An oil tanker , also known as a petroleum tanker , is a ship designed for the bulk transport of oil or its products. There are two basic types of oil tankers: crude tankers and product tankers . Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries . Product tankers, generally much smaller, are designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets.
150-670: SS Ohio was an oil tanker built for The Texas Company (later Texaco ). The ship was launched on 20 April 1940 at the Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. in Chester, Pennsylvania . The United Kingdom requisitioned it to re-supply the island fortress of Malta during the Second World War . The tanker played a key role in Operation Pedestal , which was one of the fiercest and most heavily contested of
300-463: A CANT Z.506 Airone (Heron) seaplane after a Luftwaffe aircraft had spotted them and dropped a flare. On 16 June, Supermarina sent the Italian hospital ship Meta which spent two days rescuing survivors and was mistakenly attacked one evening at 7:00 p.m. by six Fiat CR.42 Falco fighters of the 54° Stormo , four armed with bombs; three survivors from Chant were also rescued,
450-570: A 40,000 DWT tanker, $ 60.7 million for a 80,000–95,000 DWT , $ 73 million for a 130,000–150,000 DWT , and $ 116 million for 250,000–280,000 DWT tanker. For a concrete example, in 2006, Bonheur subsidiary First Olsen paid $ 76.5 million for Knock Sheen , a 159,899 DWT tanker. The cost of operating the largest tankers, the Very Large Crude Carriers, is currently between $ 10,000 and $ 12,000 per day. Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks. Each tank
600-557: A Japanese Empire bent on military expansion, and the approach of war, influenced Ohio ' s design. Unofficial conversations between military and oil chiefs resulted in a ship of 9,265 gross register tons (GRT) and 5,405 NRT , 515 feet length overall , and capable of carrying 170,000 barrels (27,000 m) of fuel oil . The ship was completed in the unusually short time of seven months and 15 days. The Westinghouse steam turbine engines developed 9,000 driveshaft horsepower at 90 revolutions per minute, which gave her
750-525: A brief lull in the Axis attacks, for example, the island's defenses were reinforced by 38 Spitfire Mk V aircraft flown in from HMS Furious – but these, along with food and fuel, remained in critically short supply. Successive attempts at resupplying the island had mostly failed; the convoys " Harpoon " (from Gibraltar) and " Vigorous " (from Alexandria , Egypt) saw most of their merchantmen sunk and escort ships damaged by aerial and surface attacks. One of
900-463: A conclusion that an invasion was not imminent but the need to protect the source of information meant that this was not disclosed by the British. That preparations were being made were revealed on 7 February through the decryption of Luftwaffe Enigma messages but by 23 March the invasion scare had died down and more bombing was expected. By 31 March the progress of the Axis bombing campaign led to
1050-625: A contemporary battleship. Two submarine flotillas were to send nine boats to screen the convoy and to patrol areas that the Italian fleet was likely to be found. Convoy MW4 left Gibraltar on 12 June 1942, with six merchantmen (the British Troilus , Burdwan and Orari, the Dutch Tanimbar , the American Chant and the tanker Kentucky ) carrying 43,000 short tons (39,000 t ) of cargo and oil. The Harpoon convoy
1200-503: A country, called its flag state . A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. As of 2007, the United States Central Intelligence Agency statistics count 4,295 oil tankers of 1,000 long tons deadweight (DWT) or greater worldwide. Panama
1350-439: A decent harvest, might keep the population of Malta fed until September but the loss of the tanker Kentucky and the consumption of aviation fuel at Malta, led to fighters being given priority over the offensive force. Transit flights through Malta, except for Beauforts, were suspended; only close-range air attacks on easy targets were to be permitted and more fuel for the fighters was to be carried to Malta by submarine. In 1962,
1500-599: A fast convoy from Alexandria. Operation Hercules ( Operazione C3 ) was an Axis plan to invade Malta and during 1942, reinforcement of the Luftwaffe in Sicily and the bombing campaign against the island led to speculation that it was the prelude to invasion. Gleanings from prisoners of war and diplomatic sources led to a certain apprehension about the meaning of troop movements in southern Italy. The absence of evidence from signals intelligence and air reconnaissance led to
1650-509: A few hours' repair work needed on a steam pipe, which had been broken by the force of such explosions. The Ministry was determined that this should not happen again, and so Ohio ' s engines were mounted on rubber bearings, to reduce shock, and all steam pipes were supported with steel springs and baulks of timber. While the merchant ships gathered in the Firth of Clyde , the naval forces had already reached Scapa Flow . Admiral Syfret joined
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#17327866405091800-677: A gap but Wellingtons of 205 Group and the light bombers of the Desert Air Force would attack Axis airfields in North Africa. 201 (General Reconnaissance) Group would provide reconnaissance and anti-submarine sorties and a small sabotage party was to land on Crete and attack Axis aircraft on the ground. Vigorous was planned as a joint Royal Navy–RAF operation, to be conducted from the headquarters of 201 (General Reconnaissance) Group by Admiral Henry Harwood and Air Marshal Arthur Tedder , with Rear Admiral Philip Vian in command of
