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34-539: At peak, there were around 5,000 SAVAK agents operating under the Pahlavi dynasty . Iranian-American scholar and ex-politician Gholam Reza Afkhami estimates that SAVAK had between 4,000 and 6,000 members, while TIME stated in a publication on 19 February 1979 that the agency had 5,000 members. After the 1953 Iranian coup d'état , Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddeq was removed. He was originally focused on nationalizing Iran's oil industry but had also set out to weaken

68-512: A Shia cleric, Ayatollah Muhammad Reza Sa'idi, in 1970. According to Iranian political historian Ervand Abrahamian , after this attack SAVAK interrogators were sent abroad for "scientific training to prevent unwanted deaths from 'brute force.'" Brute force was supplemented with the bastinado ; sleep deprivation; extensive solitary confinement; glaring searchlights; standing in one place for hours on end; nail extractions; snakes (favored for use with women); electrical shocks with cattle prods, often into

102-483: A beating on the soles of a person's bare feet. Unlike most types of flogging , it is meant more to be painful than to cause actual injury to the victim. Blows are generally delivered with a light rod, knotted cord, or lash. Bastinado is also referred to as foot (bottom) caning or sole caning , depending on the instrument in use. The German term is Bastonade , deriving from the Italian noun bastonata ( stroke with

136-562: A more autocratic monarchy until the dynasty was itself overthrown in 1979 . In 1878, Reza Khan was born at the village of  Alasht in  Savadkuh County , Mazandaran Province. His parents were Abbas Ali Khan and Noushafarin Ayromlou. His mother was a Muslim immigrant from Georgia (then part of the Russian Empire ), whose family had emigrated to mainland Qajar Iran after Iran was forced to cede all of its territories in

170-452: A non-aristocratic Mazanderani soldier in modern times, who took on the name of the Pahlavi language spoken in the pre-Islamic Sasanian Empire to strengthen his nationalist credentials. The dynasty replaced the Qajar dynasty in 1925 after the 1921 coup d'état , beginning on 14 January 1921 when 42-year-old soldier Reza Khan was promoted by British General Edmund Ironside to lead

204-590: A weekly basis with Ayatollah Khomeini while Khomeini was under house arrest, and later intervened to prevent Khomeini's execution on the grounds that it would "anger the common people of Iran". After the Iranian Revolution , however, Pakravan was among the first of the Shah's officials to be executed by the Khomeini regime. Pakravan was replaced in 1966 by General Nematollah Nassiri , a close associate of

238-610: Is believed that Khomeini may have changed his mind and may have retained them into the new SAVAMA . Hossein Fardoust , a former classmate of the Shah, was a deputy director of SAVAK until he was appointed head of the Imperial Inspectorate, also known as the Special Intelligence Bureau, to watch over high-level government officials, including SAVAK directors. Fardoust later switched sides during

272-536: The CIA by sending their agents to an air force base in New York to share and discuss interrogation tactics. Teymur Bakhtiar was assassinated by SAVAK agents in 1970, and Mansur Rafizadeh , SAVAK's United States director during the 1970s, reported that General Nassiri's phone was tapped. Mansur Rafizadeh later wrote of his life as a SAVAK man and detailed the human rights violations of the Shah in his book Witness: From

306-636: The Caucasus following the Russo-Persian Wars several decades prior to Reza Shah's birth. His father was a Mazandarani, commissioned in the 7th Savadkuh Regiment, and served in the Anglo-Persian War in 1856. The former constitution of Iran specifically provided that only a male who was not descended from Qajar dynasty could become the heir apparent . This made all half-brothers of Mohammad Reza ineligible to become heirs to

340-535: The Persian Constitution of 1906 . Initially, Pahlavi had planned to declare the country a republic, as his contemporary Atatürk had done in Turkey , but abandoned the idea in the face of British and clerical opposition. The dynasty ruled Iran for 28 years as a form of constitutional monarchy from 1925 until 1953, and following the overthrow of the elected prime minister , for a further 26 years as

374-751: The Saur Revolution in 1978, the KGB were informed of the coup by Afghan Army leaders Mohammed Rafie and Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy . As a result, the KGB mistakenly informed its operatives in Kabul that SAVAK tricked the PDPA into starting a rebellion, expecting it to be crushed and for the rebels to fail. According to Polish author Ryszard Kapuściński , SAVAK was responsible for: Censorship of press, books, and films; Interrogation and often torture of prisoners; and Surveillance of political opponents. Writing at

