The Certificate of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia ; abbreviated SBKRI ) was an identity card establishing citizenship in the Republic of Indonesia .
178-567: The SBKRI was used to discriminate against Indonesians of Chinese descent. It was required to enter academia , obtain a passport, to register for an election, and to get married. The requirement was eventually abolished although local bureaucracies have continued to engage in abuses. The legal bases for SBKRI was established with the Act No. 62 of 1958 issued by the Minister of Justice G. A. Maengkom and approved by President Sukarno . It came in
356-713: A Dual Nationality Treaty on the sidelines of the 1955 Asian–African Conference in Bandung . One of its provisions permitted Indonesians to renounce Chinese citizenship if they wished to hold Indonesian citizenship only. They had thought they were unwanted in Southeast Asia because they were Chinese; then they were rejected in China because they were Indonesian. — Charles Coppel As many as 390,000 ethnic Chinese, two-thirds of those with rightful claims to Indonesian citizenship renounced their Chinese status when
534-628: A currency board system, President Bill Clinton and IMF managing director Michel Camdessus deliberately worsened the Indonesian crisis to force Suharto to resign. Hanke quoted Camdessus as saying "We created the conditions that obliged President Suharto to leave his job". Economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension. Anti-Chinese riots occurred in Situbondo (1996), Tasikmalaya (1996), Banjarmasin (1997), and Makassar (1997); while bloody ethnic clashes broke out between
712-521: A "Family Welfare Training" programme ( Indonesian : Pembinaan Kesejahteraan Keluarga , PKK ), which was rooted on a 1957 conference on home economics in Bogor , was made compulsory in 1972, especially on rural regions. It wasn't until 1980 that feminism would gain an uprising with the establishment of several foundations, for example the Annisa Shanti foundation (Yasanti). Suharto relied on
890-414: A basic principle; he later secured another parliamentary resolution in 1983 ( Tap MPR No. II/1983 ) which prohibited all organizations from adhering to any principles except Pancasila, a policy known as Pancasila sole principle ( asas tunggal Pancasila ). He instituted a Pancasila indoctrination program that was mandatory for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. Pancasila,
1068-403: A bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generals HR Dharsono, Kemal Idris , and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo (dubbed "New Order Radicals") opposed Suharto's decision to allow the participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of
1246-798: A blanket guarantee for bank deposits, and set up the Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency to take over management of troubled banks to prevent the collapse of the financial system. Based on IMF recommendations, the government increased interest rates to 70% in February 1998 to control spiralling inflation caused by the higher price of imports, but this action killed availability of credit to the corporate sector. Suharto's foot-dragging in undertaking reforms demanded by IMF in relation to his children's business further weakened public confidence. According to American economist Steve Hanke , invited by Suharto in February 1998 to plan
1424-603: A category that included Arabs, Indians and Siamese. After independence, the community was divided between those who accepted Indonesian citizenship and those who did not. Under the New Order of President Suharto , citizens of Chinese descent were formally classified as "Indonesian citizens of foreign descent" ( Warga Negara Indonesia keturunan asing ). In public discourse, they were distinguished from native Indonesians as non -pribumi (lit., non-native). The first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia
1602-510: A communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese anti-communist groups UDT and APODETI , Suharto authorised a full-scale invasion of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province of East Timor in July 1976. The "encirclement and annihilation" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerilla resistance forced
1780-640: A concept similar to corporatism . The government formed civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created and required all civil servants and employees of state- and local government-owned enterprises and those of Bank Indonesia to join KORPRI (the Employees' Corps of the Republic of Indonesia) in November 1971 to ensure their loyalty; organised
1958-596: A consequence of the Second Sino-Japanese War . When the Dutch returned, following the end of World War II, the chaos caused by advancing forces and retreating revolutionaries also saw radical Muslim groups attack ethnic Chinese communities. As the Dutch implemented a war of attrition and scorch earth, they forced Chinese on Java to flee inland and the Dutch destroyed all important assets including Chinese factories and property. Local Indonesians joined in on
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#17327719078672136-518: A gold medal from the FAO in November 1985. In the early 1980s, Suharto responded to the fall in oil exports due to the 1980s oil glut by successfully shifting the main pillar of the economy into export -oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and a series of currency devaluations . Industrialization was mostly undertaken by ethnic-Chinese companies, which evolved into immense conglomerates , dominating
2314-765: A hybrid culture that included elements from both Chinese and local cultures. Totoks were generally said to be first-generation migrants and to have retained a strong Chinese identity. Other definitions focus on the succession of legal classifications that have separated Chinese from other inhabitants of the archipelago. Both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch colonial government (from 1815) applied complex systems of ethnic classification to their subjects, based on religion, culture and place of origin. Chinese Indonesians were sometimes classified as Natives, sometimes as Chinese, sometimes as Foreign Orientals,
2492-656: A key to reaching the perfect life ( ilmu kasampurnaning hurip ) of harmony with God and fellow mankind. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as "anti-Pancasila". The Dwifungsi ("Dual Function") policy allowed the military to have an active role in all levels of Indonesian government, economy, and society. Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere primus inter pares as well as Islamic and student groups who participated in
2670-610: A major hub for trade with China and India. Batavia became home to the largest Chinese community in the archipelago and remains so in the 21st century. Coen and other early governors-general promoted the entry of Chinese immigrants to new settlements "for the benefit of those places and for the purpose of gathering spices like cloves , nutmeg , and mace". The port's Chinese population of 300–400 in 1619 had grown to at least 10,000 by 1740. The VOC ruled migrant ethnic groups in Batavia using 'officers' drawn from each community, usually with
2848-581: A minority of several thousand ethnic Chinese, were killed in the anti-communist purge which followed the failed coup d'état , suspected as being communist-led, on 30 September 1965. Dayaks were tricked by the Indonesian military into attacking Chinese. The land the Chinese fled from was not taken by Dayaks but by Madurese settlers, who were later massacred by the Dayaks. Dayaks and Malays killed and raped Madurese throughout 1996, 1997, 1999 and 2001. When
3026-456: A non-ideological two-party system somewhat similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto then proceeded to send Dharsono overseas as ambassador, while Kemal Idris and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo were sent to distant North Sumatra and South Sulawesi as regional commanders. While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement ( Angkatan 66 ) were successfully co-opted into the regime, it faced large student demonstrations challenging
3204-475: A parliamentary resolution irrevocable by Sukarno ( Tap MPRS no. XXV/MPRS/1966 ), that confirmed Suharto's ban of the PKI and simultaneously banned " Communism / Marxism-Leninism " ( sic ; explicitly defined in the resolution's corresponding explanatory memorandum to include "the struggle fundaments and tactics taught by ... Stalin , Mao Tse Tung et cetera "), as well as promulgating other resolutions that elevated
3382-534: A presidential decree (known as the Supersemar ), which gave him authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. Using the decree, the PKI was banned in March 1966 and the parliament ( MPRS ), government and military were purged of pro-Sukarno elements, many of whom were accused of being communist sympathisers, and replaced with Suharto supporters. A June session of the now-purged parliament promulgated
3560-403: A rather vague and generalist set of principles originally formulated by Sukarno in 1945, was vigorously promoted as a sacrosanct national ideology which represented the ancient wisdom of the Indonesian people even before the entry of foreign-based religions such as Hinduism or Islam . In a July 1982 speech that reflected his deep infatuation with Javanese beliefs , Suharto glorified Pancasila as
3738-455: A re-organization of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed General Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani as head of the armed forces. A tough and capable soldier, Moerdani was also a Roman Catholic, which precluded him from posing a political threat to Suharto. Suharto ruthlessly suppressed elements that disturbed the tranquility of
