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48-478: Today, officially, SAMPA has been developed for all the sounds of the following languages: The characters [ "s{mp@ ] represent the pronunciation of the name SAMPA in English, with the initial symbol ["] indicating primary stress. Like IPA, SAMPA is usually enclosed in square brackets or slashes , which are not part of the alphabet proper and merely signify that it is phonetic as opposed to regular text. SAMPA

96-460: A verbose original: "To the extent that policymakers and elite opinion in general have made use of economic analysis at all, they have, as the saying goes, done so the way a drunkard uses a lamppost: for support, not illumination", can be quoted succinctly as: "[P]olicymakers [...] have made use of economic analysis [...] the way a drunkard uses a lamppost: for support, not illumination." When nested parentheses are needed, brackets are sometimes used as

144-408: A different order of operations . For example: in the usual order of algebraic operations, 4 × 3 + 2 equals 14, since the multiplication is done before the addition . However, 4 × (3 + 2) equals 20, because the parentheses override normal precedence, causing the addition to be done first. Some authors follow the convention in mathematical equations that, when parentheses have one level of nesting,

192-403: A parenthesis. Again, the parenthesis implies that the meaning and flow of the bracketed phrase is supplemental to the rest of the text and the whole would be unchanged were the parenthesized sentences removed. The term refers to the syntax rather than the enclosure method: the same clause in the form "Mrs. Pennyfarthing – What? Yes, that was her name! – was my landlady"

240-502: A substitute for the inner pair of parentheses within the outer pair. When deeper levels of nesting are needed, convention is to alternate between parentheses and brackets at each level. Alternatively, empty square brackets can also indicate omitted material, usually single letter only. The original, "Reading is also a process and it also changes you." can be rewritten in a quote as: It has been suggested that reading can "also change[] you". In translated works, brackets are used to signify

288-537: A system would cost roughly $ 2.5 million and would run at one to two MIPS . Delivery was to be two to three years after the contract was signed. At IBM, a small team at Poughkeepsie including John Griffith and Gene Amdahl worked on the design proposal. Just after they finished and were about to present the proposal, Ralph Palmer stopped them and said, "It's a mistake." The proposed design would have been built with either point-contact transistors or surface-barrier transistors , both likely to be soon outperformed by

336-401: A total of 21 kW power. It uses high-speed NPN and PNP germanium drift transistors , with cut-off frequency over 100 MHz, and using ~50 mW each. Some third level circuits use a third voltage level. Each logic level has a delay of about 20 ns. To gain speed in critical areas emitter-follower logic is used to reduce the delay to about 10 ns. It uses the same core memory as

384-525: Is 1.38–1.50 microseconds , multiplication time is 2.48–2.70 microseconds, and division time is 9.00–9.90 microseconds. While the IBM 7030 was not considered successful, it spawned many technologies incorporated in future machines that were highly successful. The Standard Modular System (SMS) transistor logic was the basis for the IBM 7090 line of scientific computers, the IBM 7070 and 7080 business computers,

432-542: Is a notation that was pioneered by Berzelius , who wanted chemical formulae to more resemble algebraic notation, with brackets enclosing groups that could be multiplied (e.g. in 3(AlO 2 + 2SO 3 ) the 3 multiplies everything within the parentheses). In chemical nomenclature , parentheses are used to distinguish structural features and multipliers for clarity, for example in the polymer poly(methyl methacrylate) . [ and ] are square brackets in both British and American English, but are also more simply brackets in

480-437: Is also a parenthesis. (In non-specialist usage, the term "parenthetical phrase" is more widely understood. ) In phonetics , parentheses are used for indistinguishable or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing), where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example (...) or (2 sec) . An unpaired right parenthesis

528-845: Is also used in British English. Parentheses contain adjunctive material that serves to clarify (in the manner of a gloss ) or is aside from the main point. A comma before or after the material can also be used, though if the sentence contains commas for other purposes, visual confusion may result. A dash before and after the material is also sometimes used. Parentheses may be used in formal writing to add supplementary information, such as "Senator John McCain ( R  - Arizona) spoke at length". They can also indicate shorthand for " either singular or plural " for nouns, e.g. "the claim(s)". It can also be used for gender-neutral language , especially in languages with grammatical gender , e.g. "(s)he agreed with his/her physician" (the slash in

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576-449: Is based on phoneme inventories, each SAMPA table is valid only in the language it was created for. In order to make this IPA encoding technique universally applicable, X-SAMPA was created, which provides one single table without language-specific differences. SAMPA was devised as a hack to work around the inability of text encodings to represent IPA symbols. Consequently, as Unicode support for IPA symbols becomes more widespread,

