182-468: The Tày and Nùng have been referred to as a combined Tày-Nùng minority. However these ethnonyms are a recent phenomenon and did not exist until the modern age. According to Keith Taylor, the Vietnamese terms were "categories of French colonial knowledge" used to differentiate highlanders from lowlanders. The ethnic Zhuang was a product of the "ethnic identification project" pursued in 1950s China. Although both Vietnamese and Chinese authorities labeled all of

7315-476: The Viet Bac Autonomous Zone in which the Nùng and Tày were most numerous was revoked by Lê Duẩn and the government pursued a policy of forced assimilation of minorities into Vietnamese culture. All education was conducted in the Vietnamese language, traditional customs were discouraged or outlawed, and minority people were moved from their villages into government settlements. At the same time

7448-648: The Viet Minh tried to win the allegiance of all of the northern ethnic minorities by creating two autonomous zones, Thai–Meo Autonomous Zone and Viet Bac Autonomous Zone respectively, allowing limited self-government within a “unified multi-national state”. During the Vietnam War , many Nùng fought alongside the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). In 1954, several thousand Nùng Phàn Slình came to South Vietnam as refugees and settled in Lâm Đồng Province During

7581-439: The Viet court felt threatened by, as it saw its own systems of local control eroded. Scholars also note that there was a sharp increase in the population of the Song dynasty's southwest frontier by the end of the 11th century. At the end of the 10th c., this region counted only 17,760 households while the same area had increased to 56,596 households in 1078-85. Guangnan West Circuit's population in 1080 stood at 287,723 households,

7714-404: The Viet court's actions criminal and that his territory would not be annexed by China. In the fall of 1049, Zhigao's forces pillaged Yongzhou. In 1050, Đại Cồ Việt launched an attack on Zhigao's stronghold and evicted him, sending him fleeing into Song territory. Nong Zhigao approached the Song at Yongzhou for assistance but was denied an audience until he staged a military demonstration beneath

7847-401: The Viet court's actions criminal and that his territory would not be annexed by China. In the fall of 1049, Zhigao's forces pillaged Yongzhou. In 1050, Đại Cồ Việt launched an attack on Zhigao's stronghold and evicted him, sending him fleeing into Song territory. Nong Zhigao approached the Song at Yongzhou for assistance but was denied an audience until he staged a military demonstration beneath

7980-400: The Viet court. Instead he proposed that he stay outside Song territory as a loyal frontier militia leader. Wang feared that a resurgence of the Nong clan would spell trouble for the frontier. The Song court ignored his apprehensions and offered the Nong and other communities "Interior Dependency" status. By 1061, Emperor Renzong of Song (r. 1022-63) was regretting his decision and lamented that

8113-555: The Viet envoy Lý Kế Tiên prepared to depart Kaifeng , news arrived that Thàn Thiệu Tháị had attacked settlements in Guangnan West Circuit. A Guangnan official requested immediate retaliation against the southern intruders. However the Song court tried to distance Thiệu Tháị's actions from the Lý court. An envoy from Thăng Long arrived seeking forgiveness for the attack. Yingzong decided not to retaliate. On 18 November 1064,

SECTION 60

#1732765079872

8246-572: The Viet role in settling frontier matters. Meanwhile Lu proposed a special training and indoctrination program for a local chieftain each year that would see them enter the official bureaucracy after three years. In late 1065, Zongdan switched allegiance from the Song and proposed an alliance with Lý Thánh Tông (r. 1054-72) and Quảng Nguyên chieftain Liu Ji (V. Lưu Ký). Lu Shen reported this to court, but Yingzong did not take any action other than to reassign Zongdan's titles. To offset Zongdan's defection,

8379-569: The Zhuang and Nùng to be essentially the same people, a single ethnic group. During the early 11th century, ethnic identities and boundaries were more fluid than in the modern Sino-Vietnamese borderland. The Zhuang leader Nong Zhigao was defeated in 1055 by the Song dynasty . Had he won, it is possible that he might have established a state under his own clan name, Nong. Instead, his people in China continued to be referred to as Zhuang, which in their own language means "cave", while in Vietnam they came to be known as Nùng. The majority ethnic group and now

