The XSSM-A-23 Dart was an anti-tank-guided missile developed for the United States Army in the 1950s. After protracted development, the missile, similar in design to the French SS.10 , was cancelled in favor of purchasing the SS.11 missile.
99-649: The initial requirement for a guided anti-tank missile, intended for the replacement of recoilless rifles and Bazookas in the role, was issued by the U.S. Army in 1951; that November, the Aerophysics Development Corporation responded with a proposal for a wire-guided missile , similar in concept and configuration to the SS.10 missile being developed in France. After evaluating the SS.10 in 1952–53,
198-429: A foam zone . The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding fizz zone . Energy is released in a luminous outer flame zone where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and carbon monoxide . The foam zone acts as an insulator slowing the rate of heat transfer from the flame zone into the unreacted solid. Reaction rates vary with pressure; because
297-409: A cloud of smoke. Gunpowder burns in a relatively inefficient process that produces lower pressures, making it about one-third as powerful as the same amount of smokeless powder. A significant portion of the combustion products from gunpowder are solids that are hygroscopic , i.e. they attract moisture from the air and make cleaning mandatory after every use, in order to prevent water accumulation in
396-753: A conventional propelling charge. Because some projectile velocity is inevitably lost to the recoil compensation, recoilless rifles tend to have inferior range to traditional cannon, although with a far greater ease of transport, making them popular with paratroop , mountain warfare and special forces units, where portability is of particular concern, as well as with some light infantry and infantry fire support units. The greatly diminished recoil allows for devices that can be carried by individual infantrymen : heavier recoilless rifles are mounted on light tripods, wheeled light carriages, or small vehicles, and intended to be carried by crew of two to five. The largest versions retain enough bulk and recoil to be restricted to
495-534: A license to produce Ballistite , and DuPont started producing smokeless shotgun powder. The United States Army evaluated 25 varieties of smokeless powder and selected Ruby and Peyton Powders as the most suitable for use in the Krag–Jørgensen service rifle. Ruby was preferred, because tin-plating was required to protect brass cartridge cases from picric acid in the Peyton Powder . Rather than paying
594-464: A light (9 short tons (8.2 t; 8.0 long tons)) tracked chassis. They were largely used in an anti-personnel role firing "beehive" flechette rounds . In 1970, the Ontos was removed from service and most were broken up. The M40, usually mounted on a jeep or technical , is still very common in conflict zones throughout the world, where it is used as a hard-hitting strike weapon in support of infantry, with
693-438: A multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in paper mills during production of chemical woodpulp . Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length. Alcohol and ether were then evaporated from "green" powder grains to
792-454: A muzzle-loaded recoilless launch system for tactical nuclear warheads intended to counteract Soviet tank units, was developed in the 1960s and deployed to American units in Germany. The Soviet Union adopted a series of crew-served smoothbore recoilless guns in the 1950s and 1960s, specifically the 73 mm SPG-9 , 82 mm B-10 and 107 mm B-11 . All are found quite commonly around
891-630: A nitrocellulose powder colloided with ether-alcohol. The Navy licensed or sold patents for this formulation to DuPont and the California Powder Works while retaining manufacturing rights for the Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland constructed in 1900. The United States Army adopted the Navy single-base formulation in 1908 and began manufacture at Picatinny Arsenal . By that time Laflin & Rand had taken over
990-594: A nitroglycerin replacement when reduced flame temperatures without sacrificing chamber pressure are of importance. Reduction of flame temperature significantly reduces barrel erosion and hence wear. During the 1930s, triple-base propellants containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin or diethylene glycol dinitrate, and a substantial quantity of nitroguanidine (detonation velocity 8,200 m/s (26,900 ft/s), RE factor 0.95) as explosive propellant ingredients were commercialized. The first triple-base propellant, featuring 20-25% of nitroguanidine and 30-45% nitroglycerine,
1089-450: A process for manufacturing spherical smokeless powder by 1933. Reworked powder or washed pyrocellulose can be dissolved in ethyl acetate containing small quantities of desired stabilizers and other additives. The resultant syrup, combined with water and surfactants , can be heated and agitated in a pressurized container until the syrup forms an emulsion of small spherical globules of the desired size. Ethyl acetate distills off as pressure
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#17327972489051188-460: A recoilless rifle round is often perforated to vent the propellant gases, which are then directed to the rear by an expansion chamber surrounding the weapon's breech. In the case of single-shot recoilless weapons such as the Panzerfaust or AT4 , the device is externally almost identical in design to a single-shot rocket launcher: the key difference is that the launch tube is a gun that launches