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#17327719078673916-430: A separation from Indonesia's problems since its independence. The 'generation of 66' ( Angkatan 66 ) epitomised talk of a new group of young leaders and new intellectual thought. Following Indonesia's communal and political conflicts, and its economic collapse and social breakdown of the late 1950s through to the mid-1960s, the "New Order" was committed to achieving and maintaining political order, economic development, and
4094-624: A series of attacks on ethnic Chinese communities in West Java in May proved it to be short-lived, despite the government's condemnation of the violence. When Baperki was branded a communist organization in 1965 the ethnic Chinese were implicated by association; this was exacerbated in the public mind by the People's Republic of China's communism. As many as 500,000 people, the majority of them Javanese Abangan Muslims and Balinese Indonesians but including
4272-526: A series of trips to promote investment into Indonesia, starting in the natural resources sector. Among the first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia were mining companies Freeport Sulphur Company and International Nickel Company , later followed by significant investment from Japanese, South Korean, and Taiwanese companies. British-owned businesses nationalized by the Sukarno administration as part of Konfrontasi (including then- dual-listed Unilever and
4450-577: A significant amount of their offspring did, and Batavian Muslims absorbed the Chinese Muslim community which was descended from converts. Adoption of Islam back then was a marker of peranakan status which it no longer means. The Semaran Adipati and the Jayaningrat families were of Chinese origin. Dayak women were married by the first Chinese men to settle in Borneo and this was recorded in
4628-510: A social contract through which they could claim a sense of belonging in the country. A minority of the economic elite of Indonesian society, both those who were and were not ethnic Chinese, secured relationships with Suharto's family members and members of the military for protection, while small business owners relied on local law enforcement officials. Stereotypes of the wealthy minority became accepted as generalized facts but failed to acknowledge that said businessmen were few in number compared to
4806-580: A viable economic system to lift its citizens out of poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, Sukarno led Indonesia into Konfrontasi , a military confrontation with Malaysia; removed Indonesia from the United Nations ; and stepped up revolutionary and anti-Western rhetoric. By 1965 at the height of the Cold War , the PKI penetrated all levels of government. With the support of Sukarno and the Air Force,
4984-472: A year. Several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again. Distinct Chinese colonies emerged in hundreds of ports throughout southeastern Asia, including the pepper port of Banten . Some Chinese traders avoided Portuguese Malacca after it fell to the Portuguese in the 1511 Capture of Malacca . Many Chinese, however, cooperated with
5162-493: Is Basuki Tjahaja Purnama , former Regent of East Belitung (2005–2006) and first governor of Jakarta (2014–2017) of Chinese descent. However, discrimination and prejudice against Chinese Indonesians continues in the 21st century. On 15 March 2016, Indonesian Army General Suryo Prabowo commented that the incumbent governor of Jakarta, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama , should "know his place lest the Indonesian Chinese face
5340-507: Is based upon three pillars: clan associations, ethnic media and Chinese-language schools. These flourished during the period of Chinese nationalism in the final years of China's Qing dynasty and through the Second Sino-Japanese War ; however, differences in the objective of nationalist sentiments brought about a split in the population. One group supported political reforms in China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government (1967–1998) dismantled
5518-586: Is debatable and many studies indicate that poverty was much higher than claimed, with as many as 50% of Indonesians living on a dollar PPP a day or less. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% per year, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$ 806 to US$ 4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested into massive infrastructure development (notably
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5696-531: Is frequently employed to describe figures who were either tied to the Suharto period, or who upheld the practises of his authoritarian administration, such as corruption , collusion and nepotism (widely known by the acronym KKN: korupsi , kolusi , nepotisme ). Sukarno was Indonesia's founding president, a position he had held since the Republic's formation in 1945. In 1955, the first general parliamentary elections delivered an unstable parliament and from
5874-427: Is generally characterized as Chinese. This broad use is also problematic because it prioritizes a line of descent from China over all other lines and may conflict with an individual's own self-identity. Many people who identify as Chinese Indonesian are of mixed Chinese and Indonesian descent. Indonesia's 4th president Abdurrahman Wahid (1940–2009) is of Arab , Chinese, and Javanese ancestry. Some narrower uses of
6052-518: Is no longer valid." At 1999, Presidential Instruction No. 4/1999 on the Implementation of Presidential Decree No. 56/1996 was issued, which invalidates the SBKRI for ethnic Chinese who has become a citizen. However, practice of SBKRI requirements still exist in the government bureaucracy because of the lack of socialization of the implementation of this decree, and also because of the weakness of
6230-558: Is the spelling reform of Indonesian language decreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972. Inspired by Javanese culture of priyayi , the New Order, during its consolidation era, was antifeminist and patriarchic , officially defined as "familyism" ( Indonesian : kekeluargaan ). In 1974, President Suharto established civil servant wives' corps Dharma Wanita , organized under the doctrine of "Five Women's Dharma " ( Indonesian : Pancadharma Wanita ), an antifeminist, patriarchic doctrine similar to Nazi Germany's Kinder, Küche, Kirche ) ;
6408-680: The Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit. Suharto's government issued the Domestic Investment Law of June 1968 to allow development of a domestic capitalist class capable of motoring economic growth to supplement existing state-owned enterprises. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw emergence of domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians ) in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such as Astra Group and Salim Group . Flush with IGGI foreign aid and later
6586-778: The Dayak and Madurese settlers in Central Kalimantan in 1997. After violent campaign season, Golkar won the heavily rigged May 1997 MPR elections . The new MPR voted unanimously to re-elect Suharto to another five-year term in office in March 1998, upon which he proceeded to appoint his protege BJ Habibie as vice-president while stacking the cabinet with his own family and business associates (his daughter Tutut became Minister of Social Affairs). The government's decision to increase fuel prices by 70% on 4 May triggered anti-Chinese rioting in Medan . With Suharto increasingly seen as
6764-550: The Han family of Lasem moved to Lasem in east Java, from his home of Zhangzhou in Fujian and his wife was not Chinese. Four of his sons married Peranakan women and one son of his married a Javanese woman and converted to Islam. When the VOC was nationalized on 31 December 1799, many freedoms the Chinese experienced under the corporation were eliminated by the Dutch government. Among them was
6942-637: The Indonesian rupiah . In the private sector, many Indonesian corporations had been borrowing heavily in lower-interest U.S. dollars, while their revenues were mostly in rupiah; their debt rapidly increased as the US dollar appreciated, leaving many companies virtually bankrupt. These companies desperately sold rupiah and bought U.S. dollars, causing the rupiah's value to drop from Rp 2,600 per dollar in August 1997 to over Rp 14,800 per dollar by January 1998. Efforts by
7120-873: The Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK) were Chinese: Liem Koen Hian , Oey Tiang Tjoei , Oey Tjong Hauw and Tan Eng Hoa . Yap Tjwan Bing was the sole Chinese member of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI). Ong Eng Die became a government minister in the Indonesian Republic. Other examples include Kwee Thiam Hiong member of Jong Sumatranen Bond [ id ] , Abubakar Tjan Kok Tjiang and Thung Tjing Ek (Jakub Thung) exploits in Kaimana and Serui respectively, BPRT ( Barisan Pemberontak Rakjat Tionghoa ) which
7298-613: The Jakarta Inner Ring Road , which Tutut had a majority (75% at one time) stake through her PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada subsidiary PT Citra Marga Nusaphala Persada; the national car project, monopolized by Bambang and Tommy (through the Bimantara Group (now MNC Group )'s joint venture with the Hyundai Motor Company , and Timor Putra Nasional 's joint venture with Kia Motors , respectively);
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7476-527: The Kwee family of Ciledug and the Tan family of Cirebon . In western Borneo , the Chinese established their first major mining settlement in 1760. Ousting Dutch settlers and the local Malay princes, they joined into a new republic known as Lanfang , led by ethnic Hakka, Lo Fang Pak . By 1819, they came into conflict with the new Dutch government and were seen as incompatible with its objectives, yet indispensable for