8512-668: The Zhuang attacked Yongzhou but the attack was quelled by Zhuang troops of the Song-allied Huang clan. In 1001, Zhuang calling themselves the Troops of Chen ( chenbing ) rebelled in Yizhou. Their leader, Su Chengzhun, titled himself King of the Pacified South ( nanping wang ). The rebels took a few towns but were hampered by floods and suffered several defeats until their leader was killed three months later. In 1004,

8645-478: The Zhuang clans, but he was not well liked, and the Huang chieftain, Huang Shouling, refused to aid him. He also requested aid from the Viet court, which sent the tribal commander Võ Nhị to assist the rebels. A Nong and her son Nong Zhiguang, as well as Zhigao's sons Nong Jifeng and Nong Jizong, were caught at Temo in Yunnan by Zhuang forces allied with the Song. They were executed. Zhigao failed to raise more troops in Dali. According to official accounts, Nong Zhigao

8778-788: The Zhuang ethnicity as a modern constructed ethnic identity. In the eyes of the ethnologists, the Zhuang culture was not sufficiently divergent from what the ethnologists considered "Han culture", to warrant recognition as a separate ethnic identity. The Zhuang had been interacting with the Han Chinese for over 2,200 years. As early as the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the Zhuang adopted Han cultural practices and technology such as settled agriculture, iron plows, triple cropping, and fertilization. They lived at lower elevations than other minority groups and competed more directly with Han farmers than slash-and-burn agriculturalists. As direct competitors,

8911-562: The Zhuang found it expedient to adopt Han dress and housing styles. After the defeat of the Zhuang leader, Nong Zhigao, in 1055, many Zhuang families and communities gave up their own language and names and completely assimilated into the Han majority. In one instance, a Zhuang student said that he had previously regarded himself as Han Chinese before being taught that he was Zhuang. The Zhuang did not perceive themselves as marginalized or in need of promotion. Zhuang peasants displayed resistance to

9044-438: The Zhuang, who started buttoning their clothing on the right, women wearing bodices, giving up trousers for skirts, and wearing their hair in the Chinese style. Many of the former rebels were enlisted in the Song army, which paid for more than 50,000 Zhuang troops known as Tuding ( tubing or zhuangding ) from 1064-1067. By 1108, more than a hundred thousand registered as soldiers from the region. The Zhuang warriors carried both

9177-453: The Zuo and You rivers, incorporating the regions into the Song bureaucracy. When Zhigao and his fellow rebel chieftains fled, they were replaced by Song-allied clans, primarily the Huang and Cen who were given hereditary posts. Chinese schools in Zhuang areas were set up and the sons of elite Zhuang who enrolled in them later took posts in the Song bureaucracy. Chinese style dress began to influence

9310-498: The belongings that you amassed during your lives, they were destroyed today by heaven's fire. You have nothing to live on, and you are considered poor indeed! You must grab Yongzhou and capture Guangzhou where I will establish myself as its ruler. If you don't do this, you will necessarily die." One general, Chen Shu, attacked early with 8,000 men and suffered a defeat against the Zhuang forces. Di Qing executed him and 31 officers. He then marched his forces under cover of night and blocked

9443-405: The benefits of the "civilized" center in the post-Nong Zhigao period. Viet leadership on the other hand created "patron-client" relationships using marriage alliances and military expeditions to maintain "satellite" partners. Successive Viet courts saw the extraction of resources from frontier vassals as a measurement of their efficacy. However by the 11th century, both the Chinese and Viet courts saw

9576-430: The control of collaborator Đèo Văn Long . When war broke out in 1946, groups of Thai, H’mong and Muong in the northwest sided with the French and against the Vietnamese and even provided battalions to fight with the French troops. But The Nùng and Tày supported the Viet Minh and provided the Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh , with a safe base for his guerrilla armies. After defeating the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 ,

9709-521: The court. Assimilation with broader society was not necessary unlike in China. The Viet court ruled the frontier region using a system similar to the Chinese Tusi known as thổ ty. Thổ ty officials who governed the frontier held hereditary positions and passed on their position from generation to generation. The thổ ty were de facto rulers and held absolute authority in their own areas. They paid tribute to both Chinese and Viet authorities. As late as

9842-495: The defeat of Nùng Trí Cao, Many of the Nùng rebels fled to Vietnam, concentrating around Cao Bằng and Lạng Sơn provinces and became known as the Nùng. Barlow (2005) suggests that many of the original 11th-century rebels who fled to Vietnam were absorbed by the related Tày peoples of the region. With the end of the Song–Đại Việt war in 1078, the Nùng north of the border became more sinicized by accepting greater integration into