1287-480: A remaining solvent concentration between 3 percent for rifle powders and 7 percent for large artillery powder grains. Burning rate is inversely proportional to solvent concentration. Grains were coated with electrically conductive graphite to minimize generation of static electricity during subsequent blending. "Lots" containing more than ten tonnes of powder grains were mixed through a tower arrangement of blending hoppers to minimize ballistic differences. Each blended lot
1386-470: A stabilizer in 1888. Meanwhile, in 1887, Alfred Nobel obtained an English patent for a smokeless gunpowder he called ballistite . In this propellant the fibrous structure of cotton (nitro-cellulose) was destroyed by a nitroglycerine solution instead of a solvent. In England in 1889, a similar powder was patented by Hiram Maxim , and in the United States in 1890 by Hudson Maxim . Ballistite
1485-419: A thinner-walled barrel, and thus the launch of a relatively large projectile from a platform that would not be capable of handling the weight or recoil of a conventional gun of the same size. Technically, only devices that use spin-stabilized projectiles fired from a rifled barrel are recoilless rifles, while smoothbore variants (which can be fin-stabilized or unstabilized) are recoilless guns. This distinction
1584-439: A towed mount or relatively heavy vehicle, but are still much lighter and more portable than cannon of the same scale. Such large systems have been replaced by guided anti-tank missiles in many armies. The earliest known example of a design for a gun based on recoilless principles was created by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th or early 16th century. This design was of a gun which fired projectiles in opposite directions, but there
1683-446: Is a propellant that produces a large proportion of inert nitrogen at relatively low temperatures that dilutes the combustible gases. Triple-base propellants are used for this because of the nitrogen in the nitroguanidine. Flash reducers include potassium chloride , potassium nitrate , potassium sulfate , and potassium bitartrate (potassium hydrogen tartrate: a byproduct of wine production formerly used by French artillery). Before
1782-401: Is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some form of countermass such as propellant gas from the rear of the weapon at the moment of firing, creating forward thrust that counteracts most of the weapon's recoil . This allows for the elimination of much of the heavy and bulky recoil-counteracting equipment of a conventional cannon as well as
1881-469: Is added to some formulations. To prevent buildup of the deterioration products, stabilizers are added. Diphenylamine is one of the most common stabilizers used. Nitrated analogs of diphenylamine formed in the process of stabilizing decomposing powder are sometimes used as stabilizers themselves. The stabilizers are added in the amount of 0.5–2% of the total amount of the formulation; higher amounts tend to degrade its ballistic properties. The amount of
1980-451: Is also technically a recoilless gun, since its rocket-powered projectile is launched using an explosive booster charge (even more so when firing the OG-7V anti-personnel round, which has no rocket motor), though it is usually not classified as one. There are a number of principles under which a recoilless gun can operate, all involving the ejection of some kind of counter-mass from the rear of
2079-416: Is harmless at a distance more than a few feet from the rear of the barrel. The two ends of the piston assembly are captured at the ends of the barrel, by which point the propellant gas has expanded and cooled enough that there is no threat of explosion. Other countermass materials that have been used include inert powders and liquids. Obsolete 75 mm M20 and 105 mm M27 recoilless rifles were used by
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#17327972489052178-451: Is increased by addition of graphite and organic stabilizers. Products of combustion within the gun barrel include flammable gasses like hydrogen and carbon monoxide. At high temperature, these flammable gasses will ignite when turbulently mixed with atmospheric oxygen beyond the muzzle of the gun. During night engagements, the flash produced by ignition can reveal the location of the gun to enemy forces and cause temporary night-blindness among
2277-557: Is no evidence any physical firearm based on the design was constructed at the time. In 1879, a French patent was filed by Alfred Krupp for a recoilless gun. The first recoilless gun known to have actually been constructed was developed by Commander Cleland Davis of the US Navy , just prior to World War I . His design, named the Davis gun , connected two guns back-to-back, with the backwards-facing gun loaded with lead balls and grease of
2376-418: Is often lost, and both are often called recoilless rifles. Though similar in appearance to a tube-based rocket launcher (since these also operate on a recoilless launch principle), the key difference is that recoilless weapons fire shells using a conventional smokeless propellant . While there are rocket-assisted rounds for recoilless weapons, they are still ejected from the barrel by the deflagration of
