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58-470: The entire SCAN interview consists of 1,872 items, spread out over 28 sections. Most patients, however, will only need parts of the interview, and it is assessed in the beginning of each section if the section is actually relevant. The sections are as follows: The first section in the SCAN interview is concerned with sociodemographic items such as age, gender, education, etc. In section 1 (the second section),

116-477: A blind interview the identity of the interviewee is concealed to reduce interviewer bias. Blind interviews are sometimes used in the software industry and are standard in orchestral auditions . Blind interviews have been shown in some cases to increase the hiring of minorities and women. The relationship between the interviewer and interviewee in research settings can have both positive and negative consequences. Their relationship can bring deeper understanding of

174-546: A Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). This includes testing the respondents' ability to know where they are, what the date and year is, to remember words, to follow instructions, attention, and concentration. This section is rated by the interviewer based on observing the respondents, or consulting their medical charts. A variety of items are assessed, including underactivity, stupor , distractibility, agitation, ambitendence , echopraxia , embarrassing or bizarre behavior, histrionic behavior, self injury, hoarding of objects, and

232-429: A fluid wave driven by pressure across the basilar membrane separating two of the sections. Strikingly, one section, called the cochlear duct or scala media , contains endolymph . The organ of Corti is located in this duct on the basilar membrane, and transforms mechanical waves to electric signals in neurons. The other two sections are known as the scala tympani and the scala vestibuli . These are located within

290-430: A fluid with a very different ion concentration and voltage. Vestibular duct perilymph vibrations bend organ of Corti outer cells (4 lines) causing prestin to be released in cell tips. This causes the cells to be chemically elongated and shrunk ( somatic motor ), and hair bundles to shift which, in turn, electrically affects the basilar membrane 's movement (hair-bundle motor). These motors (outer hair cells ) amplify

348-427: A panoply of auditory reactions and sensations. Hair cells are columnar cells, each with a "hair bundle" of 100–200 specialized stereocilia at the top, for which they are named. There are two types of hair cells specific to the auditory system; inner and outer hair cells . Inner hair cells are the mechanoreceptors for hearing: they transduce the vibration of sound into electrical activity in nerve fibers , which

406-421: A play ( depersonalization ). Experiences such as believing that one's reflection is unrecognizable, or that one's appearance has been changed, are also rated here. In this section, the respondent is asked about the experience of hallucinations , be they visual , auditory (verbal or non-verbal), olfactory , tactile , or sexual. Section 18 measures the existence and type of thought interference. These include

464-406: A spoken conversation between two or more parties, but can also happen between two persons who type their questions and answers. Interviews can be unstructured, free-wheeling, and open-ended conversations without a predetermined plan or prearranged questions. One form of unstructured interview is a focused interview in which the interviewer consciously and consistently guides the conversation so that

522-493: A variety of negative symptoms . Interviewer An interview is a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the other provides answers. In common parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee . The interviewer asks questions to which the interviewee responds, usually providing information. That information may be used or provided to other audiences immediately or later. This feature

580-752: Is a barrier between scalae, along the edge of which the IHCs and OHCs sit. Basilar membrane width and stiffness vary to control the frequencies best sensed by the IHC. At the cochlear base the BM is at its narrowest and most stiff (high-frequencies), while at the cochlear apex it is at its widest and least stiff (low-frequencies). The tectorial membrane (TM) helps facilitate cochlear amplification by stimulating OHC (direct) and IHC (via endolymph vibrations). TM width and stiffness parallels BM's and similarly aids in frequency differentiation. The superior olivary complex (SOC), in

638-432: Is a bundle of decussating fibers in the ventral pons that carry information used for binaural computations in the brainstem. Some of these axons come from the cochlear nucleus and cross over to the other side before traveling on to the superior olivary nucleus. This is believed to help with localization of sound . The superior olivary complex is located in the pons , and receives projections predominantly from

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696-400: Is a flexible arrangement in the sense that subsequent questions can be tailored to clarify earlier answers. Further, it eliminates possible distortion due to other parties being present. Interviews have taken on an even more significant role, offering opportunities to showcase not just expertise, but adaptability and strategic thinking. Interviews can happen in a wide variety of contexts: In