7654-468: The Mandor affair . Although revolutionary leaders were sympathetic toward the ethnic Chinese, they were unable to stop the sporadic violence. Those who were affected fled from the rural areas to Dutch-controlled cities, a move many Indonesians saw as proof of pro-Dutch sentiments. There was evidence, however, that Chinese Indonesians were represented and participated in independence efforts. Four members of
7832-550: The New Order government of General Suharto came into power in 1966–1967, it introduced a political system based only on the Pancasila (five principles) ideology. To prevent the ideological battles that occurred during Sukarno's presidency from resurfacing, Suharto's Pancasila democracy sought a depoliticized system in which discussions of forming a cohesive ethnic Chinese identity were no longer allowed. A government committee
8010-514: The New York Agreement of 1962 which required a plebiscite on integration of West Irian into Indonesia before end of 1969, the Suharto government began organising for a so-called " Act of Free Choice " (PEPERA) scheduled on July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces under Sarwo Edhie Wibowo which secured the surrender of several bands of the former Dutch-organized militia ( Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK ) at large in
8188-593: The TABANAS ( Tabungan Pembangunan Nasional , National Development Savings) program to the populace. The Jakarta Stock Exchange , originally opened in 1912 as the Batavia (later Jakarta) branch of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange (now Euronext Amsterdam ) and re-opened in 1977, performed strongly due to a spree of domestic IPOs and an influx of foreign funds after deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled strong economic growth in
8366-508: The Tanka people of what are now the Fujian and Guangdong provinces in southern China, areas known for their regional diversity. Nearly all Chinese Indonesians are either patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants or new immigrants born in mainland China . New Order (Indonesia) The New Order ( Indonesian : Orde Baru , abbreviated Orba ) describes the regime of
8544-821: The United States Congress passing limitations on IMET assistance to the Indonesian Military. Suharto retaliated by cancelling purchase orders for American F-16 fighter jets in 1997. When the Netherlands condemned the Santa Cruz Massacre, Suharto retaliated by expelling the Dutch from IGGI in March 1992 and renaming it the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI) which continued increasing aid to Indonesia. Realizing this trend, Suharto sought wider alliances under
8722-455: The central bank to defend its managed float regime by selling dollars had little impact and instead drained Indonesia's foreign exchange reserves, forcing the government to free-float the currency and seek liquidity aid from the IMF (International Monetary Fund). In exchange for US$ 43 billion in liquidity aid, Suharto was forced to sign three letters of intent from October 1997 to April 1998 with
8900-503: The infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government's Bantuan Pembangunan Sekolah Dasar program, better known as SD Inpres and launched in 1973, resulted in the primary-school enrollment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating the education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia reaching rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto
9078-410: The population pyramid , as the median age increases. Emigration has contributed to a shrinking population and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in repatriation programs to the People's Republic of China, while others emigrated to neighboring Singapore, Taiwan, and Western countries to escape anti-Chinese sentiment. Among
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#17327719078679256-443: The " Ethical Policy " to protect the indigenous population, casting the Chinese as the "foremost enemy of the natives". Under the new policy, the administration increased restrictions on Chinese economic activities, which they believed exploited the native population. Powerful Chinese families were described as the cabang atas (lit., upper branch) of colonial society, forming influential bureaucratic and business dynasties, such as
9434-484: The " Pancasila Democracy", Golkar won the MPR general elections of 1977 , 1982 , 1987 , 1992 , and 1997 with massive landslides. The elected MPR then proceeded to unanimously re-elect Suharto as president in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. Suharto proceeded with social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicized "floating mass" supportive of the national mission of "development",
9612-554: The "green generals"). To win support from the nascent Muslim business community, which resented dominance of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates, Suharto formed the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) in November 1990, and appointed his protégé B. J. Habibie , Minister for Research and Technology since 1978, as its leader. During this period of Suharto's cozying with Islamists, race riots against ethnic-Chinese began to occur quite regularly, beginning with
9790-475: The 1960s, a split within the military was fostered by Western countries backing a right-wing faction against a left-wing faction backed by the PKI. On 30 September 1965, six generals were killed by a group calling themselves the 30 September Movement , who alleged a right-wing plot to kill the President. General Suharto led the army in suppressing the abortive coup attempt. The PKI were quickly blamed, and
9968-480: The 1970s and 1980s, Suharto and his government brought in Chinese Indonesian businesses to participate in the economic development programs of the New Order while keeping them highly vulnerable to strengthen the central authority and restrict political freedoms. Patron–client relationships, mainly through the exchange of money for security, became an accepted norm among the ethnic Chinese as they maintained
10146-610: The 30-year-old New Order system. By 1996, Megawati Sukarnoputri , the daughter of Sukarno and chairwoman of the normally compliant PDI , was becoming a rallying point for this growing discontent. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction of the PDI led by Suryadi, which removed Megawati from the chair. On 27 July 1996, an attack by soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant-General Sutiyoso on demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting. This incident
10324-485: The 460 members of DPR were soldiers of the Republic of Indonesia Armed Forces (ABRI)—mostly Indonesian Army soldiers—directly appointed by the government as part of Dwifungsi , while the remaining seats were allocated to political parties based on results of a general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents. To participate in
10502-451: The April 1994 riot in Medan . By the 1990s, Suharto's government came to be dominated by sycophantic civilian politicians such as Habibie , Harmoko , Ginandjar Kartasasmita , and Akbar Tanjung , who owed their position solely to Suharto. As a sign of Habibie's growing clout, when three prominent Indonesian magazines— Tempo , DeTIK , and Editor —criticised Habibie's purchase of almost
10680-522: The British part of also-then-dual-listed Royal Dutch/Shell ) were reprivatized; however, Dutch companies originally nationalized in the late 1950s-early 1960s (including but not limited to Hollandsche Beton Groep , NILLMIJ (by 1969 merged into Ennia, now Aegon ), and the Dutch part of Royal Dutch/Shell) were not reprivatized due to nationalist sentiments. From 1967, the government managed to secure low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under
10858-509: The Chinese monopoly on the salt trade which had been granted by the VOC administration. An 1816 regulation introduced a requirement for the indigenous population and Chinese traveling within the territory to obtain a travel permit. Those who did not carry a permit faced arrest by security officers. The governor-general also introduced a resolution in 1825 which forbade foreign Asians in Java, such as Malays , Buginese and Chinese, from living within
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#173277190786711036-777: The Chinese of Java with no execution or torture of Chinese taking place unlike in other places. There was no violent confrontation between Japanese and Chinese on Java, unlike in British Malaya . The Japanese also allowed Chinese of Java in the Federation of Overseas-Chinese Associations ( Hua Chiao Tsung Hui ) to form the Keibotai, their own armed Chinese defense corps for protection with Japanese military instructors training them how to shoot and use spears. The Chinese viewed this as important to defending themselves from local Indonesians. The majority of Chinese of Java did not die in
11214-722: The Chung Hwa Congress of 1927 and the 1928 formation of the Chung Hwa Hui party, which elected Kan as its president. The editor-in-chief of the Madjallah Panorama news magazine criticized Sin Po for misguiding the ethnic Chinese by pressuring them into a Chinese-nationalist stance. In 1932, pro-Indonesian counterparts founded the Partai Tionghoa Indonesia to support absorption of
11392-634: The Dutch in the Java war in 1741 while Madurese Muslims allied with the Dutch. The Javanese Susuhunan Pakubuwana II joined the Chinese against the Dutch while the Dutch relieved the Madurese prince of his allegiance to the Susuhunan. Han Siong Kong founded the Han family of Lasem at this time. Chinese who married local Javanese women and converted to Islam created a distinct Chinese Muslim peranakan community in Java. Chinese rarely had to convert to Islam to marry Javanese abangan women but