2475-443: Is to regulate the burn rate so that a more or less constant pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the highest velocity. The perforations stabilize the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by
2574-489: The 10.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 and 10.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 42 . These weapons were loosely copied by the US Army . The Luftwaffe also showed great interest in aircraft-mounted recoilless weapons to allow their planes to attack tanks, fortified structures and ships. These included the unusual Düsenkanone 88, an 88 mm recoilless rifle fed by a 10-round rotary cylinder and with the exhaust vent angled upwards at 51 degrees to
2673-715: The Naval Torpedo Station in Newport, Rhode Island , patented a formulation of guncotton colloided with nitrobenzene, called Indurite , in 1891. Several United States firms began producing smokeless powder when Winchester Repeating Arms Company started loading sporting cartridges with Explosives Company powder in 1893. California Powder Works began producing a mixture of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose with ammonium picrate as Peyton Powder , Leonard Smokeless Powder Company began producing nitroglycerine–nitrocellulose Ruby powders, Laflin & Rand negotiated
2772-691: The Pansarvärnsgevär m/42 (20 mm m/42); the British expressed their interest in it, but by that point the weapon, patterned after obsolete anti-tank rifles, was too weak to be effective against period tank armor. This system would form the basis of the much more successful Carl Gustav recoilless rifle postwar. By the time of the Korean War , recoilless rifles were found throughout the US forces. The earliest American infantry recoilless rifles were
2871-547: The RDX type (detonation velocity 8,750 m/s (28,710 ft/s), RE factor 1.60). Detonation velocities are of limited value in assessing the reaction rates of nitrocellulose propellants formulated to avoid detonation. Although the slower reaction is often described as burning because of similar gaseous end products at elevated temperatures, the decomposition differs from combustion in an oxygen atmosphere. Conversion of nitrocellulose propellants to high-pressure gas proceeds from
2970-549: The American Powder Company to protect their investment, and Laflin & Rand had been purchased by DuPont in 1902. Upon securing a 99-year lease of the Explosives Company in 1903, DuPont enjoyed use of all significant smokeless powder patents in the United States, and was able to optimize production of smokeless powder. When government anti-trust action forced divestiture in 1912, DuPont retained
3069-798: The Arctic, where thermal batteries used to provide after-launch power to wire-guided missiles like M47 Dragon and BGM-71 TOW would fail due to extremely low temperatures. The former 6th Light Infantry Division in Alaska used the M67 in its special weapons platoons, as did the Ranger Battalions and the US Army's Berlin Brigade. The last major use was the M50 Ontos , which mounted six M40 rifles on
SSM-A-23 Dart - Misplaced Pages Continue
3168-685: The Army issued a contract for the full development of the Aerophysics Development missile, designated SSM-A-23 Dart, in April 1953. The SSM-A-23 was of conventional configuration for an anti-tank missile of the time, having cruciform wings and stabilizing fins, with spoilerons providing control; a dual-thrust solid-propellant rocket produced by the Grand Central Rocket Company provided thrust. The launcher for
3267-548: The Austrian factories blew up in 1862, Thomas Prentice & Company began manufacturing guncotton in Stowmarket in 1863; and British War Office chemist Sir Frederick Abel began thorough research at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865 when
3366-578: The BAT (Battalion, Anti Tank) series of recoilless rifles, culminating in the 120 mm L6 WOMBAT . This was too large to be transported by infantry and was usually towed by jeep. The weapon was aimed via a spotting rifle, a modified Bren Gun on the MOBAT and an American M8C spotting rifle on the WOMBAT: the latter fired a .50 BAT (12.7x77mm) point-detonating incendiary tracer round whose trajectory matched that of
3465-615: The Explosives Company at Stowmarket patented an improved formulation of nitrated cotton gelatinised by ether-alcohol with nitrates of potassium and barium . These propellants were suitable for shotguns but not rifles, because rifling results in resistance to a smooth expansion of the gas, which is reduced in smoothbore shotguns. In 1884, Paul Vieille invented a smokeless powder called Poudre B (short for poudre blanche , white powder, as distinguished from black powder ) made from 68.2% insoluble nitrocellulose , 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with ether and 2% paraffin. This
3564-494: The Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellent, but it too was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using black powder would reach the end of their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. After one of
3663-510: The French use of nitro-cottons in Poudre B. He called it pyrocollodion . Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to its attention, but was dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir Frederick Abel , James Dewar and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that