1950-460: A greater force than anticipated by the British. The first air attacks were made by Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 torpedo bombers, which sank Tanimbar , south of Sardinia . Liverpool was damaged and towed back to Gibraltar by Antelope , under air attack (arriving on 17 June). Later on 14 June, the covering force returned to Gibraltar, short of the Strait of Sicily . The fast minelayer Welshman
2100-451: A group of E-boats . Slowly the group approached the tricky harbour entrance, near Zonqor Point. Here the group dispersed before a British-laid minefield . At 0600 hrs on the festival of'Santa Marija (Assumption of Mary), with Ohio still hovering on the edge of the minefield, the situation was eased by the arrival of the Malta tugs. With destroyers still linked on either side of the tanker,
2250-557: A number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks. The first successful oil tanker was Zoroaster , built by Sven Alexander Almqvist in Motala Verkstad , which carried its 246 metric tons (242 long tons ) of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes. One tank
2400-414: A number of damaging and high-profile oil spills . The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although human use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young 's manufacture of paraffin in 1850. In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma, then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to
2550-635: A prediction that the attempt would be made in April but this was soon discounted. Although the bombing increased from 750 long tons (762 t) in February, to 2,000 long tons (2,032 t) in March and 5,500 long tons (5,588 t) in April, Enigma decodes showed that there were still 425 Luftwaffe aircraft in Sicily, not the 650 aircraft originally intended, because aircraft were detained in Russia by
2700-470: A speed of 16 knots (30 km/h). Ohio was considered the fastest tanker of her era. Her method of construction was controversial. For some years, the issue of welding versus riveting had raged on both sides of the Atlantic. Ohio was welded, with hopes it would prove once and for all its reliability. The ship also had a composite framing system with two longitudinally continuous bulkheads , which divided
2850-423: A water carrier and a floating crane were sunk in port and more ships damaged. The island continued to function as a staging post but the Axis bombing campaign neutralised Malta as an offensive base. Two boats of the 10th Submarine Flotilla had been sunk, two were damaged in harbour and on 26 April the flotilla was ordered out because of mining by small fast craft, which were undetectable by radar and inaudible during
3000-505: A wing hit the upper work of the bridge and a rain of debris showered the tanker from stem to stern. The plane's bomb failed to detonate. Captain Mason was telephoned from aft by the chief officer, who told Mason that the Ju 87 had crashed into the sea and then bounced onto the ship. Mason 'rather curtly' replied: "Oh that's nothing. We've had a Junkers 88 on the foredeck for nearly half an hour." As
3150-413: Is more efficient, and better protection in low-impact collisions and grounding. The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double-hull design, including higher build costs, greater operating expenses (e.g. higher canal and port tariffs), difficulties in ballast tank ventilation, the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance, increased transverse free surface,
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#17327866405093300-454: Is split into two or three independent compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads. The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center". A cofferdam is a small space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision. Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of
3450-761: The Baltic Sea , Lake Ladoga , Lake Onega , the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River . The aft and the stern was put together and then dismantled to make room for the mid-section as the Caspian Sea was reached. In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or two large holds, Swan's design used several holds which spanned
3600-473: The London Tanker Brokers' Panel (LTBP) . At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25,000 tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Long Range for the then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s, which prompted rescaling. The system was developed for tax reasons as
3750-546: The Malta convoys , in August 1942. Although Ohio reached Malta successfully, it was so badly damaged that it had to be effectively scuttled in order to offload its cargo, and never sailed again. The tanker is fondly remembered in Malta, where to this day it is considered the saviour of the beleaguered island. Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. built Ohio as hull 190, launching her on 20 April 1940 and completing her that June. She
3900-522: The Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. , named Seawise Giant . This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763 DWT , a length overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft). She had 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate the English Channel . Seawise Giant