11570-634: The Dutch violence against the Chinese looting Chinese property and trying to attack Chinese. However, when the Japanese troops landed and seized control of Java from the Dutch, to people's surprise, the Japanese forced the native Indonesians to stop looting and attacking Chinese and warned the Indonesians they would not tolerate anti-Chinese violence in Java. The Japanese viewed the Chinese in Java and their economic power specifically as important and vital to Japanese war effort so they did not physically harm
11748-480: The Dutch, the Dutch attempted to place a quota on the number of Chinese who could enter the Indies. Amoy was designated as the only immigration port to the archipelago, and ships were limited to a specified number of crew and passengers depending on size. This quota was adjusted at times to meet demand for overseas workers, such as in July 1802 when sugar mills near Batavia were in need of workers. Han Chinese peranakan rebels and Javanese Muslims both fought against
11926-413: The Dutch. The Chinese revolutionary figure Sun Yat-sen visited southeast Asia in 1900, and, later that year, the socio-religious organization Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan ( 中華 會館 ), also known as the Chinese Association, was founded. Their goal was to urge ethnic Chinese in the Indies to support the revolutionary movement in China. In its effort to build Chinese-speaking schools the association argued that
12104-404: The Dutch. Some became revenue farmers, middlemen within the corporate structure of the VOC, tasked with collecting export–import duties and managing the harvest of natural resources; although this was highly profitable, it earned the enmity of the pribumi population. Others worked as opium farmers. Following the 1740 Batavia massacre and ensuing war , in which the Chinese rebelled against
12282-419: The FBSI ( Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia ) as the only legal labour union for workers not eligible for KORPRI membership in February 1973 (later renamed as SPSI/ Serikat Pekerja Seluruh Indonesia in 1985), established under the pretext of tripartism , officially defined as Pancasilaist Industrial Relations ( Indonesian : Hubungan Industrial Pancasila ) (while in fact it cements only business interests with
12460-489: The Hailu by Xie Qinggao (1765-1822) who was a merchant. After growing their initial population through this they began marrying each other's daughters. Peranakan community formed from local women in Java, Batavia marrying Hokkien Chinese migrants and they followed Chinese folk religion. Pure blood totok Chinese dominated Semarang after swamping out Peranakan Chinese when migrating in the late 18th century. However they intermarried with Peranakans from Batavia. Han Siong Kong of
12638-424: The IMF. The letters of intent promised reforms, which included closing banks owned by Suharto's family and cronies starting in November 1997. Plans to close unhealthy banks resulted in a bank run that drained liquidity; depositors knew of the poor regulations and risky related-party credit extensions of Indonesian banks. In January 1998, the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance (BLBI), issue
12816-428: The Indonesian government and military began placing restrictions on alien residence and trade. These regulations culminated in the enactment of Presidential Regulation 10 in November 1959, banning retail services by non-indigenous persons in rural areas. Ethnic Chinese, Arab , and Dutch businessmen were specifically targeted during its enforcement to provide a more favorable market for indigenous businesses. This move
12994-408: The Indonesian legal system that led to the legislation can not simply be ignored. Chinese Indonesians Chinese Indonesians ( Indonesian : Orang Tionghoa Indonesia ), or simply Orang Tionghoa or Tionghoa , are Indonesians whose ancestors arrived from China at some stage in the last eight centuries. Chinese Indonesians are the fourth largest community of Overseas Chinese in
13172-537: The Japanese in May 1942. In Bali, the Japanese sexually harassed Balinese women when they came and started forcing Balinese women into brothels for prostitution, with Balinese men and Chinese men used as recruiters for the Balinese women. All of the brothels in Bali were staffed by Balinese women. Eurasians, Indians, Chinese, Dutch, Menadonese, Bataks, Bugis, Dayaks, Javanese, Arabs and Malays were arrested and massacred in
13350-492: The MPRS appointed Suharto to the first of his five-year terms as President. The "New Order" was so called to distinguish and "better" itself from Sukarno's "Old Order". Pancasila was promoted as the national ideology, one that pre-dated introduced religions such as Hinduism or Islam . Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1978 ( Tap MPR No. II/1978 ) which obliged all organisations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as
13528-524: The Madurese. In the Sambas conflict, both Malays and Dayaks massacred Madurese. The crisis climaxed when Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt in May 1998. Security forces killed four student demonstrators from Jakarta's Trisakti University on 12 May 1998, which was followed by anti-Chinese rioting and looting across Jakarta and some other cities on 13–15 May that destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1,000 people. Various theories exist on
13706-459: The March 1988 MPR session, military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination of Sudharmono , a Suharto-loyalist, as vice-president. After General Moerdani voiced his objections on the Suharto family's corruption , the president dismissed him from the position of military chief. Suharto proceeded to slowly "de-militarize" his regime; he dissolved
13884-459: The New Order regime which continued for weeks and culminated in the shootings of four students by security forces at Trisakti University in May. The incident sparked major violence in several cities during 12–15 May. Property and businesses owned by Chinese Indonesians were targeted by mobs, and over 100 women were sexually assaulted ; this aspect of the riots, though generally accepted as true, has been denied by several Indonesian groups. In
14062-630: The New Order society. From 1983 to 1985, army death squads murdered up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in crime rate (dubbed " Petrus Killings "). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups which considered Islamic law ( sharia ) to be above any human conceptions. In September 1984, a violent demonstration in the Tanjung Priok area of Jakarta by conservative Muslims led to soldiers opening fire , massacring up to 100 protesters. A retaliatory series of small bombings (notably
14240-611: The PKI, which had become the country’s strongest political party. Sukarno’s anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union and China which was met with indignation from Western countries. The cash-strapped government had to scrap public sector subsidies, annual inflation rose to as high as 1,000%, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible investment. Sukarno’s administration became increasingly ineffective in providing
14418-476: The People's Republic of China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in 30 September Movement (diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of PKI the Soviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister Adam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from
14596-563: The Portuguese for the sake of trade. Some Chinese in Java assisted in Muslim attempts to reconquer the city using ships. The Javanese–Chinese participation in retaking Malacca was recorded in "The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon". Han Chinese in Indonesia forbid parallel cousin marriage which Han culture bans. Hui Muslims marry parallel cousins. By the time the Dutch arrived in the early 17th century, major Chinese settlements existed along
14774-795: The President of Indonesia and related officials. Currently, the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia is the organizer of the event. Furthermore, in addition to President Habibie's directive on the term pribumi , the legislature passed a new citizenship law in 2006 defining the word asli (lit., indigenous) in the Constitution as a natural born person, allowing Chinese Indonesians to be eligible to run for president. The law further stipulates that children of foreigners born in Indonesia are eligible to apply for Indonesian citizenship. The post-Suharto era saw
14952-516: The Qur'an and Islam in remarks which were described as Islamophobic. Furthermore, the hijab was banned from 1982 to 1991 in state schools. The new president enlisted a group of mostly American-educated Indonesian economists , dubbed the " Berkeley Mafia ", to formulate government economic policy. By cutting subsidies and government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation dropped from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine
15130-543: The SBKRI to identify citizens of Chinese descent. Habibie established a task force to investigate the May 1998 violence, although his government later dismissed its findings. As an additional legal gesture Indonesia ratified the 1965 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination on 25 May 1999. In 2000 the newly elected President Wahid abolished the ban on public displays of Chinese culture and allowed Chinese traditions to be practised freely, without
15308-527: The Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation with Malaysia in August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organisation is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoing Vietnam War . In 1974,