3762-570: The German designs were copied. These weapons remained fairly rare during the war, although the American M20 became increasingly common in 1945. Postwar saw a great deal of interest in recoilless systems, as they potentially offered an effective replacement for the obsolete anti-tank rifle in infantry units. During World War II, the Swedish military developed a shoulder-fired 20 mm device,
3861-539: The M40-armed technical fulfilling a similar combat role to an attack helicopter . Front-line recoilless weapons in the armies of modern industrialized nations are mostly man-portable devices such as the Carl Gustav, an 84 mm weapon. First introduced in 1948 and exported extensively since 1964, it is still in widespread use throughout the world today: a huge selection of special-purpose rounds are available for
3960-462: The Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce the secondary flash, the brightest. The secondary flash does not usually occur with small arms. Nitrocellulose contains insufficient oxygen to completely oxidize its carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen deficit
4059-399: The U.S. National Park Service and the U.S. Forest Service as a system for triggering controlled avalanches at a safe distance, from the early 1950s until the U.S. military's inventory of surplus ammunition for these weapons was exhausted in the 1990s. They were then replaced with M40 106 mm recoilless rifles, but following a catastrophic in-bore ammunition explosion that killed one of
SSM-A-23 Dart - Misplaced Pages Continue
4158-676: The XSSM-A-23 prototype missiles took place in August 1954; over the next year, forty additional tests took place. These proved less than satisfactory; by 1957, the Dart was still not ready for service, and it was believed that Aerophysics Development had overextended itself with technical challenges involved in the missile's development. Accordingly, the program was extended, with some of the Army's requirements being relaxed; however, in September 1958
4257-481: The barrel (though some primer compounds can leave hygroscopic salts that have a similar effect; non-corrosive primer compounds were introduced in the 1920s). ) Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher pressures, however they also increase wear on gun barrels. Nitrocellulose deteriorates with time, yielding acidic byproducts. Those byproducts catalyze the further deterioration, increasing its rate. The released heat, in case of bulk storage of
4356-483: The barrel so it could pass through the host aircraft's fuselage rather than risking a rear-vented backblast damaging the tail, and the Sondergerät SG104 "Münchhausen" , a gargantuan 14-inch (355.6 mm) weapon designed to be mounted under the fuselage of a Dornier Do 217 . None of these systems proceeded beyond the prototype stage. The US did have a development program, and it is not clear to what extent
4455-460: The barrel that can lead to corrosion and premature failure. These solids are also behind gunpowder's tendency to produce severe fouling that causes breech-loading actions to jam and can make reloading difficult. Nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. It was subsequently developed and manufactured by Alfred Nobel as an industrial explosive under
4554-428: The barrel. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke ; while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, smoke from artillery fire can be substantial. Invented in 1884 by Paul Vieille , the most common formulations are based on nitrocellulose , but the term was also used to describe various picrate mixtures with nitrate , chlorate , or dichromate oxidizers during
4653-530: The buildup of copper residues from the gun barrel rifling. These include tin metal and compounds (e.g., tin dioxide ), and bismuth metal and compounds (e.g., bismuth trioxide , bismuth subcarbonate , bismuth nitrate , bismuth antimonide ); the bismuth compounds are favored as copper dissolves in molten bismuth, forming brittle and easily removable alloy. Lead foil and lead compounds have been phased out due to toxicity. Wear reduction materials including wax , talc and titanium dioxide are added to lower
4752-603: The burning rate. Deterrents include centralites (symmetrical diphenyl urea—primarily diethyl or dimethyl), dibutyl phthalate , dinitrotoluene (toxic and carcinogenic), akardite (asymmetrical diphenyl urea), ortho-Tolyl urethane, and polyester adipate. Camphor was formerly used but is now obsolete. Stabilizers prevent or slow down self-decomposition. These include diphenylamine , petroleum jelly , calcium carbonate , magnesium oxide , sodium bicarbonate , and beta-Naphthol methyl ether Obsolete stabilizers include amyl alcohol and aniline . Decoppering additives hinder
4851-539: The chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.) but longer high pressure. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size. The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British patent infringement. The Anglo-American Explosives Company began manufacturing its shotgun powder in Oakland, New Jersey , in 1890. DuPont began producing guncotton at Carneys Point Township, New Jersey , in 1891. Charles E. Munroe of
4950-500: The departing projectile). Fast-burning pistol powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions. Smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of
