Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that use some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. The idea of using nuclear material for propulsion dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1903 it was hypothesized that radioactive material, radium , might be a suitable fuel for engines to propel cars, planes, and boats. H. G. Wells picked up this idea in his 1914 fiction work The World Set Free . Many aircraft carriers and submarines currently use uranium fueled nuclear reactors that can provide propulsion for long periods without refueling. There are also applications in the space sector with nuclear thermal and nuclear electric engines which could be more efficient than conventional rocket engines.
58-572: USS Seawolf (SSN-21) , is a nuclear-powered fast attack submarine and the lead ship of her class . She is the fourth submarine of the United States Navy named for the seawolf , a solitary fish with strong, prominent teeth that give it a savage look. The contract to build Seawolf was awarded to the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics on 9 January 1989 and her keel was laid down on 25 October 1989. She
116-513: A directive signed by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in 2008, an additional $ 2.6 billion will be allocated for its development. Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the crewed space program as of 2009 . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit. Despite
174-517: A re-nationalization of the "troubled space industry", with sweeping reforms including a new "unified command structure and reducing redundant capabilities, acts that could lead to tens of thousands of layoffs." According to Rogozin, the Russian space sector employs about 250,000 people, while the United States needs only 70,000 to achieve similar results. He said: "Russian space productivity
232-539: A docking port for visiting spacecraft. The Nauka module is the final planned component of the ISS, launch was postponed several times from the initially planned date in 2007, but attached to ISS in July 2021. Roscosmos is responsible for expedition crew launches by Soyuz-TMA spacecraft and resupplies the space station with Progress space transporters. After the initial ISS contract with NASA expired, Roscosmos and NASA, with
290-521: A family of several launch rockets, the most famous of them being the R-7 , commonly known as the Soyuz rocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets include Rokot and other Stations. Currently rocket development encompasses both a new rocket system, Angara , as well as enhancements of
348-459: A militia for the Russian invasion of Ukraine . In October 2023, Borisov announced the need for 150 billion rubles to build the Russian space station in the next three years. At completion in 2032, it will have absorbed 609 billion rubles. In February 2024, at the 2023 AGM , Borisov announced the loss of 180 billion rubles in export revenues, chiefly engine sales and launch services, because of
406-534: A new generation of engineers and technicians. On 29 April 2011, Perminov was replaced with Vladimir Popovkin as the director of Roscosmos. The 65-year-old Perminov was over the legal age for state officials, and had received some criticism after a failed GLONASS launch in December 2010. Popovkin is a former commander of the Russian Space Forces and First Deputy Defense Minister of Russia. As
464-729: A number of programs for Earth science, communication, and scientific research on the International Space Station. Roscosmos operates one science satellite ( Spektr-RG ) and no interplanetary probes, as of 2024. Future projects include the Soyuz successor, the Prospective Piloted Transport System , scientific robotic missions to one of the Mars moons as well as an increase in Lunar orbit research satellites to one ( Luna-Glob ). Roscosmos uses
522-440: A picture and details of a nuclear-powered torpedo called Status-6 on about 12 November 2015. The torpedo was stated as having a range of up to 10,000 km, a cruising speed of 100 knots, and an operational depth of up to 1000 metres below the surface. The torpedo carried a 100-megaton nuclear warhead. One of the suggestions emerging in the summer of 1958 from the first meeting of the scientific advisory group that became JASON
580-546: A problem. It was claimed that its laboratories had overcome the shielding problem with a new alloy that absorbed the rays. In 1958, at the height of the 1950s American automobile culture there were at least four theoretical nuclear-powered concept cars proposed, the American Ford Nucleon and Studebaker Packard Astral , as well as the French Simca Fulgur designed by Robert Opron and
638-470: A result of a series of reliability problems, and proximate to the failure of a July 2013 Proton M launch, a major reorganization of the Russian space industry was undertaken. The United Rocket and Space Corporation was formed as a joint-stock corporation by the government in August 2013 to consolidate the Russian space sector. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said "the failure-prone space sector
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#1732801609967696-458: A space nuclear power and a matrix of ion engines. "...Hot inert gas temperature of 1500 °C from the reactor turns turbines. The turbine turns the generator and compressor, which circulates the working fluid in a closed circuit. The working fluid is cooled in the radiator. The generator produces electricity for the same ion (plasma) engine..." According to him, the propulsion will be able to support human mission to Mars , with cosmonauts staying on