15486-483: The Supersemar into a parliamentary resolution also irrevocable by Sukarno, and stripped Sukarno of his title of president for life . In August–September 1966, and against the wishes of Sukarno, the New Order ended Indonesia's confrontation with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations . Parliament re-convened in March 1967 to impeach the President for his apparent toleration of 30 September Movement and violation of
15664-564: The United States. In the late 1990s and early 2000s during the fall of Suharto there was mass ethnic violence with Catholic Dayaks and Malays in west Borneo killing the state sponsored Madurese settlers. The Malays and Madurese were both Muslims but the Malays declared the Madurese as apostates to justify the killings. The local Chinese in western Borneo supported the Dayaks and Malays in their anti-Madurese killings. One Dayak during
15842-461: The absence of security forces, large groups of men, women, and children looted and burned the numerous shopping malls in major cities. In Jakarta and Surakarta over 1,000 people—both Chinese and non-Chinese—died inside shopping malls. Tens of thousands of ethnic Chinese fled the country following these events, and bankers estimated that US$ 20 billion of capital had left the country in 1997–1999 to overseas destinations such as Singapore, Hong Kong, and
16020-454: The anti-communist purge. Suharto, aided by his "Office of Personal Assistants" ( Aspri ) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularly Ali Murtopo , began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives. Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman General Nasution 's 1968 attempt to introduce
16198-496: The army led an anti-communist purge that killed an estimated 500,000 to a million people. Public opinion shifted against Sukarno in part due to his apparent knowledge of, and sympathy for, the events of 30 September, and for his tolerance of leftist and communist elements whom the army blamed for the coup attempt. Student groups, such as KAMI , were encouraged by, and sided with, the Army against Sukarno. In March 1966, Suharto secured
16376-458: The barracks and banning them from even using the Islamic greeting As-salamu alaykum , and these anti-Islamic policies were entirely supported by Suharto, despite Suharto being a Muslim himself, since he considered political Islam a threat to his power. The Christian General Theo Syafei, who also served under Suharto, spoke out against political Islam coming to power in Indonesia, and insulted
16554-510: The bombing of Borobudur Temple in January 1985) led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists, ranging from future parliamentary leader A. M. Fatwa to radical cleric Abu Bakar Bashir (future founder of terrorist group Jemaah Islamiyah ). Attacks on police by the resurgent Libyan -aided Free Aceh Movement in 1989 led to a brutal military operation (" Operasi Jaring Merah ") that killed up to 12,000 people, mostly civilians, by
16732-584: The campus unrest by issuing a decree on the "Normalization of Campus Life" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits. In 1980, fifty prominent political figures—including Nasution—signed the Petition of Fifty which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements. To placate demands from civilian politicians for
16910-426: The choice of plantation areas, while colonial officials believed the remaining plots must be protected and preserved for the indigenous population. Short-term and renewable leases of varying lengths were later introduced as a temporary measure, but many Chinese remained on these lands upon expiration of their contracts and became squatters. At the beginning of the 20th century, the colonial government began to implement
17088-540: The citizens of the Republic of Indonesia, which has had a national identity card (KTP), or Family Card (KK), or a birth certificate, the fulfillment of the requirements for the particular interests simply use the Identity Card, or Card Family (KK), or the Birth Certificate. " While Article 5 reads, "With the enactment of this Presidential Decree, all legislation that for certain interests require SBKRI,
17266-603: The clove industry, monopolized by a Tommy-linked governmental body called the Clove Buffering and Marketing Administration ( Indonesian : Badan Penyangga dan Pemasaran Cengkeh , BPPC); and even the cinema market (and furthermore, all imports of films distributed by the American major film studios ), monopolised by 21 Cineplex , owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono's Subentra Group (now Indika Group). The family
17444-477: The consequences of his action". This controversial comment was considered to hearken back to previous violence against the Indonesian Chinese. On 9 May 2017, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama was sentenced to two years in prison after being found guilty of committing a criminal act of blasphemy , a move that was widely criticized by many as an attack on free speech. Chinese immigrants to the Indonesian archipelago almost entirely originated from various ethnic groups especially
17622-522: The constitution by promoting PKI's international communist agenda, negligence of the economy, and promotion of national "moral degradation" via his womanising behaviour. In March 1967, the MPRS stripped Sukarno of his remaining power, and Suharto was named Acting President . Sukarno was placed under house arrest in Bogor Palace ; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970. In March 1968,
17800-408: The country, particularly businessmen. Along with one of his envoys James Riady , son of financial magnate Mochtar Riady , Habibie appealed to Chinese Indonesians seeking refuge throughout East Asia, Australia, and North America to return and promised security from various government ministries as well as other political figures, such as Abdurrahman Wahid and Amien Rais . Despite Habibie's efforts he
17978-684: The development of the region. The Bangka–Belitung Islands also became examples of major settlements in rural areas. In 1851, 28 Chinese were recorded on the islands and by 1915, the population had risen to nearly 40,000 and fishing and tobacco industries had developed. Coolies brought into the region after the end of the 19th century were mostly hired from the Straits Settlements owing to recruiting obstacles that existed in China. Lowland Chinese in 1904 sold Beaumont and Winchester rifles in Sumatra to Bataks who were attacking and fighting
18156-616: The early 1990s, but weak regulation of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997 which eventually lead to Suharto's resignation. The growth of the economy was coincided by rapid expansion in corruption, collusion, and nepotism ( Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN ). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"), Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy") , and Bambang Trihatmodjo, grew increasingly venal and corrupt. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include
18334-451: The elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party, the PNI , in 1969 Suharto took control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs called Golkar ("Functional Group") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the co-ordination of his right-hand man Ali Murtopo . The first general election
18512-461: The end of discriminatory policy against Chinese Indonesians. Since then, numbers of Chinese Indonesians began to take part in the nation's politics, government and administrative sector. The Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono presidency (2004–2014) saw the first female Chinese Indonesian minister Mari Elka Pangestu as Minister of Trade (2004-2011) and Minister of Tourism and Creative Economy (2011-2014). Another notable Chinese Indonesian in Indonesian politics
18690-506: The entire fleet of the disbanded East German Navy in 1993, despite most of the vessels having little value other than scrap, Suharto ordered the offending publications to be closed down on 21 June 1994 on the pretext that these critiques could "incite conflicts within the cabinet". This would lead to several of the closed publications' journalists to form the Alliance of Independent Journalists shortly thereafter; Tempo would later move to
18868-400: The ethnic Chinese identity. Symbolic reforms to Chinese Indonesian rights under Habibie's administration were made through two presidential instructions. The first abolished the use of the terms pribumi and non- pribumi in official government documents and business. The second abolished the ban on the study of Mandarin Chinese and reaffirmed a 1996 instruction that abolished the use of
19046-643: The ethnic Chinese in Kudus . Following this incident, the left-wing Chinese nationalist daily Sin Po called on both sides to work together to improve living conditions because it considered most ethnic Chinese, like most of the indigenous population, to be poor. Sin Po first went into print in 1910 and began gaining momentum as the leading advocate of Chinese political nationalism in 1917. The ethnic Chinese who followed its stream of thought refused any involvement with local institutions and would only participate in politics relating to mainland China. A second stream
19224-527: The ethnic Chinese into the Javanese population and support the call for self-government of Indonesia. Members of this group were primarily peranakan . This division resurfaced at the end of the period of Japanese occupation (1942–1945). Under the occupation ethnic Chinese communities were attacked by Japanese forces, in part owing to suspicions that they contained sympathizers of the Kuomintang as
19402-523: The ethnic Chinese were encouraged to take Indonesian-sounding names . Furthermore, Chinese Indonesians are also subject to the Certificate of Citizenship in order to enter an academy, obtain a passport, register for an election, and to get married. In 1968, Suharto commenced the very successful family planning program ( Keluarga Berentjana /KB) to stem the huge population growth rate and hence increase per-capita income. A lasting legacy from this period