5049-487: The development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery. Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of gunpowder or black powder caused many problems on the battlefield. Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Visual signals could not be seen through
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#17327972489055148-415: The effectiveness of small guns because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher muzzle velocity meant a flatter trajectory and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1,000 m (1,094 yd) shots practicable. Since less powder was needed to propel a bullet, the cartridge could be made smaller and lighter. This allowed troops to carry more ammunition for
5247-454: The exposed surface to the interior of each solid particle in accordance with Piobert's law . Studies of solid single- and double-base propellant reactions suggest reaction rate is controlled by heat transfer through the temperature gradient across a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in
5346-569: The five-man gun crew at Alpine Meadows Ski Resort, California, in 1995 and two further in-bore explosions at Mammoth Mountain, California, within thirteen days of each other in December 2002, all such guns were removed from use and replaced with surplus 105 mm howitzers . Smokeless propellant Smokeless powder is a type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less smoke and less fouling when fired compared to black powder . Because of their similar use, both
5445-642: The foam allows less effective heat transfer at low pressure, with greater heat transfer as higher pressures compress the gas volume of that foam. Propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may fail to sustain the flame zone at lower pressures. The energetic components used in smokeless propellants include nitrocellulose (the most common), nitroglycerin , nitroguanidine , DINA (bis-nitroxyethylnitramine; diethanolamine dinitrate, DEADN; DHE), Fivonite (2,2,5,5-tetramethylol-cyclopentanone tetranitrate, CyP), DGN ( diethylene glycol dinitrate ), and acetyl cellulose. Deterrents (or moderants) are used to slow
5544-402: The gun crew by photo-bleaching visual purple . Flash suppressors are commonly used on small arms to reduce the flash signature, but this approach is not practical for artillery. Artillery muzzle flash up to 150 feet (46 m) from the muzzle has been observed, and can be reflected off clouds and be visible for distances up to 30 miles (48 km). For artillery, the most effective method
5643-436: The gun tube to offset the force of the projectile being fired forward. The most basic method, and the first to be employed, is simply making a double-ended gun with a conventional sealed breech, which fires identical projectiles forwards and backwards. Such a system places enormous stress on its midpoint, is extremely cumbersome to reload, and has the highly undesirable effect of launching a projectile potentially just as deadly as
5742-463: The initial thrust for man-portable weapons firing rocket-powered projectiles: examples include the RPG-7 , Panzerfaust 3 and MATADOR . Since venting propellant gases to the rear can be dangerous in confined spaces, some recoilless guns use a combination of a countershot and captive piston propelling cartridge design to avoid both recoil and backblast . The Armbrust "cartridge," for example, contains
5841-627: The largest pieces. The United States Navy manufactured single-base tubular powder for naval artillery at Indian Head, Maryland , beginning in 1900. Similar procedures were used for United States Army production at Picatinny Arsenal beginning in 1907 and for manufacture of smaller grained Improved Military Rifle (IMR) powders after 1914. Short-fiber cotton linter was boiled in a solution of sodium hydroxide to remove vegetable waxes, and then dried before conversion to nitrocellulose by mixing with concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids . Nitrocellulose still resembles fibrous cotton at this point in
5940-726: The late 19th century, before the advantages of nitrocellulose became evident. Smokeless powders are typically classified as division 1.3 explosives under the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods – Model Regulations , regional regulations (such as ADR ) and national regulations. However, they are used as solid propellants ; in normal use, they undergo deflagration rather than detonation . Smokeless powder made autoloading firearms with many moving parts feasible (which would otherwise jam or seize under heavy black powder fouling). Smokeless powder allowed
6039-403: The light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation: the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through
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#17327972489056138-657: The main weapon. When tracer rounds hits were observed, the main gun was fired. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, SACLOS wire-guided missiles began to supplant recoilless rifles in the anti-tank role. While recoilless rifles retain several advantages such as being able to be employed at extremely close range, as a guided missile typically has a significant deadzone before it can arm and begin to seek its target, missile systems tend to be lighter and more accurate, and are better suited to deployment of hollow-charge warheads. The large crew-served recoilless rifle started to disappear from first-rate armed forces, except in areas such as