4050-494: The Second World War . Operation Vigorous was a west-bound convoy from Alexandria and Operation Harpoon was an east-bound convoy operation from Gibraltar . Vigorous convoy was driven back by the Italian fleet after being badly damaged by Axis aircraft. Two of the six ships in the Harpoon convoy completed the journey, at the cost of several Allied warships. The naval action fought on 15 June between an Italian naval squadron and
4200-671: The Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships . After Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships. The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade. The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner/broker Fred Lane. Prior bids to move oil through
4350-537: The V-Plus size designation. With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today. Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2 × 10 L) annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US$ 0.02 per gallon at the pump. In 1954, Shell Oil developed the "average freight rate assessment" (AFRA) system which classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted
4500-426: The battleship Duilio , reached Tripoli. By the end of February, 11 ships had crossed without escort and a blackout caused by a change to the C 38m machine, in early March, made little difference to the British for lack of means. After the British broke back into C 38m, 26 Axis supply journeys had been made by May, only nine being spotted by air reconnaissance. On 14 April, five Malta aircraft were shot down and
4650-457: The minesweeper HMS Hebe at " approx. 26,000 yards ". Fires broke out on Hebe , which received extensive splinter damage. Electrical cables to sweep magnetic and acoustic mines, low power wires, steering gear, echo sounding gear and voice pipes were broken, the Kelvin sounding machine , the commanding officer's cabin were damaged and a whaler was rendered unseaworthy. Partridge
SS Ohio (1940) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4800-507: The British naval official historian, Stephen Roskill , called the Axis success undeniable. Malta had not been supplied and the British had lost a cruiser, three destroyers and two merchantmen against the sinking of Trento and minor damage to Littorio . No attempt was made to run another convoy from Alexandria until the Eighth Army had conquered Libya. Roskill wrote that with hindsight, the course of events on land made naval operations in
4950-528: The British. In late April, the British Chiefs of Staff ruled that there would be no convoy to Malta in May, because the Italian fleet could be expected to sail and convoy would need battleship and aircraft carrier cover, which was not available. An operation to fly Spitfires to Malta succeeded and anti-aircraft ammunition was to be supplied by fast minelayer, with which Malta must hold on until mid-June, when
5100-660: The Grand Harbour provided the climax of the 1953 British war film Malta Story directed by Brian Desmond Hurst, starring Alec Guinness and Jack Hawkins . Oil tanker Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000 DWT . Tankers move approximately 2.0 billion metric tons (2.2 billion short tons ) of oil every year. Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency,
5250-530: The Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation. Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004. Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over 441,500 DWT , a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of 3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 L). They were the first ULCCs to be double-hulled. To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given
5400-691: The Italian Navy. Part of the convoy did get through to Malta, but the British suffered far heavier losses than did the Italians.... In 2001, Giorgio Giorgerini wrote that the Battle of Pantelleria was not a strategic success because two merchantmen reached Malta but was a satisfying tactical success; one of the few instances in which Italian warships fought aggressively enough against their opponents, even though somewhat exaggerated beyond its merits in later writing. In 2007, Malcolm Llewellyn-Jones, editor of
5550-1001: The Italian fleet. Twelve Beauforts of 39 Squadron were based at Bir Amud in Egypt, near the Libyan border, five B-24 Liberator bombers of 160 Squadron and about 24 aircraft of the Halverson Detachment United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) at RAF Fayid , were also made available. Short-range fighters based in Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica and Malta were to provide air cover and as the convoy moved out of range, protection would be taken over by Curtiss Kittyhawks of 250 Squadron equipped with long-range fuel tanks, Bristol Beaufighters from 252 Squadron and 272 Squadron and Beaufighter night fighters from 227 Squadron . Air cover from Cyrenaica could not overlap with coverage from Malta leaving
5700-576: The Marine Board of the National Academy of Sciences conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double-hull design. Some of the advantages of the double-hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations, reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion, increased environmental protection, cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier, tank washing