754-568: Is a tract of axons in the brainstem that carries information about sound from the cochlear nucleus to various brainstem nuclei and ultimately the contralateral inferior colliculus of the midbrain . The inferior colliculi (IC) are located just below the visual processing centers known as the superior colliculi . The central nucleus of the IC is a nearly obligatory relay in the ascending auditory system, and most likely acts to integrate information (specifically regarding sound source localization from

812-564: Is an approximately exponential function of the length of the cochlea within the Organ of Corti . In some species, such as bats and dolphins, the relationship is expanded in specific areas to support their active sonar capability. The organ of Corti forms a ribbon of sensory epithelium which runs lengthwise down the cochlea's entire scala media . Its hair cells transform the fluid waves into nerve signals. The journey of countless nerves begins with this first step; from here, further processing leads to

870-401: Is associated with the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (STG). The superior temporal gyrus contains several important structures of the brain, including Brodmann areas 41 and 42, marking the location of the primary auditory cortex , the cortical region responsible for the sensation of basic characteristics of sound such as pitch and rhythm. We know from research in nonhuman primates that

928-500: Is common to many types of interviews – a job interview or interview with a witness to an event may have no other audience present at the time, but the answers will be later provided to others in the employment or investigative process. An interview may also transfer information in both directions. Interviews usually take place face-to-face, in person, but the parties may instead be separated geographically, as in videoconferencing or telephone interviews . Interviews almost always involve

986-480: Is heavily involved in emotion-sound, emotion-facial-expression, and sound-memory processes. The entorhinal cortex is the part of the 'hippocampus system' that aids and stores visual and auditory memories. The supramarginal gyrus (SMG) aids in language comprehension and is responsible for compassionate responses. SMG links sounds to words with the angular gyrus and aids in word choice. SMG integrates tactile, visual, and auditory info. The folds of cartilage surrounding

1044-569: Is rated both by using direct questions and by observing the patient. Section 3 explores the degree of worrying and tension in the patient, by direct questions about feelings of worrying, nervous tension, muscular tension, fatiguability, noise sensitivity, etc. Section 4 measures the degree and physiological reactions associated with potential anxiety attacks and phobias , including behaviour in which situations are avoided due to phobias. Fear of dying and generalized anxiety disorder are also measured. Section 5 explores, by direct questions, whether

1102-425: Is rated by the interviewer based on the clinical picture of the interview and the patient in general, and is thus not completed by using direct questions. Just like section 1, section 14 is used for screening the existence of symptoms, in this case for part 2 of the SCAN interview which focuses on psychotic symptoms . In this section, the interviewer rates the existence of any language problems that makes conducting

1160-496: Is surrounded by secondary auditory cortex, and interconnects with it. These secondary areas interconnect with further processing areas in the superior temporal gyrus , in the dorsal bank of the superior temporal sulcus , and in the frontal lobe . In humans, connections of these regions with the middle temporal gyrus are probably important for speech perception . The frontotemporal system underlying auditory perception allows us to distinguish sounds as speech, music, or noise. From

1218-528: Is the experience of external forces (e.g. other people) controlling the respondents' will, voice, handwriting, actions, or affect. Delusions of being spied upon, and other paranoid delusions, are rated by direct questions in this section. Other types of delusions covered in this section include others not being who they claim to be, that people close to the respondent have been replaced with lookalikes, and delusions of conspiracy . Furthermore, hypochondrial delusions, and grandiose delusions, etc., are rated by

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1276-455: Is the first site of the neuronal processing of the newly converted "digital" data from the inner ear (see also binaural fusion ). In mammals, this region is anatomically and physiologically split into two regions, the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), and ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN). The VCN is further divided by the nerve root into the posteroventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN) and the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN). The trapezoid body

1334-449: Is transmitted to the brain. Outer hair cells are a motor structure. Sound energy causes changes in the shape of these cells, which serves to amplify sound vibrations in a frequency specific manner. Lightly resting atop the longest cilia of the inner hair cells is the tectorial membrane , which moves back and forth with each cycle of sound, tilting the cilia, which is what elicits the hair cells' electrical responses. Inner hair cells, like

1392-419: The interviewer starts to ask the respondent or patient about what kinds of symptoms has been experienced. This section is not used in diagnosis, but it is intended as a help for the interviewer to determine which items in the interview to emphasize on. As such, it is a screening tool for part 1 of the interview (sections 2 to 13). Section 2 is primarily centered on somatoform and dissociative symptoms and