19580-454: The ethnic Chinese, and allowed them to freely move throughout the colony. The 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the 1912 founding of the Republic of China coincided with a growing Chinese–nationalist movement within the Indies. Although there was no recognizable nationalist movement among the indigenous population until 1908, Dutch authorities feared that nationalist sentiments would spread with
19758-473: The first incarnation of Free Aceh Movement separatists under Hasan di Tiro in 1977 led to dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad. Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to end hijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight by Islamic extremists at Don Muang Airport in Bangkok . To comply with
19936-528: The government forced the four Islamic parties to merge into the PPP ( Partai Persatuan Pembangunan /United Development Party) while the five non-Islamic parties were fused into PDI ( Partai Demokrasi Indonesia /Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership, while establishing the "re-call" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system dubbed
20114-605: The government to maintain strong military presence in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor during Indonesian rule (1974–1999) ; namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness. Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of the violent killings. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate had dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970 according to some studies, though this claim of poverty reduction
20292-401: The growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they could not challenge his rule due to their ethnic-minority status, and, based on past experience, he thought that they possessed the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided vital financing for his "regime maintenance" activities. In
20470-647: The growth of ethnically mixed associations, known as kongsi . In 1911, some Javanese members of the Kong Sing association in Surakarta broke away and clashed with the ethnic Chinese. This incident led to the creation of Sarekat Islam , the first organized popular nationalist movement in the Indies. Indigenous groups saw the Chinese nationalist sentiment as haughty, leading to mutual antagonism. The anti-Chinese sentiment spread throughout Java in 1918 and led to violent attacks orchestrated by members of Sarekat Islam on
20648-496: The holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for a parliament ( Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat /MPR) with the power to elect presidents consisting of a lower house ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat /DPR ) as well as regional and groups representatives. 100 of
20826-430: The jump in oil exports during the 1973 oil crisis , the government began a series of large-scale intensive investment in infrastructure under a series of five-year plans ( Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun / REPELITA ): While establishing a formal economy based on rational and sound macroeconomic policies, Suharto continued his past modus operandi of creating a vast network of charitable organisations (" yayasan ") run by
21004-450: The jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963, while sending Catholic volunteers under Jusuf Wanandi to distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite will be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which
21182-524: The late 1950s, Sukarno's rule became increasingly autocratic under his " Guided Democracy ". Described as the great " dalang ", Sukarno’s position depended on his concept of NASAKOM (Nationalism, Religion, Communism) whereby he sought to balance the competing Indonesian Military, Islamic groups, and the increasingly powerful Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). To the resentment of the Military and Muslim groups, this arrangement became increasingly reliant on
21360-409: The late 1980s, the Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the "October Package of 1988" ( PAKTO 88 ), which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit, resulting in a 50% increase in number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced
21538-561: The launch of the Palapa telecommunication satellites); consequently Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered on par with China's. Suharto was keen to capitalise on such achievements to justify his presidency, and an MPR resolution in 1983 granted him the title of "Father of Development". Suharto's health-care programs (such as the Puskesmas program) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) and cut
21716-575: The legitimacy of the 1971 elections, the Golput Movement, the costly construction of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists ( Malari Incident of 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The New Order responded by imprisoning student activists and sending army units to occupy the campus of the Bandung Institute of Technology in 1978. In April 1978, Suharto ended
21894-460: The mainland. Subsequent migrations occurred in 1960 as part of a repatriation program and in 1965–1966 following a series of anti-communist violence that also drew anger toward the ethnic Chinese. As many as 80 percent of the original students who entered the mainland eventually became refugees in Hong Kong. During China's Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), Red Guards questioned the loyalty of
22072-491: The majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming dynasty 's interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, both legal and illegal, rarely reached the archipelago. The Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks
22250-530: The mariner Zheng He , who commanded several expeditions to Southeast Asia between 1405 and 1430. In the book Yingya Shenglan , his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java , but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century. The Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into
22428-483: The military and his family members, which extracted "donations" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds of these organisations were used for genuinely charitable purposes (such as building a heart-disease hospital by Yayasan Harapan Kita run by the first lady), most of the money was recycled as slush funds to reward political allies to maintain support for Suharto's presidency. In February 1975,
22606-603: The military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organised by the Kopkamtib (Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) and BAKIN (State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to the village level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of the Dwifungsi ("Dual Function") of
22784-531: The military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorised Operasi Trisula which destroyed PKI remnants trying to organise a guerrilla base in the Blitar area in 1968 and ordered several military operations which ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency in West Kalimantan (1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by
22962-423: The myriad yayasan s run by Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in "donations" from the public and private sectors each year. By the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was very strong, maintained by strict control over civil society, engineered elections, liberal use of the military's coercive powers, and a strong economy. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook
23140-406: The name of "anti-communism". Later, government action propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis severely disrupted their business activities, reform of government policy and legislation removed most if not all political and social restrictions on Chinese Indonesians. The development of local Chinese society and culture
23318-815: The nation's economy. The largest conglomerates are the Salim Group , led by Liem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim) , the Sinar Mas Group , led by Oei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja) , the Astra Group , led by Tjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya) , the Lippo Group , led by Lie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady) , the Barito Pacific Group, led by Pang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu) , and the Nusamba Group, led by Bob Hasan . Suharto decided to support
23496-490: The natives lived on subsistence. Indonesians engaged in violent anti-Japanese protests in January 1974 when Japan's Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka came to Jakarta to visit Suharto. Anti-Chinese sentiment gathered intensity through the 1990s. President Suharto gathered the most powerful businessmen—mostly Chinese Indonesians—in a nationally televised 1990 meeting at his private ranch, calling on them to contribute 25 percent of their shares to cooperatives . Commentators described
23674-659: The need of a permit. Two years later President Megawati Sukarnoputri declared that the Chinese New Year ( Imlek ) would be marked as a national holiday from 2003. Moreover, during President Wahid's presidency, the Indonesian Government initiated the first National Chinese New Year Celebration ( Perayaan Imlek Nasional ). Since then, the National Chinese New Year Celebration has been held annually, attended by
