Misplaced Pages

#990009

124-455: A major setback occurred in 2016 when a catastrophic explosion during a static fire test heavily damaged the facility. After extensive repairs and upgrades, SLC-40 returned to service in December 2017. To further enhance its capabilities, a tower and access arm were added in 2023 to support SpaceX's crewed missions. Originally designated Launch Complex 40, SLC-40 hosted its inaugural launch for

248-646: A Europa Orbiter mission was proposed by a team for NASA's Discovery Program but was not selected. NASA's JPL announced one month after the selection of Discovery proposals that a NASA Europa orbiter mission would be conducted. JPL then invited the Discovery proposal team to be the Mission Review Committee (MRC). At the same time as the proposal of the Discovery-class Europa Orbiter, the robotic Galileo spacecraft

372-461: A radio science subsystem . Measuring the Doppler shift in the radio signals between the spacecraft and Earth will allow the spacecraft's motion to be determined in detail. As the spacecraft performs each of its 45 Europa flybys, its trajectory will be altered by the moon's gravitational field. The Doppler data will be used to determine the higher order coefficients of that gravity field, to determine

496-581: A "systemic problem" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Europa Clipper Europa Clipper (previously known as Europa Multiple Flyby Mission ) is a space probe developed by NASA to study Europa , a Galilean moon of Jupiter . It was launched on October 14, 2024. The spacecraft will use gravity assists from Mars on March 1, 2025, and Earth on December 3, 2026, before arriving at Europa in April 2030. The spacecraft will then perform

620-562: A $ 179.7 billion budget and is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848 active duty airmen , 147,879 civilian personnel, 68,927 reserve airmen, 105,104 Air National Guard airmen, and approximately 65,000 Civil Air Patrol auxiliarists . According to the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat . 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines

744-565: A Bottle, most of whom were from the United States. Other elements etched on the inwards side together with the poem and names are the Drake equation , representations of the spectral lines of atomic hydrogen and the hydroxyl radical , together known as the water hole , and a portrait of planetary scientist Ron Greeley . The outward-facing panel features art that highlights Earth's connection to Europa. Linguists collected recordings of

868-758: A Europa orbiter, JPL conducted preliminary mission studies that envisioned a capable spacecraft such as the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (a US$ 16 billion mission concept), the Jupiter Europa Orbiter (a US$ 4.3 billion concept), another orbiter (US$ 2 billion concept), and a multi-flyby spacecraft: Europa Clipper. A mission to Europa was recommended by the National Research Council in 2013. The approximate cost estimate rose from US$ 2 billion in 2013 to US$ 4.25 billion in 2020. The mission

992-426: A broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2

1116-438: A cleanup plan for drinking water around Tucson, Arizona after the region's groundwater was contaminated by PFAS runoff from nearby Air Force bases. The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since

1240-458: A commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control,

1364-502: A commercial launch vehicle. On February 10, 2021, it was announced that the mission would use a 5.5-year trajectory to the Jovian system, with gravity-assist maneuvers involving Mars (March 1, 2025) and Earth (December 3, 2026). Launch was targeted for a 21-day period between October 10 and 30, 2024, giving an arrival date in April 2030, and backup launch dates were identified in 2025 and 2026. The SLS option would have entailed

SECTION 10

#1732779507991

1488-580: A direct trajectory to Jupiter taking less than three years. One alternative to the direct trajectory was identified as using a commercial rocket, with a longer 6-year cruise time involving gravity assist maneuvers at Venus , Earth and/or Mars . Additionally, a launch on a Delta IV Heavy with a gravity assist at Venus was considered. In July 2021 the decision was announced to launch on a Falcon Heavy rocket, in fully expendable configuration. Three reasons were given: reasonable launch cost (ca. $ 178 million), questionable SLS availability, and possible damage to

1612-894: A force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is "the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as "the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission." Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward as fixed-wing aircraft are able to conduct airland operations. Global precision attack