5850-591: The RAF for not providing enough aircraft capable of defeating the Italian battle fleet. The only success of Julius was the arrival of the two ships from Harpoon. The British suffered casualties of twenty-eight men killed on HMS Bedouin , fifteen on HMS Liverpool , thirteen on ORP Kujawiak , nine on HMS Badsworth , two on HMS Cairo , one on HMS Partridge , three on the auxiliary minesweeper Justified , twenty-three on Tanimbar , four on Chant , three on Burdwan . The ten most injured survivors of Bedouin were picked up by
6000-470: The Royal Navy staff history, wrote that FAA fighters shot down 13 Axis aircraft and ships' gunners destroyed another sixteen, for a total of 29 Axis aircraft. In 2003, Richard Woodman wrote that on 16 June, Harwood reported that, We are outnumbered both in surface ships and Air Force and very gallant endeavour of all concerned cannot make up for...the deficiency. In a later report, Harwood blamed
6150-604: The Soviet winter offensive. On 26 April, Enigma revealed that Fliegerkorps II was being withdrawn. By 2 May, a Luftwaffe bomber group and a fighter group had been withdrawn with more to follow, which explained the lull. Hitler was lukewarm about the operation, in case the Italian navy let down the Fallschirmjäger (parachute and glider troops) but the Axis capture of Tobruk in mid-June made it appear that an invasion
SS Ohio (1940) - Misplaced Pages Continue
6300-755: The Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries . Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part. But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: the larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil. In 1955 the world's largest supertanker was 30,708 GRT and 47,500 LT DWT : SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos . In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke
6450-512: The United Kingdom consumed about 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m ) of oil per day in 2009. ULCCs commissioned in the 1970s were the largest vessels ever built, but have all now been scrapped. A few newer ULCCs remain in service, none of which are more than 400 meters long. Because of their size, supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded. These ships can take on their cargo at offshore platforms and single-point moorings . On
6600-519: The United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers, respectively. In 2005, the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years. Of these, 31.6% were under 4 years old and 14.3% were over 20 years old. In 2005, 475 new oil tankers were built, accounting for 30.7 million DWT . The average size for these new tankers was 64,632 DWT . Nineteen of these were VLCC size, 19 were Suezmax, 51 were Aframax, and
6750-452: The average cost of transport of crude oil by tanker amounts to only US$ 5 to $ 8 per cubic metre ($ 0.02 to $ 0.03 per US gallon). Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment oiler , a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel . Combination ore-bulk-oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in
6900-416: The battleship HMS Nelson there on 27 July and held a convoy conference on 2 August. The same day, all leave had been stopped. At eight o'clock that evening, two hours before dusk, the convoy sailed. The 14 ships, of WS 21S led by HMS Nigeria with the cruiser Kenya and destroyers Bicester and Bramham formed up; it was dark by the time they reached the open sea. The following day, WS21S
7050-420: The battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and Valiant were still out of action. Force A comprised four Dido-class 5.25-inch light cruisers and a C-class anti-aircraft cruiser, three 6-inch Town class cruisers and 26 destroyers, four corvettes, two minesweepers, four Motor Torpedo Boats (MTB) and two rescue ships. The former battleship HMS Centurion was pressed into service to masquerade as
7200-527: The bombing; the surviving minesweepers were too reduced in numbers to clear the approaches. Three reconnaissance aircraft remained and only 22 bomber sorties were flown, with eleven more by Fleet Air Arm (FAA) aircraft during the month. By the start of June, only two Fairey Albacores and two Fairey Swordfish were left. From December 1941, Luftwaffe bombing neutralised Malta, decrypts of Italian C 38m cipher messages showed more sailings and fewer losses and on 23 February 1942, an Italian convoy, led by
7350-536: The bow. She then moved to Sinclair Terminal, Houston in Texas, where she loaded a full cargo of 103,576 barrels (16,467.3 m) of petrol (gasoline), and sailed on 25 May. Ohio discharged her cargo at Bowling-on-the-Clyde , then steamed out into the tideway and anchored, awaiting orders. Here the captain received a letter from Lord Leathers , the head of the British Ministry of War Transport , bidding
7500-534: The canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky. Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal. Armed with the canal company's specifications, Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England. Named Murex , Conch and Clam , each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight. These three ships were
7650-487: The cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks. A pumproom houses all the pumps connected to a tanker's cargo lines. Some larger tankers have two pumprooms. A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship. A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be "single-hulled". Most newer tankers are " double hulled ", with an extra space between