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408-575: The Shah's power. After the coup, the monarch, Mohammad Reza Shah , established an intelligence service with police powers. The Shah's goal was to strengthen his regime by placing political opponents under surveillance and repressing dissident movements. According to Encyclopædia Iranica : A U.S. Army colonel working for the CIA was sent to Persia in September 1953 to work with General Teymur Bakhtiar , who

442-658: The British-run Persian Cossack Brigade . About a month later, under British direction, Reza Khan's 3,000–4,000 strong detachment of the Cossack Brigade reached Tehran in what became known as the 1921 Persian coup d'état . The rest of the country was taken by 1923, and by October 1925 the Majlis agreed to depose and formally exile Ahmad Shah Qajar . The Majlis declared Reza Pahlavi as the new Shah of Iran on 12 December 1925, pursuant to

476-470: The Iranian Revolution, a museum was opened in the former Towhid Prison in central Tehran called "Ebrat". The museum displays and exhibits the documented atrocities of SAVAK. Pahlavi dynasty The Pahlavi dynasty ( Persian : دودمان پهلوی ) was the last Iranian royal dynasty that ruled for roughly 53 years between 1925 and 1979. The dynasty was founded by Reza Shah Pahlavi ,

510-517: The SAVAK's existence. One well known writer was arrested, tortured for months, and finally placed before television cameras to 'confess' that his works paid too much attention to social problems and not enough to the great achievements of the White Revolution . By the end of 1975, twenty-two prominent poets, novelist, professors, theater directors, and film makers were in jail for criticizing

544-560: The Shah expanded his security organizations, including SAVAK, which grew to over 5,300 full-time agents and a large but unknown number of part-time informers. In 1961 the Iranian authorities dismissed the agency's first director, General Teymur Bakhtiar , and he later became a political dissident. In 1970, SAVAK agents assassinated him, disguising the deed as an accident. General Hassan Pakravan , director of SAVAK from 1961 to 1966, had an almost benevolent reputation, for example dining on

578-545: The Shah stated that he did not know the exact number of employees of SAVAK. However, he estimated their total number to be less than 2,000 employees. To the frequently asked question about “torture and atrocities” in SAVAK, the shah answered negatively, designating newspaper reports about the “arbitrariness and cruelty of SAVAK” as a lie and slander. Leaflets circulated after the Islamic Revolution indicated that 15,000 Iranians officially served in SAVAK, not to mention

612-763: The Shah to the Secret Arms Deal: An Insider's Account of U.S. Involvement in Iran . Mansur Rafizadeh was suspected to have been a double agent also working for the CIA. SAVAK was additionally involved in supporting Jamiat-e Islami militants during the 1975 Panjshir Valley uprising and 1975 Laghman uprising in the Republic of Afghanistan , in collaboration with the CIA and the Pakistani ISI , although Afghan–Iranian relations later improved in 1976 under Mohammad Daoud Khan . Two days before

646-515: The Shah, and the service was reorganized and became increasingly active in the face of rising leftist and Islamist militancy and political unrest. A turning point in SAVAK's reputation for ruthless brutality was reportedly an attack on a gendarmerie post in the Caspian village of Siahkal by a small band of armed Marxists in February 1971, although it is also reported to have tortured to death

680-419: The dawn of "jimmykrasy". Over the years, the question of the number of employees of SAVAK has been the subject of debate by many historians and researchers. Given the fact that Iran has never disclosed data on the number of employees of the secret agency - many historians gave conflicting figures for the number of SAVAK personnel - 6,000, 20,000, 30,000 and 60,000. In one of his interviews, on February 4, 1974,

714-517: The first generation of SAVAK personnel". In October 1956, news of the intended establishment of an agency was reported by state media and in 1965, this agency was reorganized and given the name Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar (SAVAK). These in turn were replaced by SAVAK's own instructors in 1965. SAVAK had the power to censor the media, screen applicants for government jobs, and "according to reliable Western source, use all means necessary, including torture, to hunt down dissidents". After 1963,

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748-606: The many unofficial employees. During the height of its power, SAVAK had virtually unlimited powers. It operated its own detention centers, such as Evin Prison . In addition to domestic security, the service's tasks extended to the surveillance of Iranians abroad, notably in the United States , France , and the United Kingdom , and especially students on government stipends . The agency also closely collaborated with