754-667: Is a state corporation of the Russian Federation responsible for space flights , cosmonautics programs , and aerospace research. Originating from the Soviet space program founded in the 1950s, Roscosmos emerged following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It initially began as the Russian Space Agency, which was established on 25 February 1992 and restructured in 1999 and 2004 as
812-472: Is eight times lower than America's, with companies duplicating one another's work and operating at about 40 percent efficiency." Under the 2013 plan, Roscosmos was to "act as a federal executive body and contracting authority for programs to be implemented by the industry." In 2016, the state agency was dissolved and the Roscosmos brand moved to the state corporation , which had been created in 2013 as
870-636: Is now impossible after sanctions over the Ukraine war." Rogozin was removed from his job as CEO in July 2022, and replaced with Yury Borisov , who seemed to stabilize the relationship with the ISS partners, especially NASA. One complaint against Rogozin was his risky words about terminating the ISS agreement over the war in Ukraine, which he broadcast as early as April 2022. At one point in time NASA had bought 71 return trips on Soyuz for almost $ 4 billion over six years. The global space-launch services market
928-584: Is so troubled that it needs state supervision to overcome its problems." Three days following the Proton M launch failure, the Russian government had announced that "extremely harsh measures" would be taken "and spell the end of the [Russian] space industry as we know it." Information indicated then that the government intended to reorganize in such a way as to "preserve and enhance the Roscosmos space agency." More detailed plans released in October 2013 called for
986-460: Is used to heat the liquid hydrogen propellant. Advocates of nuclear-powered spacecraft point out that at the time of launch, there is almost no radiation released from the nuclear reactors. Nuclear-powered rockets are not used to lift off the Earth. Nuclear thermal rockets can provide great performance advantages compared to chemical propulsion systems. Nuclear power sources could also be used to provide
1044-561: The Arbel Symétric . Apart from these concept models, none were built and no automotive nuclear power plants ever made. Chrysler engineer C R Lewis had discounted the idea in 1957 because of estimates that an 80,000 lb (36,000 kg) engine would be required by a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) car. His view was that an efficient means of storing energy was required for nuclear power to be practical. Despite this, Chrysler's stylists in 1958 drew up some possible designs. In 1959 it
1102-630: The International Space Station , and continued to fly Soyuz and Progress missions. In 1994, Roscosmos renewed the lease on its Baikonur cosmodrome with the government of Kazakhstan . On 31 October 2000, a Soyuz spacecraft lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 10:53 a.m. Kazakhstan time. On board were Expedition One Commander William M. (Bill) Shepherd of NASA and cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko of Roscosmos. The trio arrived at
1160-836: The RD-181 engine which is used for the Northrop Grumman Antares - Cygnus space cargo delivery system. In late March 2022, the European Space Agency (ESA) suspended cooperation with Roscosmos in the ExoMars rover mission because of the Russian invasion, and British satellite venture OneWeb signed contracts with ISRO and SpaceX to launch its satellites after friction had developed "with Moscow" and Roscosmos, its previous orbit service provider. The friction had developed over Rogozin's command that OneWeb needed to ditch its venture capital investment from
1218-481: The Space Adventures company. As of 2009, six space tourists have contracted with Roscosmos and have flown into space, each for an estimated fee of at least $ 20 million ( USD ). Continued international collaboration in ISS missions has been thrown into doubt by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and related sanctions on Russia, although resupply missions continued in 2022 and 2023. Roscosmos operates
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#17328016099671276-489: The United Rocket and Space Corporation , with the specific mission to renationalize the Russian space sector. In 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin said "it 'is necessary to drastically improve the quality and reliability of space and launch vehicles' ... to preserve Russia's increasingly threatened leadership in space." In November 2018 Alexei Kudrin , head of Russian financial audit agency, named Roscosmos as
1334-729: The Americans. In March 2021, Roscosmos signed a memorandum of cooperative construction of a lunar base called the International Lunar Research Station with the China National Space Administration .” In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that it will be departing the ISS program after 2024. In its place, it was announced that a new space station ( Russian Orbital Service Station ) will be constructed starting in 2025. In June 2021 Rogozin complained that sanctions imposed in