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#17327866405097800-483: The central Mediterranean inherently dangerous. During the operation, the withdrawal of the Eighth Army forfeited one of the airfields being used for air cover. With Axis aircraft based along the length of the route to Malta, air power decided the course of events, although the diversion of Axis bombers against the convoys had been of some benefit to the British as they conducted the "scuttle" to El Alamein. In 1941, 30 of 31 merchant ships sailing for Malta had arrived but in
7950-489: The charterer. Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate, and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer. The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale, often referred to as Worldscale, is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York. Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in
8100-519: The company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers, compared to Standard Oil's four case-oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers. Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal. This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956. Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope , shipowners realized that bigger tankers were
8250-432: The convoy and escorts (Force A). If a larger Italian force attacked, Vian was to protect the convoy with smoke and the escorts were to repulse the attackers with torpedoes and try to inflict early casualties against two of the Italian ships using gunfire. The success of the convoy would depend on the Italian fleet being damaged by air and submarine attack before it could close on the ships, rather than on surface action because
8400-437: The convoy. The 9,308 long tons (9,457 t) tanker Kentucky , Chant and the freighter Burdwan , already disabled by air attack, were abandoned by their escorts, which had been trying to scuttle Kentucky and Burdwan with gunfire and depth charges, when the Italian cruisers returned shortly before noon. Burdwan and Kentucky , already on fire, were sunk by gunfire from Raimondo Montecuccoli , Eugenio di Savoia and
8550-416: The crew and maintaining the vessel. Finally, in a contract of affreightment or COA, the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes, for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels (160,000 m ) of JP-5 in a year's time in 25,000-barrel (4,000 m ) shipments. One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate , or
8700-499: The demand for new ships started to grow, resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards, exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result. This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States. The charter rate for very large crude carriers, which carry two million barrels of oil, had peaked at $ 309,601 per day in 2007 but had dropped to $ 7,085 per day by 2012, far below
8850-591: The destroyers Ascari , Alfredo Oriani , Lanzerotto Malocello , Premuda and Ugolino Vivaldi . The five fleet destroyers in the convoy escort made a smokescreen and attacked the Italian squadron but the Tribal-class destroyer HMS Bedouin and the P-class destroyer Partridge were repeatedly hit by the Italian cruisers and brought to a standstill. The cruiser Cairo also received two rounds from Italian gunfire. Italian reports claimed that
9000-433: The destroyers Ascari and Oriani ; Kentucky was also struck by a torpedo from Oriani . Ascari finished off Burdwan , which by then was an abandoned hulk, with two torpedoes. Chant had already been sunk by bombing and the Italian squadron found her smouldering wreck site. While scaring off the small escorting vessels of the crippled ships and according to post-battle reports from both sides, Raimondo Montecuccoli hit
9150-403: The destroyers Vivaldi and Malocello closed to within 6,000 yd (3.4 mi; 5.5 km) of the merchantmen and hit one of the freighters at about 7:15 a.m. Vivaldi was eventually hit by a shot from the British destroyers and caught fire but was taken in tow and saved by Malocello and Premuda . Both forces broke off the engagement at about 8:00 a.m. and the Italians lost track of
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#17327866405099300-622: The docks, ships, aircraft and airfields by the end of April 1942. Axis bombing was switched to targets preliminary to invasion: camps, barracks, warehouses and road junctions. After 18 April, German bombing suddenly stopped and Italian bombers took over, regularly bombing with small formations of aircraft. During the month, Axis aircraft flew more than 9,500 sorties against 388 by the Royal Air Force (RAF) all but 30 of which were fighter sorties. The British lost 50 aircraft, 20 shot down in combat against 37 Axis losses incurred during
9450-479: The dropping of 6,700 long tons (6,808 t) of bombs, three times the March figure, 3,000 long tons (3,048 t) on the docks, 2,600 long tons (2,642 t) on airfields. The bombing demolished or damaged 11,450 buildings, 300 civilians were killed and 350 seriously wounded. Good shelters existed but some of the casualties were caused by delayed-action bombs. As Malta was running short of supplies, Convoy MW 10 sailed from Alexandria on 21 March. The convoy