9975-434: The early 1060s, border conflicts began to occur along the Song-Viet frontier. In the spring of 1060, the chieftain of Lạng Châu and imperial in-law, Thàn Thiệu Tháị, crossed into Song territory to raid for cattle. Thiệu Tháị captured the Song commander Yang Baocai in the attack. In autumn of 1060, Song forces also crossed the border but were unsuccessful in recovering Yang. Fighting caused by the natives led by Thiệu Tháị claimed

10108-498: The following Nùng subgroups. The Zhuang , Nùng, and Tày people are a cluster of Tai peoples with very similar customs and dress known as the Rau peoples . In China, the Zhuang are today the largest non- Han Chinese minority with around 14.5 million population in Guangxi Province alone. In Vietnam , as of 1999, there were 933,653 Nùng people and 1,574,822 Tày people. Recently the Tày and Nùng have been referred to as

10241-433: The frontier as a source of available troops famed for their ferocity. By 1065, around 44,500 militia had been recruited from these communities by the Song. Frontier unrest began anew in 1057 when Nong Zongdan (V. Nùng Tông Ðán), a kinsman of Nong Zhigao, entered Song territory. The frontier administrator Wang Han visited Zongdan's camp at Leihuo to discourage him from seeking inclusion in the Song dynasty since it would upset

10374-471: The goddess of compassion and kindness. Local religious services are led by a village shaman who oversees animal sacrifices and communication with the spiritual world. Nature spirits are known as the phi in Nùng cosmology. Ancestor worship is also practiced. Zhuang people The Zhuang ( / ˈ dʒ w æ ŋ , ˈ dʒ w ɒ ŋ / ; Chinese : 壮族 ; pinyin : Zhuàngzú ; Zhuang : Bouxcuengh [poːu˦˨ ɕeŋ˧] ); Sawndip : 佈獞) are

10507-446: The golden pocket with purple trimming" ( jinzi guanglu daifu ) on Minfu. These titles were passed onto Minfu's son, Nong Quanfu ( Zhuang : Nungz Cienzfuk , Vietnamese : Nùng Tồn Phúc ). He was also granted additional authority of Dangyouzhou (modern Jingxi , Guangxi ). His younger brother, Nong Quanlu, controlled Wennaizhou (modern Na Rì District ). Such preferential treatment was viewed with anger in Đại Cồ Việt, which attacked

10640-642: The government created “ New Economic Zones ” along the Chinese border and in the Central Highlands . Frequently this involved taking the best land in order to resettle thousands of people from the overcrowded lowlands. As tension arose between Vietnam and China in 1975, Hanoi feared the loyalty of the Nùng and the Chinese-Vietnamese . After the Sino-Vietnamese War , support for Nùng Trí Cao could be read as anti-Chinese, as he

10773-416: The ideal of a formal Romanized Zhuang script, noting that they had used Han script for centuries. Formal classification of the Zhuang also ignored historical similarities between northern Zhuang and the Bouyei people . Guangxi has a type of people called “local people” who are widely spread across the province   ... They rather refer to themselves as "Han who speak the Zhuang language."   ... Since

10906-869: The influence of Huang Wei and A Nong, Zhigao decided to declare independence. In 1052, Zhigao proclaimed the establishment of the Kingdom of the Great South ( Danan Guo ) and granted himself the title of Benevolent and Kind Emperor ( Renhui Huangdi ). In the spring of 1052, Zhigao ordered the villages under his control to be burnt and led 5,000 subjects on the path to Guangzhou . As for all the belongings that you amassed during your lives, they were destroyed today by heaven's fire. You have nothing to live on, and you are considered poor indeed! You must grab Yongzhou and capture Guangzhou where I will establish myself as its ruler. If you don't do this, you will necessarily die." By summertime, he had taken Yongzhou and reached Guangzhou, where his 50,000 strong army became bogged down in

11039-495: The influence of Huang Wei and A Nong, Zhigao decided to declare independence. In 1052, Zhigao proclaimed the establishment of the Kingdom of the Great South ( Danan Guo ) and granted himself the title of Benevolent and Kind Emperor ( Renhui Huangdi ). In the spring of 1052, Zhigao ordered the villages under his control to be burnt and led 5,000 subjects on the path to Guangzhou . By summertime, he had taken Yongzhou and reached Guangzhou, where his 50,000 strong army became bogged down in