1736-583: A foreseen lack of available SLS vehicles. The United States Congress's 2021 omnibus spending bill directed the NASA Administrator to conduct a full and open competition to select a commercial launch vehicle if the conditions to launch the probe on a SLS rocket cannot be met. On January 25, 2021, NASA's Planetary Missions Program Office formally directed the mission team to "immediately cease efforts to maintain SLS compatibility" and move forward with

1860-478: A gravity assist from Mars on March 1, 2025, allowing it to speed further away from the Sun, then down towards the Sun and back out, and gain additional kinetic energy from an Earth gravity assist on December 3, 2026. The probe will then arc (reach aphelion ) beyond Jupiter's orbit on October 4, 2029 before slowly falling into Jupiter's gravity well and executing its orbital insertion burn in April 2030. As of 2014 ,

1984-521: A launcher that does not use SRBs. The cost to redesign Europa Clipper for the SLS vibratory environment was estimated at US$ 1 billion. Europa Clipper was launched on October 14, 2024, at 12:06 p.m. EDT from Launch Pad 39A at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Hurricane Milton caused a launch attempt for October 10 to be scrubbed, resulting in the launch being finalized for October 14. The trajectory of Europa Clipper will include

2108-440: A mission extension. The goals of Europa Clipper are to explore Europa, investigate its habitability and aid in the selection of a landing site for the proposed Europa Lander . This exploration is focused on understanding the three main requirements for life: liquid water , chemistry , and energy. Specifically, the objectives are to study: Because Europa lies well within the harsh radiation fields surrounding Jupiter, even

2232-523: A nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which

2356-716: A part of the United States Army Signal Corps , the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of the National Security Act of 1947 . It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forces and the fourth in order of precedence . The United States Air Force articulates its core missions as air supremacy , global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance , rapid global mobility , global strike , and command and control . The United States Air Force

2480-482: A poem called "In Praise of Mystery: A Poem for Europa" written by the U.S. Poet Laureate Ada Limón , for the 2.9-billion-kilometer (1.8-billion mi) voyage to Jupiter. The poem connects the two water worlds – Earth, yearning to reach out and understand what makes a world habitable, and Europa, waiting with secrets yet to be explored. The poem is engraved on Europa Clipper inside a tantalum metal plate, about 7 by 11 inches (18 by 28 centimeters), that seals an opening into

2604-405: A precondition" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as "air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with

SECTION 20

#1732779507991

2728-410: A radiation-hardened spacecraft in near orbit would be functional for just a few months. Most instruments can gather data far faster than the communications system can transmit it to Earth due to the limited number of antennas available on Earth to receive the scientific data. Therefore, another key limiting factor on science for a Europa orbiter is the time available to return data to Earth. In contrast,

2852-494: A rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either the Continental United States , within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using

2976-521: A series of flybys of Europa while in orbit around Jupiter. Europa Clipper is designed to follow up on evidence for a subsurface ocean underneath Europa's ice crust , found using the Galileo spacecraft which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. Plans to send a spacecraft to Europa were initially conceived with projects such as Europa Orbiter and Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter , in which a spacecraft would be inserted into orbit around Europa. However, due to

3100-767: A sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005 and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted the resignations of both the Secretary of the Air Force , Michael Wynne , and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General T. Michael Moseley . In his decision to fire both men Gates cited "systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance". Left unmentioned by Gates

3224-428: A simple probe, an impactor, or a lander. An internal assessment at European Space Agency (ESA) considered whether there was interest and funds available, opening a collaboration scheme similar to the very successful Cassini–Huygens approach. In May 2015, NASA chose nine instruments that would fly on board the orbiter, budgeted to cost about US$ 110 million over the next three years. In June 2015, NASA approved

3348-537: A static fire test, destroying a Falcon 9 rocket and its payload, the AMOS-6 satellite. The incident caused significant damage to the launch pad. After a thorough investigation and cleanup, repairs and upgrades began in early 2017. SLC-40 returned to service in December 2017 with the successful launch of CRS-13. SpaceX had leased Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) at the nearby Kennedy Space Center from NASA in April 2014, which allowed launches to continue to from Florida during