1392-534: The International Space Station on 2 November, marking the start of an uninterrupted human presence on the orbiting laboratory. In March 2004, the agency's director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov , who had previously served as the first commander of the Space Forces. The Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. This resulted in
1450-449: The Red planet for 30 days. This journey to Mars with nuclear propulsion and a steady acceleration would take six weeks, instead of eight months by using chemical propulsion – assuming thrust of 300 times higher than that of chemical propulsion. The idea of making cars that used radioactive material, radium , for fuel dates back to at least 1903. Analysis of the concept in 1937 indicated that
1508-671: The Russian Aviation and Space Agency and the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), respectively. In 2015, the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) was merged with the United Rocket and Space Corporation , a government corporation, to re-nationalize the space industry of Russia , leading to Roscosmos in its current form. Roscosmos is headquartered in Moscow , with its main Mission Control Center in
1566-587: The Russian Duma approving a budget of 305 billion rubles (about US$ 11 billion) for the Space Agency from January 2006 until 2015, with overall space expenditures in Russia total about 425 billion rubles for the same time period. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles (about US$ 900 million), which is a 33% increase from the 2005 budget. Under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of
1624-403: The Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation satellite system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget. In 2007, GLONASS received 9.9 billion rubles ($ 360 million), and under the terms of
1682-524: The Soviet space program, Roscosmos' legacy includes the world's first satellite, the first human spaceflight, and the first space station ( Salyut ). Its current activities include the International Space Station, wherein it is a major partner. On 22 February 2019, Roscosmos announced the construction of its new headquarters in Moscow , the National Space Centre . Its Astronaut Corps is
1740-408: The Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and commercial space launches. It is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos. The federal space budget for
1798-518: The UK government. On 2 May 2022, Rogozin announced that Roscosmos would terminate its involvement in the ISS with 12 months' notice as stipulated in the international contract that governs the satellite. This followed the 3 March 2022 announcement that Roscosmos would cease cooperation on scientific experiments at the Spacelab, and the 25 March 2022 announcement by Rogozin that "cooperation with Europe
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1856-764: The Western hostility to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Roscosmos had lost 90% of its launch service contracts since the advent of the war. Roscosmos and Russia's space industry are facing significant challenges. The country is on track to conduct its fewest orbital launches since 1961. As of August 15, 2024, only nine launches had occurred, a sharp decline partly attributed to the loss of Western customers following Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Roscosmos has reported financial losses of 180 billion rubles ($ 2.1 billion) due to canceled contracts. The agency's first deputy director indicated it may not achieve profitability until 2025. From 2024 on Roscosmos headquarters will be located in
1914-883: The World: Seawolf . The program followed her construction and sea trials . On 22 July 2007, Seawolf transferred from her previous homeport of Naval Submarine Base New London in Groton, Connecticut , to Naval Base Kitsap , Washington. In 2015, Seawolf was deployed to the Arctic region for six months. In July 2020 Seawolf deployed into the Arctic area of responsibility. She conducted special operations and pulled into multiple European ports. Port calls included HMNB Clyde in Faslane Scotland , and Gibraltar , and briefly in Tromsø, Norway . Seawolf ' s deployment
1972-488: The agency's leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism . Scientific missions, such as interplanetary probes or astronomy missions during these years played a very small role, and although the agency had connections with the Russian aerospace forces, its budget was not part of Russia's defense budget; nevertheless, the agency managed to operate the Mir space station well past its planned lifespan, contributed to
2030-798: The approval of the US government, entered into a space contract running until 2011, according to which Roscosmos will sell NASA spots on Soyuz spacecraft for approximately $ 21 million per person each way, thus $ 42 million to and back from the ISS per person, as well as provide Progress transport flights, at $ 50 million per Progress as outlined in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study . Roscosmos announced that according to this arrangement, crewed Soyuz flights would be doubled to 4 per year and Progress flights doubled to 8 per year beginning in 2008. Roscosmos has provided space tourism for fare-paying passengers to ISS through