624-471: Is either of two tall fore- or back-facing punctuation marks commonly used to isolate a segment of text or data from its surroundings. They come in four main pairs of shapes, as given in the box to the right, which also gives their names, that vary between British and American English . "Brackets", without further qualification, are in British English the ( ... ) marks and in American English

672-444: Is in any way altered, the alterations are enclosed in square brackets within the quotation to show that the quotation is not exactly as given, or to add an annotation . For example: The Plaintiff asserted his cause is just, stating, [m]y causes is [ sic ] just. In the original quoted sentence, the word "my" was capitalized: it has been modified in the quotation given and the change signalled with brackets. Similarly, where

720-404: Is in doubt". Or one can quote the original statement "I hate to do laundry" with a (sometimes grammatical) modification inserted: He "hate[s] to do laundry". Additionally, a small letter can be replaced by a capital one, when the beginning of the original printed text is being quoted in another piece of text or when the original text has been omitted for succinctness— for example, when referring to

768-535: Is in the 1954 volume of the Appeal Cases reports, although the decision may have been given in 1953 or earlier. Compare with: IBM 7030 Stretch The IBM 7030 , also known as Stretch , was IBM 's first transistorized supercomputer . It was the fastest computer in the world from 1961 until the first CDC 6600 became operational in 1964. Originally designed to meet a requirement formulated by Edward Teller at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ,

816-436: Is often used as part of a label in an ordered list, such as this one: a) educational testing, b) technical writing and diagrams, c) market research , and d) elections . Traditionally in accounting , contra amounts are placed in parentheses. A debit balance account in a series of credit balances will have parenthesis and vice versa. Parentheses are used in mathematical notation to indicate grouping, often inducing

864-531: The IBM 7040 and IBM 1400 lines, and the IBM 1620 small scientific computer; the 7030 used about 170,000 transistors. The IBM 7302 Model I Core Storage units were also used in the IBM 7090, IBM 7070 and IBM 7080. Multiprogramming , memory protection, generalized interrupts, the eight-bit byte for I/O were all concepts later incorporated in the IBM System/360 line of computers as well as most later central processing units (CPU). Stephen Dunwell,

912-704: The IBM 7090 . The Lawrence Livermore Laboratory's IBM 7030 (except for its core memory ) and portions of the MITRE Corporation/Brigham Young University IBM 7030 now reside in the Computer History Museum collection, in Mountain View, California . Instructions are either 32-bit or 64-bit. The registers overlay the first 32 addresses of memory as shown. The accumulator and index registers operate in sign-and-magnitude format. Main memory

960-520: The International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) requires the use of the abbreviation "subgen". as well, e.g., Acetobacter (subgen. Gluconoacetobacter ) liquefaciens . Parentheses are used in chemistry to denote a repeated substructure within a molecule, e.g. HC(CH 3 ) 3 ( isobutane ) or, similarly, to indicate the stoichiometry of ionic compounds with such substructures: e.g. Ca(NO 3 ) 2 ( calcium nitrate ). This

1008-671: The [ ... ] marks. Other minor bracket shapes exist, such as (for example) slash or diagonal brackets used by linguists to enclose phonemes . Brackets are typically deployed in symmetric pairs, and an individual bracket may be identified as a 'left' or 'right' bracket or, alternatively, an "opening bracket" or "closing bracket", respectively, depending on the directionality of the context. In casual writing and in technical fields such as computing or linguistic analysis of grammar , brackets nest , with segments of bracketed material containing embedded within them other further bracketed sub-segments. The number of opening brackets matches

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1056-505: The em dash is currently used in alternatives, such as "parenthesis)(parentheses". Examples of this usage can be seen in editions of Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage . Parentheses may be nested (generally with one set (such as this) inside another set). This is not commonly used in formal writing (though sometimes other brackets [especially square brackets] will be used for one or more inner set of parentheses [in other words, secondary {or even tertiary} phrases can be found within

1104-841: The IBM System/360 Models 91 , 95 and 195 , and the IBM 3090 series as well as computers from other manufacturers. As of 2021 , these techniques are still used in most advanced microprocessors, starting with the 1990s generation that included the Intel Pentium and the Motorola/IBM PowerPC , as well as in many embedded microprocessors and microcontrollers from various manufacturers. The 7030 CPU uses emitter-coupled logic (originally called current-steering logic ) on 18 types of Standard Modular System cards. It uses 4,025 double cards (as shown) and 18,747 single cards, holding 169,100 transistors, requiring

1152-463: The Wolfram language, parentheses are used to indicate grouping – for example, with pure anonymous functions. If it is desired to include the subgenus when giving the scientific name of an animal species or subspecies , the subgenus's name is provided in parentheses between the genus name and the specific epithet . For instance, Polyphylla ( Xerasiobia ) alba is a way to cite