3472-452: A strong focus on the improvement of Basic Military Training (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with

3596-500: A typical cell phone).The antennas will be used to research gravity and radio science, allowing researchers to learn more about Europa's gravity It was designed and constructed by a team led by Matt Bray at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory , before being tested at Langley Research Center and Goddard Space Flight Center in the spring and summer of 2022. The Europa Clipper mission

3720-510: A variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and

3844-490: Is Elizabeth Turtle of the Applied Physics Laboratory. It consists of two cameras, both of which use 2048x4096 pixel CMOS detectors : The Europa Ultraviolet Spectrograph instrument will be able to detect small plumes and will provide valuable data about the composition and dynamics of the moon's exosphere . The principal investigator is Kurt Retherford of Southwest Research Institute . Retherford

Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3968-651: Is Philip Christensen of Arizona State University . This instrument is derived from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) on the 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter, also developed by Philip Christensen. The Mapping Imaging Spectrometer for Europa is an imaging near infrared spectrometer to probe the surface composition of Europa, identifying and mapping the distributions of organics (including amino acids and tholins ), salts, acid hydrates, water ice phases, and other materials. From these measurements, scientists expect to be able to relate

4092-459: Is "the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is "the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to

4216-417: Is "the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is "measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without

4340-451: Is Joseph Westlake of the Applied Physics Laboratory. The Mass Spectrometer for Planetary Exploration (MASPEX) will determine the composition of the surface and subsurface ocean by measuring Europa's extremely tenuous atmosphere and any surface materials ejected into space. Jack Waite, who led development of MASPEX, was also Science Team Lead of the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) on

4464-576: Is a joint project between the Johns Hopkins University 's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The mission's name is a reference to the lightweight clipper ships of the 19th century that routinely plied trade routes around the world. The moniker was chosen because the spacecraft will sail past Europa, as frequently as every two weeks. In March 2013, US$ 75 million

4588-580: Is a military service branch organized within the Department of the Air Force , one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense . The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force , who reports to the Secretary of Defense and is appointed by the President with Senate confirmation . The highest-ranking military officer in

4712-407: Is also supported by the new Ocean Worlds Exploration Program . The spacecraft bus is a 5-meter-long combination of a 150-cm-wide aluminum cylindrical propulsion module and a rectangular box. The electronic components are protected from the intense radiation by a 150-kilogram titanium , zinc and aluminum shielded vault in the box. The spacecraft payload and trajectory are subject to change as

4836-571: Is capable of identifying traces of organic and inorganic compounds in the ice of ejecta , and is sensitive enough to detect signatures of life even if the sample contains less than a single bacterial cell in a collected ice grain. The principal investigator is Sascha Kempf of the University of Colorado Boulder . Although it was designed primarily for communications, the high-gain radio antenna will be used to perform additional radio observations and investigate Europa's gravitational field, acting as

4960-425: Is defined as "all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense

5084-534: Is defined as "offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air (DCA)

Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 - Misplaced Pages Continue

5208-522: Is due to arrive at Jupiter 15 months prior to JUICE, despite a launch date planned 18 months later, owing to a more powerful launch vehicle and a faster flight plan with fewer gravity assists. To raise public awareness of the Europa Clipper mission, NASA undertook a "Message In A Bottle" campaign, i.e. an actual "Send Your Name to Europa" campaign on June 1, 2023, through which people around the world were invited to send their names as signatories to

5332-542: Is equipped with nine scientific instruments. The nine science instruments for the orbiter, announced in May 2015, have a planned total mass of 82 kg (181 lb). The Europa Thermal Emission Imaging System will provide high spatial resolution as well as multi-spectral imaging of the surface of Europa in the mid to far infrared bands to help detect geologically active sites and areas, such as potential vents erupting plumes of water into space. The principal investigator

5456-538: Is part of the Propulsion Module, delivered by Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland . It is 3 metres (10 ft) tall, 1.5 metres (5 ft) in diameter and comprises about two-thirds of the spacecraft's main body. The propulsion subsystem carries nearly 2,700 kilograms (6,000 lb) of monomethyl hydrazine and dinitrogen tetroxide propellant, 50% to 60% of which will be used for