1450-413: The oval window or vestibular window. The manubrium (handle) of the malleus articulates with the tympanic membrane, while the footplate (base) of the stapes articulates with the oval window. Higher pressure is necessary at the oval window than at the tympanic membrane because the inner ear beyond the oval window contains liquid rather than air. The stapedius reflex of the middle ear muscles helps protect

1508-418: The photoreceptor cells of the eye, show a graded response , instead of the spikes typical of other neurons. These graded potentials are not bound by the "all or none" properties of an action potential. At this point, one may ask how such a wiggle of a hair bundle triggers a difference in membrane potential. The current model is that cilia are attached to one another by " tip links ", structures which link

1566-413: The pons , is the first convergence of the left and right cochlear pulses. SOC has 14 described nuclei; their abbreviation are used here (see Superior olivary complex for their full names). MSO determines the angle the sound came from by measuring time differences in left and right info. LSO normalizes sound levels between the ears; it uses the sound intensities to help determine sound angle. LSO innervates

1624-450: The superior olivary complex and dorsal cochlear nucleus ) before sending it to the thalamus and cortex . The inferior colliculus also receives descending inputs from the auditory cortex and auditory thalamus (or medial geniculate nucleus ). The medial geniculate nucleus is part of the thalamic relay system. The primary auditory cortex is the first region of cerebral cortex to receive auditory input. Perception of sound

1682-400: The IHC. VNTB innervate OHC. MNTB inhibit LSO via glycine. LNTB are glycine-immune, used for fast signalling. DPO are high-frequency and tonotopical. DLPO are low-frequency and tonotopical. VLPO have the same function as DPO, but act in a different area. PVO, CPO, RPO, VMPO, ALPO and SPON (inhibited by glycine) are various signalling and inhibiting nuclei. The trapezoid body is where most of

1740-522: The auditory system is required to able to sense, process, and understand sound from the surroundings. Difficulty in sensing, processing and understanding sound input has the potential to adversely impact an individual's ability to communicate, learn and effectively complete routine tasks on a daily basis. In children, early diagnosis and treatment of impaired auditory system function is an important factor in ensuring that key social, academic and speech/language developmental milestones are met. Impairment of

1798-398: The basilar membrane supplying the inputs to a particular afferent nerve fibre can be considered to be its receptive field . Efferent projections from the brain to the cochlea also play a role in the perception of sound, although this is not well understood. Efferent synapses occur on outer hair cells and on afferent (towards the brain) dendrites under inner hair cells The cochlear nucleus

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1856-450: The beginning of the middle ear . Sound waves travel through the ear canal and hit the tympanic membrane, or eardrum . This wave information travels across the air-filled middle ear cavity via a series of delicate bones: the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). These ossicles act as a lever, converting the lower-pressure eardrum sound vibrations into higher-pressure sound vibrations at another, smaller membrane called

1914-460: The best temporal precision while firing, they decode the auditory timing code. The DCN has 2 nuclei. DCN also receives info from VCN. Fusiform cells integrate information to determine spectral cues to locations (for example, whether a sound originated from in front or behind). Cochlear nerve fibers (30,000+) each have a most sensitive frequency and respond over a wide range of levels. Simplified, nerve fibers' signals are transported by bushy cells to

1972-434: The binaural areas in the olivary complex , while signal peaks and valleys are noted by stellate cells, and signal timing is extracted by octopus cells. The lateral lemniscus has three nuclei: dorsal nuclei respond best to bilateral input and have complexity tuned responses; intermediate nuclei have broad tuning responses; and ventral nuclei have broad and moderately complex tuning curves. Ventral nuclei of lateral lemniscus help

2030-475: The bony labyrinth, which is filled with fluid called perilymph , similar in composition to cerebrospinal fluid. The chemical difference between the fluids endolymph and perilymph fluids is important for the function of the inner ear due to electrical potential differences between potassium and calcium ions. The plan view of the human cochlea (typical of all mammalian and most vertebrates ) shows where specific frequencies occur along its length. The frequency