1200-455: The citation of law reports to identify parallel citations to non-official reporters. For example: Chronicle Pub. Co. v Superior Court (1998) 54 Cal.2d 548, [7 Cal.Rptr. 109] In some other countries (such as England and Wales ), square brackets are used to indicate that the year is part of the citation and parentheses are used to indicate the year the judgment was given. For example: National Coal Board v England [1954] AC 403 This case

1248-533: The design features of the successful IBM System/360, which was announced in 1964 and first shipped in 1965. In early 1955, Dr. Edward Teller of the University of California Radiation Laboratory wanted a new scientific computing system for three-dimensional hydrodynamic calculations. Proposals were requested from IBM and UNIVAC for this new system, to be called Livermore Automatic Reaction Calculator or LARC . According to IBM executive Cuthbert Hurd , such

1296-521: The enclosed text is italic. However, in other languages like German , if brackets enclose text in italics, they are usually also set in italics. ( and ) are parentheses / p ə ˈ r ɛ n θ ɪ s iː z / (singular parenthesis / p ə ˈ r ɛ n θ ɪ s ɪ s / ) in American English, and either round brackets or simply brackets in British English. They are also known as "parens" / p ə ˈ r ɛ n z / , "circle brackets", or "smooth brackets". In formal writing, "parentheses"

1344-666: The first example was delivered to Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1961, and a second customized version, the IBM 7950 Harvest , to the National Security Agency in 1962. The Stretch at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston , England was heavily used by researchers there and at AERE Harwell , but only after the development of the S2 Fortran compiler which was the first to add dynamic arrays , and which

1392-692: The inner pair are parentheses and the outer pair are square brackets. Example: Parentheses are included in the syntaxes of many programming languages . Typically needed to denote an argument; to tell the compiler what data type the Method/Function needs to look for first in order to initialise. In some cases, such as in LISP , parentheses are a fundamental construct of the language. They are also often used for scoping functions and operators and for arrays. In syntax diagrams they are used for grouping, such as in extended Backus–Naur form . In Mathematica and

1440-467: The latter. An older name for these brackets is "crotchets". Square brackets are often used to insert explanatory material or to mark where a [word or] passage was omitted from an original material by someone other than the original author, or to mark modifications in quotations. In transcribed interviews, sounds, responses and reactions that are not words but that can be described are set off in square brackets — "... [laughs] ...". When quoted material

1488-411: The main parenthetical sentence]). A parenthesis in rhetoric and linguistics refers to the entire bracketed text, not just to the enclosing marks used (so all the text in this set of round brackets may be described as "a parenthesis"). Taking as an example the sentence "Mrs. Pennyfarthing (What? Yes, that was her name!) was my landlady.", the explanatory phrase between the parentheses is itself called

SAMPA - Misplaced Pages Continue

1536-601: The necessity for a separate, computer-readable system for representing the IPA in ASCII decreases. However, text input relies on specific keyboard encodings or input devices. For this reason, SAMPA and X-SAMPA are still widely used in computational phonetics and in speech technology. Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced , to the left are voiceless . Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. Legend: unrounded  •  rounded Bracket A bracket

1584-427: The number of closing brackets in such cases. Various forms of brackets are used in mathematics , with specific mathematical meanings, often for denoting specific mathematical functions and subformulas . Angle brackets or chevrons ⟨ ⟩ were the earliest type of bracket to appear in written English . Erasmus coined the term lunula to refer to the round brackets or parentheses (   ) recalling

1632-428: The price of $ 13.5 million was set for the IBM 7030. In 1961, actual benchmarks indicated that the performance of the IBM 7030 was only about 30 times the IBM 704 (i.e. 1.2 MIPS), causing considerable embarrassment for IBM. In May 1961, Thomas J. Watson Jr. announced a price cut of all 7030s under negotiation to $ 7.78 million and immediate withdrawal of the product from further sales. Its floating-point addition time

1680-498: The project manager who became a scapegoat when Stretch failed commercially, pointed out soon after the phenomenally successful 1964 launch of System/360 that most of its core concepts were pioneered by Stretch. By 1966, he had received an apology and been made an IBM Fellow, a high honor that carried with it resources and authority to pursue one's desired research. Instruction pipelining , prefetch and decoding, and memory interleaving were used in later supercomputer designs such as

1728-500: The quotation contained a grammatical error (is/are), the quoting author signalled that the error was in the original with "[ sic ]" (Latin for 'thus'). A bracketed ellipsis , [...], is often used to indicate omitted material: "I'd like to thank [several unimportant people] for their tolerance [...]" Bracketed comments inserted into a quote indicate where the original has been modified for clarity: "I appreciate it [the honor], but I must refuse", and "the future of psionics [see definition]