2088-679: The considerably improved budget, attention of legislative and executive authorities, positive media coverage and broad support among the population, the Russian space program continues to face several problems. Wages in the space industry are low; the average age of employees is high (46 years in 2007), and much of the equipment is obsolete. On the positive side, many companies in the sector have been able to profit from contracts and partnerships with foreign companies; several new systems such as new rocket upper stages have been developed in recent years; investments have been made to production lines, and companies have started to pay more attention to educating
2146-596: The corporation for the next two years. In October, Roscosmos placed the tests of rocket engines in the engineering bureau of chemical automatics in Voronezh on hold for one month to deliver 33 tons of oxygen to local medical centers, as part of aid for the COVID-19 pandemic . In December 2021, the Government of Russia confirmed determination of the agreement with Roscosmos for development of next-gen space systems,
2204-503: The document been provided for the officials in July 2020. Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, Roscosmos launched nine rockets in 2022 and 7 in the first half of 2023. In early March 2022, Roscosmos under Rogozin suspended its participation in the ESA's Kourou , French Guiana spaceport in a tit-for-tat move over the sanctions imposed in the wake of the Russian invasion. As well Rogozin said he would suspend delivery of
2262-624: The driver of such a vehicle might need a 50-ton lead barrier to shield them from radiation . In 1941, a Caltech physicist named R. M. Langer espoused the idea of a car powered by uranium-235 in the January edition of Popular Mechanics . He was followed by William Bushnell Stout , designer of the Stout Scarab and former Society of Engineers president, on 7 August 1945 in The New York Times . The problem of shielding
2320-567: The first in the world's history. The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies. Instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered; it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the reorganization of the Soviet Union into the Russian Federation was therefore a new development. The Russian Space Agency
2378-428: The initial concept. In 2009, for the hundredth anniversary of General Motors ' acquisition of Cadillac , Loren Kulesus created concept art depicting a car powered by thorium . The Chrysler TV-8 was an experimental concept tank designed by Chrysler in the 1950s. The tank was intended to be a nuclear-powered medium tank capable of land and amphibious warfare. The design was never mass-produced. The X-12
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2436-799: The nearby city of Korolyov , and the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center located in Star City in Moscow Oblast . Its launch facilities include Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan , the world's first and largest spaceport, and Vostochny Cosmodrome , which is being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast . Its director since July 2022 is Yury Borisov . As the main successor to
2494-477: The new National Space Center in the Moscow district of Fili . Roscosmos is one of the partners in the International Space Station program . It contributed the core space modules Zarya and Zvezda , which were both launched by Proton rockets and later were joined by NASA's Unity Module . The Rassvet module was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis and is primarily used for cargo storage and as
2552-595: The public enterprise with "the highest losses" due to "irrational spending" and outright theft and corruption , under the leadership of Igor Komarov who was terminated in May 2018 in favour of Rogozin. In 2020 Roscosmos under Rogozin reneged on its participation in Lunar Gateway , a NASA -led project that will see a lunar orbiter spaceport for the moon. It had previously signed an agreement in September 2017 with
2610-426: The reactor continued to render the idea impractical. In December 1945, a John Wilson of London, announced he had created an atomic car. This created considerable interest. The Minister of Fuel and Power along with a large press contingent turned out to view it. The car did not show and Wilson claimed that it had been sabotaged. A later court case found that he was a fraud and there was no nuclear-powered car. Despite
2668-413: The shielding problem, through the late 1940s and early 1950s debate continued around the possibility of nuclear-powered cars. The development of nuclear-powered submarines and ships, and experiments to develop a nuclear-powered aircraft at that time kept the idea alive. Russian papers in the mid-1950s reported the development of a nuclear-powered car by Professor V P Romadin, but again shielding proved to be
2726-636: The spacecraft with electrical power for operations and scientific instrumentation. Examples: Anatolij Perminov , head of the Russian Federal Space Agency , announced that it is going to develop a nuclear-powered spacecraft for deep space travel. Preliminary design was done by 2013, and 9 more years are planned for development (in space assembly). The price is set at 17 billion rubles (600 million dollars). The nuclear propulsion would have mega-watt class, provided necessary funding, Roscosmos Head stated. This system would consist of