2088-461: The cochlear nucleus (CN) fibers decussate (cross left to right and vice versa); this cross aids in sound localization. The CN breaks into ventral (VCN) and dorsal (DCN) regions. The VCN has three nuclei. Bushy cells transmit timing info, their shape averages timing jitters. Stellate (chopper) cells encode sound spectra (peaks and valleys) by spatial neural firing rates based on auditory input strength (rather than frequency). Octopus cells have close to

2146-414: The ear canal are called the auricle . Sound waves are reflected and attenuated when they hit the auricle, and these changes provide additional information that will help the brain determine the sound direction. The sound waves enter the auditory canal , a deceptively simple tube. The ear canal amplifies sounds that are between 3 and 12 kHz . The tympanic membrane , at the far end of the ear canal marks

2204-629: The inferior colliculus (IC) decode amplitude modulated sounds by giving both phasic and tonic responses (short and long notes, respectively). IC receives inputs not shown, including: The above are what implicate IC in the 'startle response' and ocular reflexes. Beyond multi-sensory integration IC responds to specific amplitude modulation frequencies, allowing for the detection of pitch. IC also determines time differences in binaural hearing. The medial geniculate nucleus divides into: The auditory cortex (AC) brings sound into awareness/perception. AC identifies sounds (sound-name recognition) and also identifies

2262-426: The information being collected, however this creates a risk that the interviewer will be unable to be unbiased in their collection and interpretation of information. Bias can be created from the interviewer's perception of the interviewee, or the interviewee's perception of the interviewer. Additionally, a researcher can bring biases to the table based on the researcher's mental state, their preparedness for conducting

2320-450: The inner ear from damage by reducing the transmission of sound energy when the stapedius muscle is activated in response to sound. The middle ear still contains the sound information in wave form; it is converted to nerve impulses in the cochlea . The inner ear consists of the cochlea and several non-auditory structures. The cochlea has three fluid-filled sections (i.e. the scala media, scala tympani and scala vestibuli) , and supports

2378-519: The interview impossible. Many of the other sections provide options for rating that assessment of individual items is impossible because of the presence of language problems recorded in section 15. Section 16 measures, through direct questions, whether non-hallucinatory perceptual disorders are present. These may present themselves by the respondents stating to have experiences of their surroundings being distorted, or unreal ( derealization ), or that they themselves are not real, but more like characters in

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2436-414: The interviewee's responses do not stray from the main research topic or idea. Interviews can also be highly structured conversations in which specific questions occur in a specified order. They can follow diverse formats; for example, in a ladder interview , a respondent's answers typically guide subsequent interviews, with the object being to explore a respondent's subconscious motives . Typically

2494-403: The interviewer has some way of recording the information that is gleaned from the interviewee, often by keeping notes with a pencil and paper, or with a video or audio recorder. The traditionally two-person interview format, sometimes called a one-on-one interview, permits direct questions and follow-ups, which enables an interviewer to better gauge the accuracy and relevance of responses. It

2552-414: The interviewer. This section is fully rated by the interviewer after the interview, and deals with aspects of duration and course of schizophrenia and psychosis and other symptoms rated in part 2 of the SCAN interview. This section consists of a series of tests to be conducted by the respondent to establish the presence of cognitive impairment such as dementia . The majority of the section consists of

2610-452: The neurotransmitter glutamate communicates signals from the hair cells to the dendrites of the primary auditory neurons. There are far fewer inner hair cells in the cochlea than afferent nerve fibers – many auditory nerve fibers innervate each hair cell. The neural dendrites belong to neurons of the auditory nerve , which in turn joins the vestibular nerve to form the vestibulocochlear nerve , or cranial nerve number VIII. The region of

2668-473: The posterior superior temporal gyrus and sulcus, inferior parietal lobule and intra-parietal sulcus. Both pathways project in humans to the inferior frontal gyrus. The most established role of the auditory dorsal stream in primates is sound localization. In humans, the auditory dorsal stream in the left hemisphere is also responsible for speech repetition and articulation, phonological long-term encoding of word names, and verbal working memory. Proper function of

2726-440: The primary auditory cortex can probably be divided further into functionally differentiable subregions. The neurons of the primary auditory cortex can be considered to have receptive fields covering a range of auditory frequencies and have selective responses to harmonic pitches. Neurons integrating information from the two ears have receptive fields covering a particular region of auditory space. The primary auditory cortex