11172-486: The initial stages of battle, one Song commander was killed, and the Song army was momentarily forced to fall back. In the second engagement, the Zhuang forces could not withstand the Song infantry charges. The Song infantry hacked at the Zhuang shields with heavy swords and axes while the Fanluo cavalry attacked their wings, breaking their ranks. The Zhuang fled, suffering 5,341 casualties. Di Qing retook Yongzhou and executed

11305-481: The jinshi-holder Huang, two of Zhigao's family, and 57 officials. Zhigao and his remaining family fled to seek help from the Zhuang clans, but he was not well liked, and the Huang chieftain, Huang Shouling, refused to aid him. He also requested aid from the Viet court, which sent the tribal commander Võ Nhị to assist the rebels. A Nong and her son Nong Zhiguang, as well as Zhigao's sons Nong Jifeng and Nong Jizong, were caught at Temo in Yunnan by Zhuang forces allied with

11438-486: The language they speak is generally called Zhuang, we recommend calling them Zhuang. The Zhuang are a relatively large Chinese southern minority, but we still know little about them. I   ... hope that scholars with more expertise on nationality history will offer us their assistance, and in this way move towards a better understanding of these people. The Zhuang are the indigenous peoples of Guangxi , according to Huang Xianfan. The Zhuang's origins can be traced back to

11571-472: The largest minority in China. The Chinese character used for the Zhuang people has changed several times. Their autonym , "Cuengh" in Standard Zhuang , was originally written with the graphic pejorative Zhuàng , 獞 (or tóng , referring to a variety of wild dog). Chinese characters typically combine a semantic element or radical and a phonetic element. John DeFrancis recorded Zhuàng

11704-496: The largest minority, however, was and still is the same, the Zhuang/Nùng, who together number more than 15 million people. They are just recognized by different names in China and Vietnam. Nong Zhigao (V. Nùng Trí Cao) has sometimes been claimed by Vietnam as a Vietnamese native, but this is due to antagonism with modern China, while in previous times the Vietnamese sometimes saw him as primarily Chinese. Some ethnologists view

11837-532: The largest minority, however, was and still is the same, the Zhuang/Nùng, who together number more than 15 million people. They are just recognized by different names in China and Vietnam. Nong Zhigao (V. Nùng Trí Cao) has sometimes been claimed by Vietnam as a Vietnamese native, but this is due to antagonism with modern China, while in previous times the Vietnamese sometimes saw him as primarily Chinese. The Nung ( Nong in Pinyin transcription as referred to above) were

11970-506: The leader of the Cen clan , and take his lands. The Nong clan eventually controlled 14 major grottoes ( dong ) in comparison to only 5 for the Huang clan. In 1035, Quanfu declared the founding of the Kingdom of Longevity ( Changsheng Guo 長生國) and took for himself the exalted title "Luminous and Sage Emperor" ( Zhaosheng Huangdi 昭聖皇帝) while A Nong became the "Enlightened and Virtuous Empress" ( Mingde Huanghou 明德皇后). Another source says he founded

12103-457: The leader of the Cen clan , and take his lands. The Nong clan eventually controlled 14 major grottoes ( dong ) in comparison to only 5 for the Huang clan. In 1035, Quanfu declared the founding of the Kingdom of Longevity ( Changsheng Guo 長生國) and took for himself the exalted title "Luminous and Sage Emperor" ( Zhaosheng Huangdi 昭聖皇帝) while A Nong became the "Enlightened and Virtuous Empress" ( Mingde Huanghou 明德皇后). Another source says he founded

12236-549: The leaders were of the Wei, Huang, Zhou and Nong clans which were constantly contending and pillaging each other.... The Huang clan offered pledges and 13 Bu-districts and 29 Man-barbarian Zhou-districts were established. The first member of the Nong clan to gain official recognition was Nong Minfu . It is not known when he was born, but a memorial in early 977 states that the "peaceful and generous" leader Nong Minfu of Guangyuanzhou had established himself over ten neighboring villages with