5580-486: Is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as "offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as

5704-583: Is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control is "the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by

5828-684: Is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to the Union Army Balloon Corps of the American Civil War . The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronaut Thaddeus S. C. Lowe , provided aerial reconnaissance for the Union Army . This early use of balloons for military purposes marked

5952-563: The 2014 election cycle , bipartisan support was pledged to continue funding for the Europa Multiple Flyby Mission project. The executive branch also granted US$ 30 million for preliminary studies. In April 2015, NASA invited the European Space Agency to submit concepts for an additional probe to fly together with the Europa Clipper spacecraft, with a mass limit of 250 kg. It could be

6076-689: The Bomber Mafia ), followed by fighters ( Fighter Mafia ). In response to a 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident , Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley . Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz , a former airlift and special operations pilot,

6200-529: The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission. Five units were available, with one reserved for the Mars 2020 rover mission and another as backup. In September 2013, it was decided that the solar array was the less expensive option to power the spacecraft, and on October 3, 2014, it was announced that solar panels were chosen to power Europa Clipper. The mission's designers determined that solar power

6324-713: The United States Air Force in June 1965, a Titan IIIC rocket equipped with two transtage upper stages for testing purposes. Notably, the pad served as the launch site for two interplanetary missions: the failed Mars Observer in September 1992 and the successful Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn in October 1997. Over its lifetime, SLC-40 supported a total of 55 Titan launches, including 26 Titan IIICs, eight Titan 34Ds , four Commercial Titan IIIs , and 17 Titan IVs . The final Titan launch from SLC-40

SECTION 50

#1732779507991

6448-430: The 6 to 8-hour Jupiter orbit insertion burn. The spacecraft has a total of 24 rocket engines rated at 27.5 N (6.2 lbf) thrust for attitude control and propulsion. The probe contains multiple antennas, including the high-gain antenna, which has a 3.1-meter (10-foot) diameter. The high-gain antenna operates on X-band frequencies of 7.2 and 8.4 gigahertz, and a Ka-band frequency of 32 gigahertz (12 times that of

6572-480: The Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force provides air support for land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020 , the service operates approximately 5,500 military aircraft and approximately 400 ICBMs . The world's largest air force, it has

6696-528: The Air Force is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned to unified combatant commands . Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of

6820-410: The Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority is "that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air (OCA)

6944-422: The Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are

7068-547: The BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise. In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007,

7192-577: The Cassini spacecraft. The principal investigator is Jim Burch of Southwest Research Institute , who was previously the leader of the Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission . The SUrface Dust Analyzer (SUDA) is a mass spectrometer that will measure the composition of small solid particles ejected from Europa, providing the opportunity to directly sample the surface and potential plumes on low-altitude flybys. The instrument

7316-635: The Dragon cargo vehicle providing provide two-way logistics to and from the International Space Station, a role previously filled by the Space Shuttle until its retirement in 2011. To accommodate the heavier Falcon 9 v1.1 rocket, the launch pad was modified in 2013. Launch frequency gradually increased from 2014, with a mix of Dragon and satellite missions. A catastrophic explosion occurred at SLC-40 in September 2016 during

7440-560: The House Space Subcommittee held hearings on the Europa Clipper as a scheduled Large Strategic Science Missions class, and to discuss a possible follow up mission simply known as the Europa Lander . Phase B continued into 2019. In addition, subsystem vendors were selected, as well as prototype hardware elements for the science instruments. Spacecraft sub-assemblies were built and tested as well. In July 2024,

7564-797: The Navy , and the newly created Department of the Air Force. Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), the Navy (for sea-based operations from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft), and the Marine Corps (for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force Captain Chuck Yeager broke