9600-415: The easterly wind. Now both ships were sitting targets, and as another serious attack developed, the destroyer went to full speed to part the tow. A German bomber dived at the tanker and released its bomb just before it was shot down by Ohio ' s gunners. The bomb hit the tanker just where the initial torpedo had hit her, effectively breaking her keel just as night was setting in. Ohio was abandoned for
9750-467: The enemy surface force, both of these ships might have been brought in. In 1960, Ian Playfair , the British official historian, wrote that the relationship of the "battle for supplies" with the land war reached a climax in the second half of 1942. Far from the Eighth Army capturing airfields to the west in the Cyrenaican bulge, the army had been defeated at Gazala while Operation Julius was on and lost
9900-429: The engines to be shut down, with all deckhands available fighting the fire with the deck waterlines. Burning kerosene bubbled up from the fractured tanks, while small gouts of flame spattered the deck up to 30 yards from the blaze. The flames were put out and the tanker managed 13 knots (24 km/h) after being repaired. The blast destroyed the ship's gyrocompass and knocked the magnetic compass off its bearings, while
10050-472: The engines via the auxiliary steam system, the engine room was filled with black smoke until the engines were properly re-lit. The ship was making alternate black and white smoke and, with oil in the water pipes and a loss of vacuum in the condenser , Ohio started to lose way slowly, coming to a stop at 1050 hrs. The crew abandoned ship, boarding HMS Penn that had come to Ohio ' s aid with another destroyer, HMS Ledbury . Ledbury soon left
10200-665: The escort of the Harpoon convoy is known as the Battle of Pantelleria ( Battaglia di Mezzo Giugno [Battle of mid-June]). News of the two operations had been unwittingly revealed to the Axis by the US Military Attaché in Egypt, Colonel Bonner Fellers , who had been submitting detailed military reports on British activities to Washington. The American code was later revealed by Ultra intercepts to have been broken by Italian military intelligence ( Servizio Informazioni Militare ). In 1942, Axis bombing of Malta smashed
10350-475: The fast minelayer HMS Welshman until another convoy could be organised. Escorting merchant ships in the brilliance of a Mediterranean moonlit period was courting disaster. This situation limited operations in the immediate future to the moonless period in July or August between the 10th and 16th of those months. July passed as Ohio could not be fitted out in time. Once the due planning had been carried out it
10500-399: The fire starter torches to restart the furnaces. The complicated routine of restarting went forward smoothly and within 20 minutes Ohio was steaming at 16 knots again. Then another salvo of bombs hit the ship, shaking every plate, and once more the engines slowed and stopped. The concussion had broken her electric fuel pumps. While the crew tried to reconnect the electrical wires and restart
10650-469: The first oil-tank steamer, Vaderland (Fatherland), which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company for Belgian owners. The vessel's use was curtailed by US and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns. By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank-cars similar to those in use today. The modern oil tanker was developed in
10800-531: The first seven months of 1942, of 30 sailings, ten were sunk, ten turned back damaged, three were sunk on arrival and seven delivered their supplies. The Axis operation against Harpoon was the only undisputed squadron-sized victory for the Regia Marina in the Second World War. In their 1998 publication, Greene and Massignani wrote Clearly this was an Axis victory and a tactical victory for
10950-572: The first tankers of the Tank Syndicate, forerunner of today's Royal Dutch Shell company. With facilities prepared in Jakarta , Singapore , Bangkok , Saigon , Hong Kong , Shanghai , and Kobe , the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market. On August 24, 1892, Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal . By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907,
11100-470: The first wave of dive-bombers came low over the water. Only one oil bomb landed close to Ohio ' s bow, showering her with burning liquid. Then came three more echelons of German planes. This time, close air support from Malta was available. 16 Spitfires, of 229 and 249 Squadrons from Malta, had sighted the enemy. The first enemy formation wavered and broke. The second formation also broke, but one section of Ju 88s succeeded in breaking free, making for
11250-481: The following 48 hours, all the merchant ships were sunk off Malta or destroyed inside the port; barely 5,000 long tons (5,100 t) of supplies were unloaded. Rations of meat, fats and sugar were cut further and on 5 May, the bread ration was reduced to 10.5 oz (298 g) per day, enough to last until late July; pasta rations had already been stopped and there had been a poor winter potato harvest. Three destroyers, three submarines, three minesweepers, five tugs,
11400-462: The former having lost some cargo in the mine explosion; Hebe also struck a mine and suffered further damage, requiring a month in dry dock. Captain Hardy reported, During the final day of Harpoon three merchant ships in convoy were lost due to enemy air action. Of these, Chant received three direct hits, but Burdwan and Kentucky were, I believe, not touched but disabled by near misses. But for