2784-405: The primary auditory cortex emerge two separate pathways: the auditory ventral stream and auditory dorsal stream. The auditory ventral stream includes the anterior superior temporal gyrus, anterior superior temporal sulcus, middle temporal gyrus and temporal pole. Neurons in these areas are responsible for sound recognition, and extraction of meaning from sentences. The auditory dorsal stream includes

2842-399: The problem they are studying. Auditory system The auditory system is the sensory system for the sense of hearing . It includes both the sensory organs (the ears) and the auditory parts of the sensory system . The outer ear funnels sound vibrations to the eardrum , increasing the sound pressure in the middle frequency range. The middle-ear ossicles further amplify

2900-401: The research, and the researcher conducting inappropriate interviews. Interviewers can use various practices known in qualitative research to mitigate interviewer bias. These practices include subjectivity , objectivity , and reflexivity . Each of these practices allows the interviewer, or researcher, the opportunity to use their bias to enhance their work by gaining a deeper understanding of

2958-473: The respondent experiences euphoria or abnormally elevated mood ( mania ), which can be used in diagnosing, for instance, bipolar disorders . Section 11 measures, through direct questions, amounts of alcoholic beverages consumed and social, legal, physical, and other problems related to alcohol use. Section 12 measures, again through direct questions, the same as section 11, only relating to prescription drugs , illicit drugs , and nicotine . This section

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3016-709: The respondent experiences behaviour characteristic of OCD . Section 6 measures, by direct questions, whether the respondent is depressed, by items relating to feeling low , uncontrolled crying, anhedonia , loss of feeling, suicidal tendencies , social withdrawal, insomnia or hypersomnia , dysthymia , etc. Section 7 measures cognitive functioning through direct questions about concentration, loss of interests or drive, and being overwhelmed by everyday tasks. Section 8 asks direct questions about weight and weight gain or loss, appetite, sleep patterns, and libido . Section 9 aims to diagnose eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa . Section 10 measures whether

3074-434: The respondents' thoughts being read, loud (i.e. having voice-like sound), echoing, being broadcast, or even stolen. Experiences of thought being inserted into the respondents' minds are also rated here, as is the experience of thought stopping , involuntarily, as suddenly as a TV becoming unplugged. Alternate lines of thought, that don't belong to the respondent but that comment on the respondents thoughts, are rated as well. So

3132-498: The sound's origin location. AC is a topographical frequency map with bundles reacting to different harmonies, timing and pitch. Right-hand-side AC is more sensitive to tonality, left-hand-side AC is more sensitive to minute sequential differences in sound. Rostromedial and ventrolateral prefrontal cortices are involved in activation during tonal space and storing short-term memories, respectively. The Heschl's gyrus/transverse temporal gyrus includes Wernicke's area and functionality, it

3190-563: The tips of one cilium to another. Stretching and compressing, the tip links may open an ion channel and produce the receptor potential in the hair cell. Recently it has been shown that cadherin-23 CDH23 and protocadherin-15 PCDH15 are the adhesion molecules associated with these tip links. It is thought that a calcium driven motor causes a shortening of these links to regenerate tensions. This regeneration of tension allows for apprehension of prolonged auditory stimulation. Afferent neurons innervate cochlear inner hair cells, at synapses where

3248-426: The traveling wave amplitudes over 40-fold. The outer hair cells (OHC) are minimally innervated by spiral ganglion in slow (unmyelinated) reciprocal communicative bundles (30+ hairs per nerve fiber ); this contrasts with inner hair cells (IHC) that have only afferent innervation (30+ nerve fibers per one hair) but are heavily connected. There are three to four times as many OHCs as IHCs. The basilar membrane (BM)

3306-406: The ventral cochlear nucleus, although the dorsal cochlear nucleus projects there as well, via the ventral acoustic stria. Within the superior olivary complex lies the lateral superior olive (LSO) and the medial superior olive (MSO). The former is important in detecting interaural level differences while the latter is important in distinguishing interaural time difference . The lateral lemniscus

3364-410: The vibration pressure roughly 20 times. The base of the stapes couples vibrations into the cochlea via the oval window , which vibrates the perilymph liquid (present throughout the inner ear ) and causes the round window to bulb out as the oval window bulges in. Vestibular and tympanic ducts are filled with perilymph, and the smaller cochlear duct between them is filled with endolymph ,

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