SECTION 60

#1732779507991

7688-465: The October 10 launch due to Hurricane Milton . Europa Clipper was finally launched on October 14, 2024. On August 19, 2019, the Europa Clipper proceeded to Phase C: final design and fabrication. On March 3, 2022, the spacecraft moved on to Phase D: assembly, testing, and launch. On June 7, 2022, the main body of the spacecraft was completed. By August 2022, the high-gain antenna had completed its major testing campaigns. By January 30, 2024, all of

7812-461: The ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from

7936-543: The US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply

8060-514: The USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the 2013 French campaign in Mali . The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by

8184-464: The USAF established the nuclear-focused Air Force Global Strike Command on 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare. On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047. One third of

8308-509: The USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000. The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the first Gulf War in 1991. However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements. These same constraints have seen

8432-526: The ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is "operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders

8556-407: The ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is "the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions" (JP 2-01). It provides

8680-425: The ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining

8804-455: The ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is "the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as

8928-625: The adverse effects of radiation from the magnetosphere of Jupiter in Europa orbit, it was decided that it would be safer to insert a spacecraft into an elliptical orbit around Jupiter and make 49 close flybys of the moon instead. The Europa Clipper spacecraft is larger than any other used for previous NASA planetary missions. Europa Clipper complements the European Space Agency 's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer , launched in 2023, which will attempt to fly past Europa twice and Callisto multiple times before moving into orbit around Ganymede . In 1997,

9052-503: The amount of time during which the instruments can make close-up observations is less important. Studies by scientists from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory show that by performing several flybys with many months to return data, the Europa Clipper concept will enable a US$ 2 billion mission to conduct the most crucial measurements of the canceled US$ 4.3 billion Jupiter Europa Orbiter concept. Between each of

9176-430: The beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. In World War II , almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win

9300-422: The enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to

9424-483: The fire and movement of friendly forces is not required" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as "air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across

9548-577: The flybys, the spacecraft will have seven to ten days to transmit data stored during each brief encounter. That will let the spacecraft have up to a year of time to transmit its data compared to just 30 days for an orbiter. The result will be almost three times as much data returned to Earth, while reducing exposure to radiation. Europa Clipper will not orbit Europa, but will instead orbit Jupiter and conduct 44 flybys of Europa, each at altitudes ranging from 25 km to 2,700 km (16 mi to 1,678 mi) during its 3.5-year mission. A key feature of

9672-403: The following year, including a rocket and payload preparation hangar and new fuel tanks. A spherical liquid oxygen tank previously used at LC-34 was purchased from NASA. The first Falcon 9 arrived in late 2008, with the inaugural launch in June 2010 carrying a dummy payload. A Dragon spacecraft demonstration flight followed in December. Starting in 2012, SLC-40 became the primary launch site for

9796-603: The globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is "the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection

9920-438: The hidden structure of Europa's ice shell and potential water pockets within. REASON will probe the exosphere , surface and near-surface and the full depth of the ice shell to the ice-ocean interface up to 30 km. The principal investigator is Donald Blankenship of the University of Texas at Austin . This instrument was built by Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The Europa Clipper Magnetometer (ECM) will be used to characterize

10044-442: The intention of taking the initiative" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is "a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace" (JP 1-02). It promotes

10168-428: The magnetic fields around Europa. The instrument consists of three magnetic flux gates placed along an 8 m (25 ft) boom, which were stowed during launch and deployed afterwards. By studying the strength and orientation of Europa's magnetic field over multiple flybys, scientists hope to be able to confirm the existence of Europa's subsurface ocean, as well as characterize the thickness of its icy crust and measure

10292-531: The magnetic fields generated by plasma currents. These plasma currents mask the magnetic induction response of Europa's subsurface ocean. In conjunction with a magnetometer, it is key to determining Europa's ice shell thickness, ocean depth, and salinity. PIMS will also probe the mechanisms responsible for weathering and releasing material from Europa's surface into the atmosphere and ionosphere and understanding how Europa influences its local space environment and Jupiter's magnetosphere . The principal investigator