12369-408: The left. They loved to fight and struggle and regarded death lightly. Earlier the leaders were of the Wei, Huang, Zhou and Nong clans which were constantly contending and pillaging each other.... The Huang clan offered pledges and 13 Bu-districts and 29 Man-barbarian Zhou-districts were established. The first member of the Nong clan to gain official recognition was Nong Minfu . It is not known when he

12502-410: The lives of five military inspectors. The military commissioner Yu Jing sought aid from Champa for a joint attack on Quảng Nguyên. The Lý court caught wind of this and began directly courting local leaders. Despite increased military tensions, the Lý court sought to defuse the situation by sending a delegation led by Bi Gia Dụ to Yongzhou . The Song authorities requested the return of Yang Baocai but

12635-554: The local inhabitants "barbarians of the South" (Man), there were many distinct communities throughout this region. The majority belonged to a single Tai-speaking ethnicity, the Chinese Zhuang (or Vietnamese Nùng) ethnic group. Many scholars of the Tai peoples consider the Zhuang and Nùng to be essentially the same people, a single ethnic group. During the early 11th century, ethnic identities and boundaries were more fluid than in

12768-404: The modern Sino-Vietnamese borderland. The Zhuang leader Nong Zhigao was defeated in 1055 by the Song dynasty . Had he won, it is possible that he might have established a state under his own clan name, Nong. Instead, his people in China continued to be referred to as Zhuang, which in their own language means "cave", while in Vietnam they came to be known as Nùng. The majority ethnic group and now

12901-455: The opposite seemed to have occurred and the wars in the south drew more Zhuang into contact with Han Chinese as they were sought after as mercenary troops and river porters. The Song dynasty continued the Jimi system of the Tang dynasty and named the officials of those jimi prefectures zhi . So the ruler of Nandan was called "Zhi Nandan". The Zhuang people were governed under this system but not

13034-655: The paleolithic ancient human, as demonstrated by a large amount of contemporary archaeological evidence. The Zhuang trace their lineage to the Lạc Việt people through artworks such as the Rock Paintings of Hua Mountain , dating from to the Warring States period (475–221 BC). From 823 to 826, the Zhuang, Huang, and Nong clans, aided with raiders from Champa , attacked Yongzhou and seized 18 counties. The "Nung Grottoes" sought aid from Nanzhao . During

13167-420: The practice of paying tribute they could periodically journey to the capital and be treated as a foreign ambassador, with all of the opportunities for tourism and trade which this presented. As a consequence, headmen frequently petitioned to pay tribute more frequently than they were obliged to, and to increase the size of their deputation when doing so. Because the court actually paid for the expenses of travel, it

13300-531: The rebellion of the Quang Nguyên barbarian Nùng Trí Cao, the troops following the general’s expedition remained in the region to open up and settle the wasteland. Their settlements extended throughout this county. The Lý court was also in the process of consolidating its frontier. In 1059, efforts were made to take direct control of the frontier and its manpower. The northern frontier in the Zuo - You river region

13433-585: The region, he could recruit them from Nùng villages such as Na Cen and Na Mo, both on the Vietnamese side of the border. The French colonists saw this Nùng predominance as a threat, and found it convenient at that time to re-assert the primacy of the Vietnamese administrative system in the region. The French colonizers of the Tonkin Protectorate also saw the Nùng as potential converts to the colonial order and portrayed them as oppressed minorities who had suffered under Chinese and Viet rule. According to

13566-626: The region, such as the fall of the Ming, the rebellion of Wu Sangui, the Qing occupation, and the Muslim revolts in Yunnan.This migration was a peaceful one which occurred family by family. French administrators later identified a number of Nùng clans in the course of their ethnographic surveys. These had incorporated Chinese place names in their clan names and indicated the place of their origin in China, such as

13699-484: The right of Đại Cồ Việt. The military commander Yuan Yun was dispatched to attack Zhigao but instead he wanted to offer Zhigao protection, and returned to the capital with tribute, arguing for a change in policy. Zhigao's followers set up shop and through the mineral wealth of his holdings formed close ties with Chinese traders, including jinshi degree holders Huang Wei and Huang Shifu. He also recruited other Nong clan members such as Nong Zhizhong and Nong Jianhou. Under