23852-565: The neighbouring colony of Portuguese Timor descended into civil war after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following the Carnation Revolution , whereby the leftist-leaning Fretilin ( Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente ) emerged triumphant. After persuasion from Western countries (including from US president Gerald R. Ford and Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam during their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene to prevent establishment of
24030-435: The new state according to the principle of jus soli (lit., right of the soil). However, Chinese law considered a person as a Chinese citizen according to the principle of jus sanguinis (lit., right of blood). This meant that all Indonesian citizens of Chinese descent were also claimed as citizens by the People's Republic of China. After several attempts by both governments to resolve this issue, Indonesia and China signed
24208-449: The north coast of Java. Most were traders and merchants, but they also practiced agriculture in inland areas. The Dutch contracted many of these immigrants as skilled artisans in the construction of Batavia (Jakarta) on the northwestern coast of Java. A recently created harbor was selected as the new headquarters of the Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie , VOC) in 1609 by Jan Pieterszoon Coen . It grew into
24386-417: The overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese. The term Chinese Indonesian has never been clearly defined, especially for the period before 1900. There was no Indonesian identity or nationality before the 20th century. The ethno-political category Han Chinese was also poorly defined before the rise of modern Chinese nationalism in the late 19th century. At its broadest,
24564-514: The party gained increasing influence at the expense of the Army, thus ensuring the Army's enmity. Muslim clerics, many of whom were landowners, felt threatened by the PKI's rural land confiscation actions. The army was alarmed at Sukarno’s support for the PKI’s wish to quickly establish a "fifth force" of armed peasants and labourers, which was first announced by the PKI to a CBS News journalist. Adding to this desperate and fractious nature of Indonesia in
24742-455: The pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of assimilation policies as a solution to the so-called "Chinese Problem". The Chinese Indonesian population of Java accounts for nearly half of the group's national population. They are generally more urbanized than Indonesia's indigenous population but significant rural and agricultural communities still exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in an upward shift in
24920-489: The powerful Kopkamtib in September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by loyalists. In an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military, Suharto began courting support from Islamic elements. He undertook a much-publicized hajj pilgrimage in 1991, took up name of Haji Mohammad Suharto, started promoting Islamic values into society, and promoted the careers of Islamic-oriented generals (dubbed
25098-414: The presidency for its subsequent 30 years. Within a few years, however, many of its original allies had become indifferent or averse to the New Order, which comprised a military faction supported by a narrow civilian group. Among much of the pro-democracy movement that forced Suharto to resign in the 1998 Indonesian Revolution and then gained power, the term New Order has come to be used pejoratively. It
25276-405: The removal of mass participation in the political process. The features of the "New Order" established from the late 1960s were thus a strong political role for the military, the bureaucratisation and corporatisation of political and societal organisations, and selective but brutal repression of opponents. Strident anti-communist , anti-socialist , and anti-Islamist doctrine remained a hallmark of
25454-444: The returned overseas Chinese because of their foreign connections. They were attacked as "imperialists", "capitalists", "spies", "half-breeds", and "foreign devils". As most had grown up in an urban environment they were sent to the countryside, told to "rebel against their own class background", and eventually lost contact with their families. In 1959, following the introduction of soft- authoritarian rule through Guided Democracy ,
25632-514: The riot expressed his hatred of the Madurese while he had a Chinese married to his sister which he liked. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998, one week after he returned from a Group of 15 meeting in Cairo , which took place during the riots. The reform government formed by his successor Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie began a campaign to rebuild the confidence of Chinese Indonesians who had fled
25810-571: The rubric of economic development, away from over-reliance to United States support. Suharto was elected as head of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1992, while Indonesia became a founding member of APEC , in 1989, and hosted the Bogor APEC Summit in 1994. Domestically, the growing rapaciousness of Suharto's family created discontent among the military, which lost access to power and lucrative rent-seeking opportunities. In
25988-585: The same neighborhood as the native population. Following the costly Java War (1825–1830) the Dutch introduced a new agrarian and cultivation system that required farmers to "yield up a portion of their fields and cultivate crops suitable for the European market". Compulsory cultivation restored the economy of the colony, but ended the system of revenue farms established under the VOC. The Chinese were perceived as temporary residents and encountered difficulties in obtaining land rights. Europeans were prioritized in
26166-567: The same year that the Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to take control of mainland China. Most Chinese Indonesians considered a communist China less attractive than a newly independent Indonesia, but in the archipelago their loyalties were questioned. Ethnic Chinese born in the Dutch East Indies whose parents were domiciled under Dutch administration were regarded as citizens of
26344-451: The second Indonesian President Suharto from his rise to power in 1966 until his resignation in 1998. Suharto coined the term upon his accession and used it to contrast his presidency with that of his predecessor Sukarno (retroactively dubbed the "Old Order" or Orde Lama ). Immediately following the attempted coup in 1965, the political situation was uncertain, and Suharto's New Order found much popular support from groups wanting
26522-582: The small traders and shop owners. In a 1989 interview conducted by scholar Adam Schwarz for his book A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability , an interviewee stated that, "to most Indonesians, the word 'Chinese' is synonymous with corruption". The economic role of the ethnic Chinese was contradictory because it did not translate to acceptance of their status in the greater society. They were politically weak and often faced social harassment. In 1973, native Indonesian anger against Japan
26700-570: The source of the country's mounting economic and political crises, prominent political figures spoke out against his presidency (notably Muslim politician Amien Rais ), and in January 1998 university students began organising nationwide demonstrations. In West Kalimantan there was communal violence between Dayaks and Madurese in 1996, in the Sambas conflict of 1999, and the Sampit conflict of 2001, all of which resulted in large-scale massacres of
26878-444: The spectacle as "good theatre", as it only served to reinforce resentment and suspicion of the ethnic Chinese among the indigenous population. Major riots broke out in Situbondo (October 1996), Tasikmalaya (December 1996), and Rengasdengklok (January 1997). When Suharto entered his seventh term as president, following an uncontested election on 10 March 1998, Indonesian students began a series of major demonstrations in protest of
27056-459: The start of Dutch colonialism in the region, although government policies implemented since 1998 have attempted to redress this. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as Native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive. Under the Suharto government backed by the United States during the Cold War, systematic massacres against ethnic Chinese occurred in
27234-445: The state oil company Pertamina was forced to default on its US$ 15 billion in loans from American and Canadian creditors . The company's director, General Ibnu Sutowo (a close ally of Suharto), invested the windfall income from rising oil prices into a myriad of other business activities such as shipping, steel, construction, real estate, and hospitals. These businesses were mismanaged and riddled with corruption. The government
27412-667: The state); and established the MUI ( Majelis Ulama Indonesia ) in 1975 to control Islamic clerics. In 1966 to 1967, to promote assimilation of the influential Chinese Indonesians , the Suharto government passed several laws as part of the so-called "Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including display of Chinese characters) were prohibited from public space, Chinese schools were phased out, and
27590-468: The teaching of the English and Chinese languages should be prioritized over Dutch, to provide themselves with the means of taking, in the words of Phoa Keng Hek , "a two or three-day voyage (Java– Singapore ) into a wider world where they can move freely" and overcome restrictions of their activities. Several years later, the Dutch authorities abandoned its segregation policies, abolished travel permits for
27768-416: The term Chinese Indonesian is used to refer to anyone from, or having an ancestor from, the present-day territory of China and Taiwan. This usage is problematic because it conflates Han Chinese with other ethnic groups under Chinese rule. For instance, Admiral Zheng He (1371–1433), who led several Chinese maritime expeditions into Southeast Asia, was a Muslim from Yunnan and was not of Chinese ancestry, yet he