10416-762: The mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with the South Korean and Japanese air forces near the Korean Peninsula. On 29 November 2023, a USAF Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey crashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing the Supreme Court 's ruling in Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo , the Air Force refused to comply with an EPA order that they develop

10540-416: The mission concept is that Europa Clipper would use gravity assists from Europa, Ganymede and Callisto to change its trajectory, allowing the spacecraft to return to a different close approach point with each flyby. Each flyby would cover a different sector of Europa to achieve a medium-quality global topographic survey, including ice thickness. Europa Clipper could conceivably fly by at low altitude through

10664-504: The mission concept, allowing the orbiter to move to its formulation stage. In January 2016, NASA approved the addition of a lander, but this was canceled in 2017 because it was deemed too risky. In May 2016, the Ocean Worlds Exploration Program was approved, of which the Europa mission is part. In February 2017, the mission moved from Phase A to Phase B (the preliminary design phase). On July 18, 2017,

10788-613: The mission design matures. Both radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) and photovoltaic power sources were assessed to power the orbiter. Although solar power is only 4% as intense at Jupiter as it is in Earth's orbit, powering a Jupiter orbital spacecraft by solar panels was demonstrated by the Juno mission . The alternative to solar panels was a multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), fueled with plutonium-238 . The power source has already been demonstrated in

10912-399: The moon's interior structure, and to examine how Europa is deformed by tidal forces . The instrument team leader is Erwan Mazarico of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Congress had originally mandated that Europa Clipper be launched on NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) super heavy-lift launch vehicle , but NASA had requested that other vehicles be allowed to launch the spacecraft due to

11036-575: The moon's surface composition to the habitability of its ocean. The principal investigator is Diana Blaney of Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the instrument was built in collaboration with the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL). The Europa Imaging System is a visible spectrum imaging suite to map Europa's surface and study smaller areas in high resolution, as low as 0.5 m (20 in) per pixel. The principal investigator

11160-453: The payload due to strong vibrations caused by the solid boosters attached to the SLS launcher. The move to Falcon Heavy saved an estimated US$ 2 billion in launch costs alone. NASA was not sure an SLS would be available for the mission since the Artemis program would use SLS rockets extensively, and the SLS's use of solid rocket boosters (SRBs) generates more vibrations in the payload than

11284-415: The planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned. According to Air Force Chief Scientist, Greg Zacharias , the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonic unmanned aerial vehicles (also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s. The USAF intends to deploy a Sixth-generation jet fighter by

11408-431: The plumes of water vapor erupting from the moon's ice crust, thus sampling its subsurface ocean without having to land on the surface and drill through the ice. The spacecraft is expected to receive a total ionizing dose of 2.8 megarads (28 kGy) during the mission. Shielding from Jupiter's harsh radiation belt will be provided by a radiation vault with 0.3 inches (7.6 mm) thick aluminum alloy walls, which enclose

11532-546: The potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to

11656-434: The primary mission's 200-person team from 1995 to 1997) did not have the resources to deal with problems, but when they arose, it was able to temporarily recall former team members (called "tiger teams") for intensive efforts to solve them. The spacecraft made several flybys of Europa (8), Callisto (4) and Io (2). On each flyby of the three moons it encountered, the spacecraft collected only two days' worth of data instead of

11780-526: The probe by crashing it into the surface of Ganymede in case an extended mission was not approved early in the main science phase. He noted that an impact would help the ESA's JUICE mission collect more information about Ganymede's surface chemistry. In a 2024 paper, Pappalardo said the mission would last four years in Jupiter orbit, and that the disposal was targeted for September 3, 2034, if NASA did not approve

11904-483: The production of intelligence" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is "the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements" (JP 2-01). It provides

12028-409: The purpose of the USAF as: The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what

12152-555: The reconstruction of SLC-40. In August 2018, LC-39A's crew access tower received an access arm, allowing crew to be loaded onto Crew Dragon 2 capsules along with late payload changes on Cargo Dragon 2 capsules. Because SLC-40 lacked an access tower, Dragon missions were paused after the original Dragon 1 capsule was retired in 2020. In the 2020s, SLC-40 would become SpaceX’s "workhorse" launch pad, hosting less complex satellite launch missions as frequently as every week, completing 50 launches of this launch pad alone in 2023. Meanwhile, LC-39A