13832-482: The right of Đại Cồ Việt. The military commander Yuan Yun was dispatched to attack Zhigao but instead he wanted to offer Zhigao protection, and returned to the capital with tribute, arguing for a change in policy. Zhigao's followers set up shop and through the mineral wealth of his holdings formed close ties with Chinese traders, including jinshi degree holders Huang Wei and Huang Shifu. He also recruited other Nong clan members such as Nong Zhizhong and Nong Jianhou. Under

13965-434: The second engagement, the Zhuang forces could not withstand the Song infantry charges. The Song infantry hacked at the Zhuang shields with heavy swords and axes while the Fanluo cavalry attacked their wings, breaking their ranks. The Zhuang fled, suffering 5,341 casualties. Di Qing retook Yongzhou and executed the jinshi-holder Huang, two of Zhigao's family, and 57 officials. Zhigao and his remaining family fled to seek help from

14098-543: The security of both Guangxi and Guangdong. The defeat of Nong Zhigao in Quảng Nguyên (C. Guangyuan; now Cao Bằng Province ) removed the tribal buffer zone between Đại Cồ Việt and the Song dynasty. Zhigao's final defeat by the Song also had the effect of subordinating a large portion of that zone to direct Song control. The Viet court did not intervene in the matter and for 20 years after the Nong Zhigao rebellions, there

14231-521: The south. Lu raised 44,500 troops from 45 aboriginal leaders along the Zuo-You River region and ordered them to repair and fortify military defenses. To gain local trust, he requested special seals be made for his militia leaders and that the Zuo-You region be exempt from taxes. The Viet officials became concerned about this development and sent a tribute envoy to Kaifeng to remind the Song court of

14364-592: The strongest thổ ty, Nùng Trí Cao (C. Nong Zhigao) and his family members were deified by these communities. After the Lam Sơn uprising which ended the Ming occupation , the Viet ruler Lê Lợi consolidated support from border communities by acknowledging a variety of local deities. It's suggested that a shrine to Nùng Trí Cao, the Great King of Kỳ Sầm Temple, was erected in the western outskirts of Cao Bằng in connection to

14497-618: The support of Southern Han (907-971). Minfu had supported Duan Siping (r. 937–944) of the Dali Kingdom and was rewarded with titles. Duan rewarded another leader in Temo with the title buxie . The Song bestowed the titles "minister of works" ( sigong ) and "grand master of splendid happiness bearing the golden pocket with purple trimming" ( jinzi guanglu daifu ) on Minfu. These titles were passed onto Minfu's son, Nong Quanfu ( Zhuang : Nungz Cienzfuk , Vietnamese : Nùng Tồn Phúc ). He

14630-567: The suppression of a rebel force by Lê forces in 1431. Worship of Nùng Trí Cao was widespread by the 19th century. In 1897, it was reported that local leaders had arranged the renovation of Kỳ Sầm Temple in conjunction with the Nùng clan. On the tenth day of the first lunar month a festival was held around the temple. Apparently "Han Chinese" from the Qing dynasty flooded the region during the festival so that Quảng Nguyên "resembled nothing more than another region of China." Another festival focused on trade

14763-504: The temple as a historical landmark. When the Nùng moved into Vietnam from Guangxi during the 12th and 13th centuries, they developed slash-and-burn agriculture and worked on terraced hillsides, tending rice paddies and using water wheels for irrigation. The Nùng engage in similar forms of agriculture today, using their gardens to grow a variety of vegetables, corn, peanuts, and fruits such as tangerines, persimmons, anise and other spices, and bamboo as cash crops. Nùng material culture

14896-518: The throne's part: administrators received inadequate salaries and local troops only received supplies sporadically. As a result, the temptation to raid barbarian lands was irresistible. In 1044, Ou Xifan of the Ou clan rebelled to the northwest of Yizhou. Ou Xifan had received a jinshi degree and served as an officer but grew dissatisfied with his rewards. He declared the Great Tang and declared war on

15029-478: The title "Personal Guardian General of the Right." Nong Zhihui (V. Nùng Trí Hội), the brother of Nong Zhigao, received the title "Personal Guardian of the Left." Other members of the Nong clan in Temo such as Nong Bing, Nong Guang, and Nong Xiaqing swore loyalty to the Song. Zhigao's former generals Lu Bao (V. Lư Báo), Li Mao (V. Lê Mạo), and Huang Zhongqing (V. Hoàng Trọng Khanh) were also granted official titles. In