6237-403: The manufacturing process, and was typically identified as pyrocellulose because it would spontaneously ignite in air until unreacted acid was removed. The term guncotton was also used; although some references identify guncotton as a more extensively nitrated and refined product used in torpedo and mine warheads prior to use of TNT . Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by
6336-522: The missile was mounted on a variant of the M59 armored personnel carrier designated T149; helicopter launching was also considered as a possibility. Guidance was by manual command to line of sight , the missile operator following a sodium flare in the tail of the missile and guiding the missile to the target with commands sent by a wire that spooled from the missile during flight. Due to difficulties experienced in testing to ensure accuracy, an infrared seeker
6435-401: The most. During WWII they had some use by British and German artillery, and after the war they became the standard propellants in all British large-caliber ammunition designs except small arms. Most Western nations, except the United States, followed a similar path. In the late 20th century new propellant formulations started to appear. These are based on nitroguanidine and high explosives of
6534-422: The nitrocellulose smokeless powder formulations used by the United States military and released the double-base formulations used in sporting ammunition to the reorganized Hercules Powder Company . These newer and more powerful propellants were more stable and thus safer to handle than Poudre B. The properties of the propellant are greatly influenced by the size and shape of its pieces. The specific surface area of
6633-470: The one launched at the enemy at a point behind the shooter where their allies may well be. The most common system involves venting some portion of the weapon's propellant gas to the rear of the tube, in the same fashion as a rocket launcher. This creates a forward directed momentum which is nearly equal to the rearward momentum (recoil) imparted to the system by accelerating the projectile. The balance thus created does not leave much momentum to be imparted to
6732-471: The original black powder formulation and the smokeless propellant which replaced it are commonly described as gunpowder . The combustion products of smokeless powder are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products (mostly potassium carbonate , potassium sulfate , and potassium sulfide ) for black powder. In addition, smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of
6831-560: The paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called Collodin , which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875. In 1882,
6930-404: The powder, or too large blocks of solid propellant, can cause self-ignition of the material. Single-base nitrocellulose propellants are hygroscopic and most susceptible to degradation; double-base and triple-base propellants tend to deteriorate more slowly. To neutralize the decomposition products, which could otherwise cause corrosion of metals of the cartridges and gun barrels, calcium carbonate
7029-474: The program was determined to be too far behind schedule and too far over budget to be successful, and the contract for the Dart was cancelled. The Army adopted the SS.10, designated MGM-21, and the SS.11 , designated AGM-22, in its stead. The program had cost $ 44 million in 1955 dollars. Recoilless rifle A recoilless rifle ( rifled ), recoilless launcher ( smoothbore ), or simply recoilless gun , sometimes abbreviated to "RR" or "RCL" (for ReCoilLess)
7128-513: The projectile using a pre-loaded powder charge, not a hollow tube. Weapons of this type can either encase their projectile inside the disposable gun tube, or mount it on the muzzle: the latter allows the launching of an above-caliber projectile. Like single shot rocket launchers, the need to only survive a single firing means that single-shot recoilless weapons can be made from relatively flimsy and therefore very light materials, such as fiberglass . Recoilless gun launch systems are often used to provide
7227-413: The propellant charge inside a double-ended piston assembly, with the projectile in front, and an equal countermass of shredded plastic to the rear. On firing, the propellant expands rapidly, pushing the pistons outward. This pushes the projectile forwards towards the target and the countermass backwards providing the recoilless effect. The shredded plastic countermass is quickly slowed by air resistance and
7326-461: The propellant influences the speed of burning, and the size and shape of the particles determine the specific surface area. By manipulation of the shape it is possible to influence the burning rate and hence the rate at which pressure builds during combustion. Smokeless powder burns only on the surfaces of the pieces. Larger pieces burn more slowly, and the burn rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings that retard burning slightly. The intent