27946-416: The term focus on culture, defining as Chinese Indonesian those who choose to prioritize their Chinese ancestry, especially those who have Chinese names or follow aspects of Chinese religion or culture . Within this cultural definition, a distinction has commonly been made between peranakan and totok Chinese. Peranakan were generally said to have mixed Chinese and local ancestry and to have developed
28124-435: The then-largely-uncensored internet as Tempointeraktif (which still exists today as tempo.co ) for the rest of the New Order, and the owner of DeTIK would launch another magazine called DeTAK . By the 1990s, elements of the growing Indonesian middle class , created by Suharto's economic development, were becoming restless with his autocracy and his family's brazen corruption, fuelling demands for " Reformasi " (reform) of
28302-629: The time ended the insurgency ended in 1992. More subtly, the Suharto government sought to better control the press by issuing a 1984 law requiring all media to possess a press operating licence ( SIUPP ) which could be revoked at any time by the Ministry of Information. In the international arena, Western concern over Communism waned with the end of the Cold War , and Suharto's human-rights record came under greater international scrutiny. The November 1991 Santa Cruz Massacre in Dili , East Timor, resulted in
28480-425: The title kapitan or majoor . These officers had a high degree of authority over their community and undertook negotiations between the community and VOC authorities. Dutch colonial rule saw the beginning of anti-Chinese policies, including killings and ghettoization. Most of those who settled in the archipelago had already severed their ties with the mainland and welcomed favorable treatment and protection under
28658-505: The treaty came into effect in 1962. On the other hand, an estimated 60,000 ethnic Chinese students left for the People's Republic of China in the 1950s and early 1960s. The first wave of students were almost entirely educated in Chinese-language schools, but were not able to find opportunities for tertiary education in Indonesia. Seeking quality scientific professions, they entered China with high hopes for their future and that of
28836-600: The wake of Mao Zedong 's decree that all Chinese people everywhere are citizens of the People's Republic of China based on the principle of jus sanguinis (blood descendants). This was followed with the Dual Nationality Agreement between Indonesia and China between Zhou Enlai and Soenario in 1955. On July 8, 1996, President Suharto issued Presidential Decree (Decree) No. 56 of 1996 on Proof of Indonesian Citizenship. Chapter 4, point 2, reads, "For
29014-453: The war. It was only after the war ended when Japanese control fell and then the native Indonesians again started attacks against the Chinese of Java when the Japanese were unable to protect them. The Japanese recruited help from local collaborator police of all ethnicities to recruit Javanese girls as comfort women , with one account accusing Chinese recruiters of tricking a Javanese regent into sending good Javanese girls into prostitution for
29192-672: The world after Thailand , Malaysia , and the United States . Chinese people and their Indonesian descendants have lived in the Indonesian archipelago since at least the 13th century. Many came initially as sojourners (temporary residents), intending to return home in their old age. Some, however, stayed in the region as economic migrants . Their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in Southern China. Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians has occurred since
29370-450: Was alleviated by influx of USAID rice aid shipments in 1967 to 1968. Realizing the dearth of domestic capital capable of re-juvenating growth, Suharto reversed Sukarno's economic autarky policies by opening selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment under the new Foreign Investment Law of January 1967 (containing generous tax holidays and free movement of money). Suharto himself travelled to Western Europe and Japan in
29548-475: Was boiling over, over predatory Japanese investment and economic policy that was described as colonialism. Native Indonesians hated Japanese businessmen for discriminating against native Indonesians and treating them badly while the Japanese favored Chinese Indonesian business partners over native Indonesians due to their experience, contacts and skills. The Japanese used Southeast Asians like native Indonesians for cheap labour and natural resources to make money while
29726-478: Was duly noted by United Nations General Assembly in November 1969. Under Suharto, political Islamists were suppressed and religious Muslims were carefully watched by the Indonesian government. Several Christian Generals who served under Suharto like Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani actively persecuted religious Muslims in the Indonesian armed forces, which was described as being "anti-Islamic", denying religious Muslims promotions, and preventing them from praying in
29904-718: Was followed by waves of arrests on 200 democracy activists, 23 of whom were kidnapped (some were murdered) by army squads called Tim Mawar ("Rose Team") led by Suharto's son-in-law, Major-General Prabowo Subianto . Regardless of these incidents, as late as mid-1997, Suharto's grip on power seemed as secure as ever with the military led by his loyalists, all opposition groups suppressed, and the economy in good shape. The 1997 Asian financial crisis began in July 1997, in Thailand , and spread into Indonesia as foreign speculative investors pulled out their investments, sucking U.S. dollar liquidity in Indonesia and causing severe depreciation of
30082-577: Was forced to bail out the company, in the process nearly doubling the national debt , while Ibnu Sutowo was removed from his position. Upon assuming power, Suharto government adopted a policy of neutrality in the Cold War with quiet alignment with the Western bloc (including Japan and South Korea) with the objective of securing support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support. Diplomatic relations with
30260-462: Was formed in 1967 to examine various aspects of the " Chinese Problem " ( Masalah Cina ) and agreed that forced emigration of whole communities was not a solution: "The challenge was to take advantage of their economic aptitude whilst eliminating their perceived economic dominance." The semi-governmental Institute for the Promotion of National Unity ( Lembaga Pembina Kesatuan Bangsa , LPKB)
30438-424: Was formed to advise the government on facilitating assimilation of Chinese Indonesians. This process was done through highlighting the differences between the ethnic Chinese and the indigenous pribumi , rather than seeking similarities. Expressions of Chinese culture through language, religion, and traditional festivals were banned and the ethnic Chinese were pressured to adopt Indonesian-sounding names . During
30616-522: Was founded in Surakarta on 4 January 1946, LTI ( Lasjkar Tionghoa Indonesia ) in Pemalang , and in Kudus Chinese descents became members of Muria Territorial Command called Matjan Poetih troops, a platoon size force under Mayor Kusmanto. The Netherlands relinquished its territorial claims in the archipelago (with the exception of West Papua ) following the 1949 Round Table Conference . In
30794-497: Was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants: Golkar, four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on a non-ideological platform of "development", and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics. Golkar secured 62.8% of the popular vote. The March 1973 general session of the MPR promptly appointed Suharto to a second term in office with Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX as vice-president. On 5 January 1973, to allow better control,
30972-523: Was later formed by wealthy ethnic Chinese who received an education at Dutch-run schools. This Dutch-oriented group wished for increased participation in local politics, Dutch education for the ethnic Chinese, and the furthering of ethnic Chinese economic standing within the colonial economy. Championed by the Volksraad 's Chinese representatives, such as Hok Hoei Kan , Loa Sek Hie and Phoa Liong Gie , this movement gained momentum and reached its peak with
31150-494: Was met with protests from the Chinese government and some circles of Indonesian society. Javanese writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer later criticized the policies in his 1961 book Hoakiau di Indonesia . An integrationist movement, led by the Chinese-Indonesian organisation Baperki ( Badan Permusjawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia ), began to gather interest in 1963, including that of President Sukarno . However,
31328-459: Was met with skepticism because of remarks he made, as vice president and as president, which suggested that the message was insincere. One special envoy described Chinese Indonesians as the key to restoring badly needed capital and economic activity, prioritizing businessmen as the target of their pleas. Others, including economist Kwik Kian Gie , saw the government's efforts as perpetuating the myth of Chinese economic domination rather than affirming
31506-475: Was said to have controlled about 36,000 km of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with Suharto family's companies. Meanwhile,
31684-462: Was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. Their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the coastal towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by
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