12276-491: The safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across

12400-602: The safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (a Broken Arrow incident ). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations

12524-487: The science instruments were added to the spacecraft. The REASON instrument's electronics were aboard the spacecraft, while its antennas were added to the spacecraft's solar arrays at Kennedy Space Center later in the year. In March 2024, it was reported that the spacecraft underwent successful testing and was on track for launch later in the year. In May 2024, the spacecraft arrived at Kennedy Space Center for final launch preparations. In September 2024, final pre-launch review

12648-532: The seven it had collected during the primary mission. During GEM's eight flybys of Europa, it ranged from 196 to 3,582 km (122 to 2,226 mi), in two years. Europa has been identified as one of the locations in the Solar System that could possibly harbor microbial extraterrestrial life . Immediately following the Galileo spacecraft's discoveries and the independent Discovery program proposal for

12772-558: The sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, the KC-X and F-35 programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed

12896-501: The spacecraft electronics. To maximize the effectiveness of this shielding, the electronics are also nested in the core of the spacecraft for additional radiation protection. This mission is a flight of NASA's Planetary Science Division , designated a Large Strategic Science Mission , and funded under the Planetary Missions Program Office 's Solar System Exploration program as its second flight. It

13020-513: The spacecraft faced concerns of delay and missing the launch window because of a discovery in June 2024 that its components were not as radiation-hardened as previously believed. However, over the summer, intensive re-testing of the transistor components in question found that they would likely be annealed enough to 'self-heal'. In September 2024, Europa Clipper was approved for a launch window opening on October 10, 2024; however, on October 6, 2024, NASA announced that it would be standing down from

13144-553: The spacecraft into a 202-day orbit around Jupiter. Once the spacecraft reaches the apoapsis of that initial orbit, it will perform another engine burn to provide a ~122 m/s (270 mph) periapsis raise maneuver (PRM). The spacecraft's cruise and science phases will overlap with the European Space Agency's JUICE spacecraft, which was launched in April 2023 and will arrive at Jupiter in July 2031. Europa Clipper

13268-503: The spacecraft to continue gathering data. However, ionizing radiation can damage solar panels. The Europa Clipper 's orbit will pass through Jupiter's intense magnetosphere, which is expected to gradually degrade the solar panels as the mission progresses. The solar panels were provided by Airbus Defence and Space , Netherlands. The propulsion subsystem was built by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland . It

13392-439: The trajectory in the Jupiter system is planned as follows. After entry into the Jupiter system, Europa Clipper will perform a flyby of Ganymede at an altitude of 500 km (310 mi), which will reduce the spacecraft velocity by ~400 m/s (890 mph). This will be followed by firing the main engine at a distance of 11 Rj (Jovian radii), to provide a further ~840 m/s (1,900 mph) of delta-V , sufficient to insert

13516-477: The vault. The inward-facing side of the metal plate is engraved with the poem in the poet's own handwriting. The public participants' names are etched onto a microchip attached to the plate, within an artwork of a wine bottle surrounded by the four Galilean moons . After registering their names, participants received a digital ticket with details of the mission's launch and destination. According to NASA, 2,620,861 people signed their names to Europa Clipper's Message in

13640-467: The war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties. In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on 26 July 1947, which established the Department of the Air Force , but it

13764-440: The water's depth and salinity. The instrument team leader is Margaret Kivelson , University of Michigan . ECM replaced the proposed Interior Characterization of Europa using Magnetometry (ICEMAG) instrument, which was canceled due to cost overruns. ECM is a simpler and cheaper magnetometer than ICEMAG would have been. The Plasma Instrument for Magnetic Sounding (PIMS) measures the plasma surrounding Europa to characterize