1776-470: The same word or phrase in the original language to avoid ambiguity. For example: He is trained in the way of the open hand [karate]. Style and usage guides originating in the news industry of the twentieth century , such as the AP Stylebook , recommend against the use of square brackets because "They cannot be transmitted over news wires ." However, this guidance has little relevance outside of

1824-528: The second instance, as one alternative is replacing the other, not adding to it). Parenthetical phrases have been used extensively in informal writing and stream of consciousness literature. Examples include the southern American author William Faulkner (see Absalom, Absalom! and the Quentin section of The Sound and the Fury ) as well as poet E. E. Cummings . Parentheses have historically been used where

1872-425: The section of a dictionary entry which contains the etymology of the word the entry defines. Brackets (called move-left symbols or move right symbols ) are added to the sides of text in proofreading to indicate changes in indentation: Square brackets are used to denote parts of the text that need to be checked when preparing drafts prior to finalizing a document. Square brackets are used in some countries in

1920-511: The shape of the crescent moon ( Latin : luna ). Most typewriters only had the left and right parentheses. Square brackets appeared with some teleprinters. Braces (curly brackets) first became part of a character set with the 8-bit code of the IBM 7030 Stretch . In 1961, ASCII contained parentheses, square, and curly brackets, and also less-than and greater-than signs that could be used as angle brackets. In English, typographers mostly prefer not to set brackets in italics , even when

1968-400: The smaller Control Data Corporation seemed hard to accept. The project lead, Stephen W. Dunwell , was initially made a scapegoat for his role in the "failure", but as the success of the IBM System/360 became obvious, he was given an official apology and, in 1966 was made an IBM Fellow . In spite of Stretch's failure to meet its own performance goals, it served as the basis for many of

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2016-403: The species Polyphylla alba while also mentioning that it is in the subgenus Xerasiobia . There is also a convention of citing a subgenus by enclosing it in parentheses after its genus, e.g., Polyphylla ( Xerasiobia ) is a way to refer to the subgenus Xerasiobia within the genus Polyphylla . Parentheses are similarly used to cite a subgenus with the name of a prokaryotic species, although

2064-524: The technological constraints of the industry and era. In linguistics, phonetic transcriptions are generally enclosed within square brackets, whereas phonemic transcriptions typically use paired slashes , according to International Phonetic Alphabet rules. Pipes (| |) are often used to indicate a morphophonemic rather than phonemic representation. Other conventions are double slashes (⫽ ⫽), double pipes (‖ ‖) and curly brackets ({ }). In lexicography , square brackets usually surround

2112-499: The then newly invented diffusion transistor . IBM returned to Livermore and stated that they were withdrawing from the contract, and instead proposed a dramatically better system, "We are not going to build that machine for you; we want to build something better! We do not know precisely what it will take but we think it will be another million dollars and another year, and we do not know how fast it will run but we would like to shoot for ten million instructions per second." Livermore

2160-646: Was developed in the late 1980s in the European Commission -funded ESPRIT project 2589 "Speech Assessment Methods" (SAM)—hence "SAM Phonetic Alphabet"—in order to facilitate email data exchange and computational processing of transcriptions in phonetics and speech technology. SAMPA is a partial encoding of the IPA . The first version of SAMPA was the union of the sets of phoneme codes for Danish, Dutch, English, French, German and Italian; later versions extended SAMPA to cover other European languages. Since SAMPA

2208-412: Was formally initiated. In November 1956, IBM won the contract with the aggressive performance goal of a "speed at least 100 times the IBM 704 " (i.e. 4 MIPS). Delivery was slated for 1960. During design, it proved necessary to reduce the clock speeds, making it clear that Stretch could not meet its aggressive performance goals, but estimates of performance ranged from 60 to 100 times the IBM 704. In 1960,

2256-593: Was later ported to the Ferranti Atlas of Atlas Computer Laboratory at Chilton. The 7030 was much slower than expected and failed to meet its aggressive performance goals. IBM was forced to drop its price from $ 13.5 million to only $ 7.78 million and withdrew the 7030 from sales to customers beyond those having already negotiated contracts. PC World magazine named Stretch one of the biggest project management failures in IT history. Within IBM, being eclipsed by

2304-749: Was not impressed, and in May 1955 they announced that UNIVAC had won the LARC contract, now called the Livermore Automatic Research Computer . LARC would eventually be delivered in June 1960. In September 1955, fearing that Los Alamos National Laboratory might also order a LARC, IBM submitted a preliminary proposal for a high-performance binary computer based on the improved version of the design that Livermore had rejected, which they received with interest. In January 1956, Project Stretch

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