2784-433: The wake of the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea were hurting Roscosmos. In September 2021, Roscosmos announced its revenue and net income, losing 25 billion roubles and 1 billion roubles respectively in 2020, due to the reduction of profit from foreign contracts, an increase in show-up pay, stay-at-home days and personnel health expenses due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Roscosmos, these losses would also impact
2842-462: The year 2009 was left unchanged despite the global economic crisis, standing at about 82 billion rubles ($ 2.4 billion). In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles ($ 3.8 bln) in the national space programs. The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles. The budget for the whole space program is 169.8 billion rubles. ($ 5.6 bln). By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles. Priorities of
2900-411: Was launched on 24 June 1995, sponsored by Mrs. Margaret Dalton , and commissioned on 19 July 1997. The 7-year 9-month time period from keel laying to commissioning is the longest for a submarine in the U.S. Navy. Adding support personnel as well as ship's crew, there are 140 personnel assigned or attached to Seawolf . Seawolf is featured in a 1998 episode of the documentary Super Structures of
2958-686: Was a nuclear powered locomotive, proposed in a feasibility study done in 1954 at the University of Utah. The Mars rovers Curiosity and Perseverance are powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), like the successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers in 1976. Russian Federal Space Agency The State Corporation for Space Activities "Roscosmos" ( Russian : Государственная корпорация по космической деятельности «Роскосмос» , romanized : Gosudarstvennaya korporatsiya po kosmicheskoy deyatel'nosti ), commonly known simply as Roscosmos ( Russian : Роскосмос ),
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#17328016099673016-578: Was for "a nuclear-powered torpedo that could roam the seas almost indefinitely". Research into nuclear-powered aircraft was pursued during the Cold War by the United States and the Soviet Union as they would presumably allow a country to keep nuclear bombers in the air for extremely long periods of time, a useful tactic for nuclear deterrence . Neither country created any operational nuclear aircraft. One design problem, never adequately solved,
3074-424: Was formed on 25 February 1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin . Yuri Koptev , who had previously worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin , became the agency's first director. In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the powerful design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation and to survive. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999
3132-533: Was not made by the agency, but by the private shareholder board of the Energia design bureau. Another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichev 's ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency. The 1990s saw serious financial problems due to the decreased cash flow, which encouraged the space agency to improvise and seek other ways to keep space programs running. This resulted in
3190-552: Was reported that Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company had developed a new rubber compound that was light and absorbed radiation, obviating the need for heavy shielding. A reporter at the time considered it might make nuclear-powered cars and aircraft a possibility. Ford made another potentially nuclear-powered model in 1962 for the Seattle World's Fair , the Ford Seattle-ite XXI . This also never went beyond
3248-505: Was the first US Navy deployment during the coronavirus pandemic . Nuclear propulsion Nuclear-powered vessels are mainly military submarines , and aircraft carriers . Russia is the only country that currently has nuclear-powered civilian surface ships, mainly icebreakers . The US Navy currently (as of 2022) has 11 aircraft carriers and 70 submarines in service, that are all powered by nuclear reactors. For more detailed articles see: Russia's Channel One Television news broadcast
3306-682: Was the need for heavy shielding to protect the crew from radiation sickness . Since the advent of ICBMs in the 1960s the tactical advantage of such aircraft was greatly diminished and respective projects were cancelled. Because the technology was inherently dangerous it was not considered in non-military contexts. Nuclear-powered missiles were also researched and discounted during the same period. Many types of nuclear propulsion have been proposed, and some of them (e.g., NERVA ) tested for spacecraft applications. Bimodal nuclear thermal rockets conduct nuclear fission reactions similar to those employed at nuclear power plants including submarines. The energy
3364-482: Was valued at $ 12.4 billion in 2021 and was forecast to reach $ 38 billion by decade's end. An American academic wrote that in the wake of the Russian invasion, Roscosmos' share of that market was likely to decline in favour of new entrants such as Japan and India, as well as commercial entrants like SpaceX and Blue Origin . In June 2023, Roscosmos held a campaign to recruit volunteers for the Uran Battalion ,
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