13888-477: The word "water" spoken in 103 languages, from families of languages around the world. The audio files were converted into waveforms and etched into the plate. The waveforms radiate out from a symbol representing the American Sign Language sign for "water". The research organization METI International gathered the audio files for the words for "water", and its president Douglas Vakoch designed

14012-505: Was already orbiting Jupiter. From December 8, 1995, to December 7, 1997, Galileo conducted the primary mission after entering the orbit of Jupiter. On that final date, the Galileo orbiter commenced an extended mission known as the Galileo Europa Mission (GEM), which ran until December 31, 1999. This was a low-cost mission extension with a budget of only US$ 30 million. The smaller team of about 40–50 people (compared with

14136-558: Was authorized to expand on the formulation of mission activities, mature the proposed science goals, and fund preliminary instrument development, as suggested in 2011 by the Planetary Science Decadal Survey . In May 2014, a House bill substantially increased the Europa Clipper (referred to as Europa Multiple Flyby Mission ) funding budget for the 2014 fiscal year from US$ 15 million to US$ 100 million to be applied to pre-formulation work. Following

14260-449: Was both cheaper than plutonium and practical to use on the spacecraft. Despite the increased weight of solar panels compared to plutonium-powered generators, the vehicle's mass had been projected to still be within acceptable launch limits. Each panel has a surface area of 18 m (190 sq ft) and produces 150 watts continuously when pointed towards the Sun while orbiting Jupiter. While in Europa's shadow, batteries will enable

14384-533: Was first used ahead of in early 2024 to accommodate late loading of supplies into cargo spacecraft. SLC-40 was used to launch its first crewed mission in September 2024, SpaceX Crew-9 . The mission had been slated to use LC-39A, but was shifted to SLC-40 when the launch was delayed due to issues with the Boeing Starliner Calypso spacecraft that was docked to the ISS. The September launch of Crew-9

14508-500: Was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington , was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created the National Military Establishment (renamed Department of Defense in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely the Department of the Army , the Department of

14632-531: Was previously a member of the group that discovered plumes erupting from Europa while using the Hubble Space Telescope in the UV spectrum . The Radar for Europa Assessment and Sounding: Ocean to Near-surface (REASON) is a dual-frequency ice penetrating radar (9 and 60 MHz) instrument that is designed to characterize and sound Europa's ice crust from the near-surface to the ocean, revealing

14756-461: Was successfully completed, clearing the way for launch. In early October 2024, due to the incoming Hurricane Milton, the spacecraft was placed in secure storage for safekeeping until the hurricane passed. The probe is scheduled to be crashed into Jupiter, Ganymede , or Callisto, to protect it from crashing into Europa. In June 2022, lead project scientist Robert Pappalardo revealed that mission planners for Europa Clipper were considering disposing of

14880-429: Was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service. This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling of nuclear weapons : specifically a nuclear weapons incident aboard a B-52 flight between Minot AFB and Barksdale AFB , and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan. To put more emphasis on nuclear assets,

15004-582: Was the Lacrosse-5 reconnaissance satellite carried on a Titan IV-B on April 30, 2005. Following the conclusion of Titan operations, the launch complex underwent significant transformation. The tower was dismantled in early 2008, followed by the controlled demolition of the Mobile Service Structure later that year. SpaceX leased SLC-40 from the U.S. Air Force in April 2007 to launch its Falcon 9 rocket. Ground facility construction began

15128-530: Was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot. The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force's missile launch officer community, Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James admitted that there remained

15252-499: Was uncomfortably close to the launch NASA's Europa Clipper mission, which must launch from LC-39A during a 21-day window in early October. As of November 25, 2024 United States Air Force The United States Air Force ( USAF ) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces , and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States . Originally created on 1 August 1907, as

15376-446: Was used less, being reserved for Dragon crew and cargo flights, Falcon Heavy missions, and other complex missions. To add additional operational flexibility and reduce reliance on LC-39A, in early 2023, SpaceX began constructing an access tower at SLC-40. In February 2024, SpaceX tested its new emergency escape system for future crewed missions, which uses an evacuation slide instead of the slidewire baskets used at LC-39A . The tower

#990009