15162-472: The view of the Song court, these titles were not merely honorary appointments. Local militia in the southwestern frontier zone were reorganized in 1065 under Guizhou prefect Lu Shen. The 45 grottoes along the You and Zuo rivers were assigned grotto militia leaders. A commissioner surveyed the region for able-bodied men to be organized under a guard commander selected from the area's prominent households, who received

15295-482: The walls. He then presented substantial tribute (tame elephants and lumps of gold and silver) and petitioned the emperor. The prefect of Yongzhou, Chen Gong, never passed on the petition to court. However when the tribute reached the court, the Fiscal Commissioner Xiao Gu argued to the emperor that Zhigao should be granted title. The Song court refused because it considered Zhigao's service to be

15428-401: The walls. He then presented substantial tribute (tame elephants and lumps of gold and silver) and petitioned the emperor. The prefect of Yongzhou, Chen Gong, never passed on the petition to court. However, when the tribute reached the court, the Fiscal Commissioner Xiao Gu argued to the emperor that Zhigao should be granted title. The Song court refused because it considered Zhigao's service to be

15561-555: The west to Jingxi in the east and Guangyuanzhou (Quảng Nguyên, now Cao Bằng province ) in the south. Emperor Taizong of Song (r. 976-997) bestowed special favors on Nong leadership, acknowledging that they had succeeded the Huang in the Zuo River region. The Guangyuan zhou Man-barbarian Nong clan came from the south west... of Yongzhou and held the districts there. The terrain was steep mountains and inaccessible valleys; it produced gold and cinnabar. A good many people lived there. They wore their hair long and fastened their clothes on

15694-819: Was also a leader of Temo Prefecture ( 特磨道 ; modern Guangnan County ) on the Guangxi-Yunnan border. This is controversial but if true, indicates that he had additional control over several prefectures from Temo to Quảng Nguyên. In 977, six years after the Song Empire conquered Southern Han from the north, Nong Minfu approached the Song government in Yong Prefecture which relayed his message to Emperor Taizong . Nong hoped for military assistance to eradicate "barbarians" of Tư Lang Prefecture ( 思琅州 ; modern Hạ Lang District ), who controlled some important roads between his uphill prefectures. In exchange, Nong

15827-423: Was also granted additional authority of Dangyouzhou (modern Jingxi , Guangxi ). His younger brother, Nong Quanlu, controlled Wennaizhou (modern Na Rì District ). Such preferential treatment was viewed with anger in Đại Cồ Việt, which attacked a Song garrison in 1004 after it held a banquet for a Nong chieftain. In 1005, a woman known as A Nong was born to a notable warrior chieftain who accepted titles from both

15960-481: Was born, but a memorial in early 977 states that the "peaceful and generous" leader Nong Minfu of Guangyuanzhou had established himself over ten neighboring villages with the support of Southern Han (907-971). Minfu had supported Duan Siping (r. 937–944) of the Dali Kingdom and was rewarded with titles. Duan rewarded another leader in Temo with the title buxie . The Song bestowed the titles "minister of works" ( sigong ) and "grand master of splendid happiness bearing

16093-446: Was changed to a different character Zhuàng , 壮 (meaning "strong; robust"). The Zhuang, Nùng , and Tày people are a cluster of Tai peoples with very similar customs and dress known as the Rau peoples . In China, the Zhuang are today the largest non- Han Chinese minority with around 14.5 million population in Guangxi Province alone. In Vietnam , as of 1999, there were 933,653 Nùng people and 1,574,822 Tày people. Recently

16226-409: Was denied. Emperor Renzong was also wary of further increasing tensions and instructed the local military commissions to refrain from assembling troops. On 8 February 1063, two tributary envoys from the Lý court presented to the Song emperor nine tame elephants. On 7 April 1063, the new Song emperor Yingzong (r. 1063-67) sent calligraphic compositions by Renzong as gifts to the Lý court. On the same day

16359-470: Was divided into new administrative units: Ngự Long, Vũ Thắng, Long Dực, Thần Ðiện, Bổng Thánh, Bảo Thắng, Hùng Lược, and Vạn Tiệp. Each of these units was assigned an official. Militia units were established among local communities conscripts had the character "Army of the Son of Heaven" ( tianzi jun ) tattooed on their foreheads. This reflected a distinctly Southeast Asian way of controlling regional manpower. In