7425-421: The recoil-damping effect can be reduced or lost altogether, leading to dangerously powerful recoil. Conversely, if a projectile becomes lodged in the barrel for any reason, the entire weapon will be forced forward. Recoilless rifle rounds for breech-loading reloadable systems resemble conventional cased ammunition, using a driving band to engage the rifled gun tube and spin-stabilize the projectile. The casing of
7524-573: The required royalties for Ballistite , Laflin & Rand financed Leonard's reorganization as the American Smokeless Powder Company. United States Army Lieutenant Whistler assisted American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall in formulating an improved powder named W.A. for their efforts. W.A. smokeless powder was the standard for United States military service rifles from 1897 until 1908. In 1897, United States Navy Lieutenant John Bernadou patented
7623-596: The same weight as the shell in the other gun. His idea was used experimentally by the British as an anti- Zeppelin and anti- submarine weapon mounted on a Handley Page O/100 bomber and intended to be installed on other aircraft. In the Soviet Union , the development of recoilless weapons ("Dinamo-Reaktivnaya Pushka" (DRP), roughly "dynamic reaction cannon") began in 1923. In the 1930s, many different types of weapons were built and tested with configurations ranging from 37 to 305 mm (1.5 to 12.0 in). Some of
7722-470: The same weight. Also, it would burn even when wet. Black powder ammunition had to be kept dry and was almost always stored and transported in watertight cartridges. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being Germany and Austria, which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed. Krupp began adding diphenylamine as
7821-591: The second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads. In 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellant of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate . Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as
7920-480: The shoulder-fired 57 mm M18 and the tripod-mounted 75 mm M20 , later followed by the 105 mm M27: the latter proved unreliable, too heavy, and too hard to aim. Newer models replacing these were the 90 mm M67 and 106 mm M40 (which was actually 105 mm caliber , but designated otherwise to prevent accidental issue of incompatible M27 ammunition). In addition, the Davy Crockett ,
8019-578: The smaller examples were tested in aircraft ( Grigorovich I-Z and Tupolev I-12 ) and saw some limited production and service, but development was abandoned around 1938. The best-known of these early recoilless rifles was the Model 1935 76 mm DRP designed by Leonid Kurchevsky . A small number of these mounted on trucks saw combat in the Winter War . Two were captured by the Finns and tested; one example
8118-424: The sole explosive propellant ingredient are described as single-base powder . Propellants mixtures containing nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin (detonation velocity 7,700 m/s (25,260 ft/s), RE factor 1.54) as explosive propellant ingredients are known as double-base powder . Alternatively diethylene glycol dinitrate (detonation velocity 6,610 m/s (21,690 ft/s), RE factor 1.17) can be used as
8217-474: The stabilizer is depleted with time with substantial changes of ballistic properties. Propellants in storage should be periodically tested for the amount of stabilizer remaining, as its depletion may lead to auto-ignition of the propellant. Moisture changes the stabilizers consumption over time. Propellants using nitrocellulose ( detonation velocity 7,300 m/s (23,950 ft/s), RE factor 1.10) (typically an ether-alcohol colloid of nitrocellulose) as
8316-596: The system, and the current variant, known as the M4 or M3E1, is designed to be compatible with computerized optics and future "smart" ammunition. Many nations also use a weapon derived from the Carl Gustav, the one-shot AT4 , which was originally developed in 1984 to fulfil an urgent requirement for an effective replacement for the M72 LAW after the failure of the FGR-17 Viper program the previous year. The ubiquitous RPG-7
8415-546: The thick smoke from the gunpowder used by the guns. Unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using gunpowder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke, and this problem became worse with increasing rate of fire. In 1884 during the Battle of Tamai Sudanese troops were able to break the square of British infantry armed with Martini–Henries because of that. Sharpshooters firing from concealed positions risked revealing their locations with
8514-435: The trademark " Dynamite ", but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it detonates at supersonic speed , as opposed to deflagrating smoothly at subsonic speeds, making it more liable to shatter a gun barrel rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly shock-sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward
8613-760: The use of triple-base propellants, the usual method of flash reduction was to add inorganic salts like potassium chloride so their specific heat capacity might reduce the temperature of combustion gasses and their finely divided particulate smoke might block visible wavelengths of radiant energy of combustion. All flash reducers have a disadvantage: the production of smoke. Smokeless powder may be corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes (strips with various rectangular proportions, single or multi-hole cylinders, slotted cylinders) using solvents such as ether. These extrusions can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords" many inches long). Cannon powder has