782-605: The new 'scientific' methods, the torture of choice remained the traditional bastinado used to beat soles of the feet. The "primary goal" of those using the bastinados "was to locate arms caches, safe houses and accomplices ..." Abrahamian estimates that SAVAK (and other police and military) killed 368 guerrillas including the leadership of the major urban guerrilla organizations ( Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas , People's Mujahedin of Iran ) such as Hamid Ashraf between 1971–1977 and executed up to 100 political prisoners between 1971 and 1979—the most violent era of

816-526: The practice since antiquity. Bastinado was practiced in the Third Reich era. In several German and Austrian institutions it was still practised during the 1950s. Foot whipping was common practice as means of disciplinary punishment in different kinds of institutions throughout Central Europe until the 1950s, especially in German territories. In German prisons this method consistently served as

850-601: The principal disciplinary punishment. Throughout the Nazi era it was frequently used in German penal institutions and labour camps. It was also inflicted on the population in occupied territories, notably Denmark and Norway. In Greece, during the Greek junta period, in a 1967 survey 83% of the inmates in Greek prisons reported about frequent infliction of bastinado. It was also used against rioting students. In Spanish prisons 39% of

884-461: The rectum, tying weights to the testicles, and the extraction of teeth and nails." SAVAK was closed down shortly before the overthrow of the monarchy and the coming to power of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in the February 1979 Iranian Revolution . Following the departure of the Shah in January 1979, SAVAK's more than 3,000 strong central staff and its agents were targeted for reprisals. However, it

918-523: The rectum; cigarette burns ; sitting on hot grills; acid dripped into nostrils; near-drownings; mock executions; and an electric chair with a large metal mask to muffle screams while amplifying them for the victim. This latter contraption was dubbed the Apollo—an allusion to the American spacecraft of the same name. Prisoners were also humiliated by being raped, urinated on, and forced to stand naked. Despite

952-544: The regime. And many others had been physically attacked for refusing to cooperate with the authorities. The repression was softened thanks to publicity and scrutiny by "numerous international organizations and foreign newspapers." Jimmy Carter became president of the United States and he raised the issue of human rights in the Imperial State of Iran . Overnight prison conditions changed. Inmates dubbed this

986-500: The revolution and managed to salvage the bulk of the SAVAK organization. According to author Charles Kurzman, SAVAK was never dismantled but rather changed its name and leadership and continued on with the same codes of operation, and a relatively unchanged "staff." SAVAK was replaced by the "much larger" SAVAMA, Sazman-e Ettela'at va Amniat-e Melli-e Iran , also known as the Ministry of Intelligence and National Security of Iran. After

1020-436: The throne. Until his death in 1954, the Shah's only full brother Ali Reza was his heir presumptive . The constitution also required the Shah to be of Iranian descent, meaning that his father and mother are Iranian. ( Became king ) 26 October 1967 ( Designated ) ( Father deposed ) Bastinado Foot whipping , falanga/falaka or bastinado is a method of inflicting pain and humiliation by administering

1054-534: The time of the Shah's overthrow, Time magazine on February 19, 1979, described SAVAK as having "long been Iran's most hated and feared institution" which had "tortured and murdered thousands of the Shah's opponents." The Federation of American Scientists also found it guilty of "the torture and execution of thousands of political prisoners" and symbolizing "the Shah's rule from 1963–79." The FAS list of SAVAK torture methods included "electric shock, whipping, beating, inserting broken glass and pouring boiling water into

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1088-562: The use of a stick ). In former times it was also referred to as Sohlenstreich (corr. striking the soles ). The Chinese term is dǎ jiǎoxīn (打脚心 / 打腳心). The first clearly identified written documentation of bastinado in Europe dates to 1537, and in China to 960. References to bastinado have been hypothesised to also be found in the Bible (Prov. 22:15; Lev. 19:20; Deut. 22:18), suggesting use of

1122-503: Was appointed military governor of Tehran in December 1953, and immediately began to assemble the nucleus of a new intelligence organization. The U.S. Army colonel worked closely with Bakhtīār and his subordinates, commanding the new intelligence organization and training its members in basic intelligence techniques, such as surveillance and interrogation methods, the use of intelligence networks, and organizational security. This organization

1156-722: Was the first modern, effective intelligence service to operate in Persia. Its main achievement occurred in September 1954, when it discovered and destroyed a large communist Tudeh Party network that had been established in the Persian armed forces. In March 1955, the Army colonel was "replaced with a more permanent team of five career Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officers, including specialists in covert operations, intelligence analysis, and counterintelligence, including Major General Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf who "trained virtually all of

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