16492-501: Was eventually suppressed by the Nguyễn dynasty in 1835. In the 1860s, the Nùng sided with Sioung (Xiong), a self-proclaimed Hmong king. Sioung's armies raided gold from Buddhist temples and seized large tracts of land from other people. The period from the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) to the early twentieth century was marked by continual waves of immigration by Zhuang/Nùng peoples from China into Vietnam. These waves were

16625-477: Was executed by the ruler of Dali and his head presented to Song authorities. However popular accounts claim he fled further south into modern northern Thailand , where his descendants thrive to this day. The Zhuang of Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture identify as survivors of Zhigao's rebel movement and other groups in Dali City , Xishuangbana , and northern Thailand claim to be descended from Zhigao. Many Zhuang songs refer to him as "King Nong." After

16758-627: Was general peace along the border. However the regional power balance had been lost. Han Chinese military settlers moved in and new leaders took over the surviving communities. Several influential Nong leaders sided with the Viet court. Crucial influences for the lead up to war include the Song-court sponsored New Policies promoted by Wang Anshi and efforts by the Lý court to consolidate peripheral fiefdoms. The Song and Đại Cồ Việt treated their frontier borderland peoples in different ways. The Chinese tried to introduce "uncultured" barbarians to

16891-467: Was held around the temple in the third lunar month during Thanh Minh ( Qingming Festival ). The Nùng, although lacking a leader of the stature of Nùng Trí Cao , rose up in 1352, 1430, 1434. In the 16th century the Zhuang from Guangxi and perhaps from southeast Yunnan began migrating into Vietnam. This movement was accelerated by the cycle of disasters and political events of the seventeenth century which brought larger numbers of Chinese immigrants into

17024-642: Was held by lesser families in perpetuity and could not be sold or transferred. As a result the Zhuang habitually entered military service under the Han Chinese to seek new land, often at the expense of other minorities such as the Yao people. Han Chinese were forbidden from buying Zhuang land or to engage in commercial activity within their jimi districts. However Zhuang-Han marriages were allowed, resulting in land titles that were nominally Zhuang held but had been subsumed under Han administration. The jimi prefectures paid

17157-456: Was mainly seen as a rebel against Chinese authority. Even so, during the 1980s, an estimated 250,000 ethnic Vietnamese were settled in the mountainous regions along the Chinese border, leading to a shortage of food in the region and much suffering. Five temples dedicated to Nùng Trí Cao remained active into the 20th century. The keepers of the Kỳ Sầm Temple all bear the surname Nùng. Although

17290-567: Was no obvious heir, the seals often went to the wife of the deceased, whose accession to the post became customary. In theory the Song court could replace recalcitrant leaders like an ordinary official, but in practice this power was weighed against the cost to maintain tranquillity among the Zhuang and stability on the Sino-Viet border. As a result, Jimi rulers who were disobedient were usually sufficiently powerful to refuse replacement as well. Zhuang jimi prefectures were essentially feudal. Land

17423-474: Was previously Tóng, 獞 , with " dog radical " 犭 and tóng , 童 phonetic, a slur , but also describes how the People's Republic of China eventually removed it. In 1949, after the Chinese civil war , the logograph 獞 was officially replaced with a different graphic pejorative, 僮 ( Zhuàng or tóng , meaning "child; boy servant"), with the " human radical " 亻 with the same phonetic. Later 僮

17556-491: Was regarded as an unnecessary expense to permit overly frequent visits, and such requests were usually refused. The jimi prefectures often engaged in petty squabbles that escalated to military conflict. At one point the Mo clan of Nandan pillaged each other over the ownership of an ox before Song authorities settled the matter. Such small scale conflicts were frequent and Song authorities preferred to remain uninvolved and avoided confrontation when possible. The Zhuang provided

17689-507: Was willing to recognize Song suzerainty and pay tributes and taxes. Emperor Taizong was eager to please his frontier people but unwilling to send troops. He bestowed on Nong several grand — but completely nominal and useless — official titles, including "Grand Master of Splendid Happiness Bearing the Golden Pocket with Purple Trimming" ( 金紫光錄大夫 ), "Acting Minister of Works" ( 檢校司空 ), "Censor-in-Chief" ( 御史大夫 ), and "Supreme Pillar of

#871128