8712-447: The weapon's mounting or the gunner in the form of felt recoil. Since recoil has been mostly negated, a heavy and complex recoil damping mechanism is not necessary. Despite the name, it is rare for the forces to completely balance, and real-world recoilless rifles do recoil noticeably (with varying degrees of severity). Recoilless rifles will not function correctly if the venting system is damaged, blocked, or poorly maintained: in this state,
8811-422: The wear of the gun barrel liners. Large guns use polyurethane jackets over the powder bags. Other additives include ethyl acetate (a solvent for manufacture of spherical powder), rosin (a surfactant to hold the grain shape of spherical powder) and graphite (a lubricant to cover the grains and prevent them from sticking together, and to dissipate static electricity ). Flash reducers dim muzzle flash ,
8910-613: The world in the inventories of former Soviet client states, where they are usually used as anti-tank guns. The British, whose efforts were led by Charles Dennistoun Burney , inventor of the Wallbuster HESH round, also developed recoilless designs. Burney demonstrated the technique with a recoilless 4-gauge shotgun . His "Burney Gun" was developed to fire the Wallbuster shell against the Atlantic Wall defences, but
9009-543: Was adopted for the Lebel rifle chambered in 8×50mmR Lebel . It was passed through rollers to form paper-thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The resulting propellant , known as pyrocellulose , contains somewhat less nitrogen than guncotton does, and is less volatile. A particularly good feature of the propellant is that it will not detonate unless it is compressed, making it very safe to handle under normal conditions. Vieille's powder revolutionized
9108-598: Was developed at the Dynamit Nobel factory at Avigliana by its director Dr. Modesto Abelli (1859-1911) and patented in 1905. These "cold propellant" mixtures have reduced flash and flame temperature without sacrificing chamber pressure compared to single- and double-base propellants, albeit at the cost of more smoke. In practice, triple-base propellants are, due to their higher price, reserved mainly for high-velocity large caliber ammunition such as used in (naval) artillery and tank guns , which suffer from bore erosion
9207-524: Was given to the Germans in 1940. The first recoilless gun to enter service in Germany was the 7.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 ("light gun" '40), a simple 75 mm smoothbore recoilless gun developed to give German airborne troops artillery and anti-tank support that could be parachuted into battle. The 7.5 cm LG 40 was found to be so useful during the invasion of Crete that Krupp and Rheinmetall set to work creating more powerful versions, respectively
9306-574: Was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as Cordite Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% nitroglycerine , 37% guncotton and 3% mineral jelly . A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, with the guncotton percentage increased to 65% and nitroglycerine reduced to 30%. This change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite's advantages over gunpowder were reduced maximum pressure in
9405-493: Was not required in the D-Day landings of 1944. He went on to produce further designs, with two in particular created as anti-tank weapons. The Ordnance, RCL, 3.45 in could be fired off a man's shoulder or from a light tripod, and fired an 11 lb (5 kg) wallbuster shell to 1,000 yards. The larger Ordnance RCL. 3.7in fired a 22.2 lb (10 kg) wallbuster to 2,000 yd (1.8 km). Postwar work developed and deployed
9504-559: Was patented in the United States in 1891. The Germans adopted ballistite for naval use in 1898, calling it WPC/98. The Italians adopted it as filite , in cord instead of flake form—but, realising its drawbacks, changed to a formulation with nitroglycerine that they called solenite . In 1891 the Russians tasked the chemist Mendeleev with finding a suitable propellant. He created nitrocellulose gelatinised by ether-alcohol, which produced more nitrogen and more uniform colloidal structure than
9603-514: Was proposed for terminal homing. The missile was fitted with a shaped charge warhead intended to defeat the armor of enemy tanks. During the development of the Dart, Aerophysics Development was acquired by the Studebaker-Packard Corporation , the purchase taking place in December 1954. Curtiss-Wright then acquired the company as part of a larger deal with Studebaker-Packard in August 1956. The first launch trials of
9702-623: Was the invention of guncotton , a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire . Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham . English interest languished after an explosion destroyed
9801-434: Was then subjected to testing to determine the correct loading charge for the desired performance. Military quantities of old smokeless powder were sometimes reworked into new lots of propellants. Through the 1920s Fred Olsen worked at Picatinny Arsenal experimenting with ways to salvage tons of single-base cannon powder manufactured for World War I. Olsen was employed by Western Cartridge Company in 1929 and developed
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