11550-703: The forward half of Ohio was towed 10 miles (16 km) offshore and sunk by gunfire from the destroyer HMS Virago . On 3 October, the stern half was scuttled in deep water using explosive charges laid by the salvage vessel RFA Salventure . The final ship built for the Texaco fleet was Star Ohio , in honour of the famous Second World War tanker. She is operated by Northern Marine Management on behalf of Chevron . The nameplate, ships wheel, ensign and several other objects of Ohio are preserved in Malta's National War Museum in Valletta. The arrival of Ohio at
11700-515: The greater number of surfaces to maintain, the risk of explosions in double-hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted, and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships. Operation Harpoon (1942) 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Operation Harpoon was one of two simultaneous Allied convoys sent to supply Malta in the Axis-dominated central Mediterranean Sea in mid-June 1942, during
11850-450: The holes in the hull. The deck had been broken open, so that one could look down into the ship. From beam to beam the deck was buckled, but the ship held together. Another 60 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers attacked the convoy, focusing on Ohio . A series of near misses ensued as the tanker approached the island of Pantelleria . Bombs threw spray over the decks of the tanker, while aircraft used their machine guns. One near-miss buckled
12000-547: The hull and the storage tanks. Hybrid designs such as "double-bottom" and "double-sided" combine aspects of single and double-hull designs. All single-hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026, in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL). The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010. In 1998,
12150-534: The key to more efficient transport. While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 162 metres (532 ft) long and had a capacity of 16,500 DWT , the ultra-large crude carriers (ULCC) built in the 1970s were over 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and had a capacity of 500,000 DWT . Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through
12300-538: The landing grounds to the east. The disaster at Gazala had led to the military forces on Malta trying to save Egypt rather than vice versa. Vigorous had been a "disappointing operation" and turned back because the British and US air attacks on the Italian battle fleet had failed to inflict the damage hoped for. Force A could not hope to prevail in a surface action, a view echoed by Greene and Massignani in 2003. The two ships of Operation Harpoon that reached Malta delivered 15,000 long tons (15,241 t) of supplies which, with
12450-442: The law". The immediate reaction was a cabled message from Mr TE Buchanan, General Manager of Texaco's Marine Department to the firm's London agent, that on no account was Ohio to leave her discharging port of Bowling-on-the-Clyde. A period of indecision, meetings and debates between the highest US authorities and their British counterparts soon ensued. The master was told that further orders would arrive soon afterwards. The decision
12600-541: The master a personal welcome and "...your safe arrival in the Clyde with the first cargo of oil carried in a United States tanker." However, the euphoria that such a message brought to the crew soon turned into resentment and anger. A telegram was received the same day by the head office of Texaco, from the War Shipping Administration , announcing simply that Ohio was being requisitioned "pursuant to
12750-629: The mouth of the Clyde , under the command of Sverre Petersen, a former Master in Sail from Oslo , in Norway. In early May 1942, a radio message had reached Captain Petersen which diverted the ship to Galveston in Texas, and then ordered the tanker to proceed to Britain. Before leaving, Ohio was defensively armed with one 5-inch (130 mm) gun on her stern and one 3-inch (76 mm) anti-aircraft gun in
12900-449: The newly arrived Ledbury acting as a stern tug. With less pull from Ledbury , a fair speed was maintained, but steering proved impossible. A stabilising factor was needed, thus Commander Swain edged Penn to the starboard side of Ohio . Rye , joined by Bramham , slowly got under way once more, with Ledbury acting as a rudder. Another enemy air attack began just as the group of ships was moving at 6 kn (11 km/h). At 1045 hrs
13050-429: The night. The day after, Penn was joined by the minesweeper HMS Rye . The two ships towed the tanker and succeeded in making up to 5 knots (9.3 km/h), overcoming the tendency to swing to port. Another attack blasted the group of ships, breaking the tow lines and immobilising Ohio ' s rudder. Another bomb hit the fore end of her foredeck, forcing the engineers out of the engine room. Once more, Mason gave
13200-556: The oil flowed out, Ohio sank lower and lower in the water. The last drops of oil left her and simultaneously her keel settled on the bottom. Her captain, Dudley William Mason , was subsequently awarded the George Cross . After Ohio reached Malta, the ship broke in two from the damage she had sustained. There were insufficient shipyard facilities to repair the tanker, so the two halves were used for storage, and later barracks facilities for Yugoslavian troops. On 19 September 1946
13350-438: The operating costs of these ships. As a result, several tanker operators laid up their ships. Prices rose significantly in 2015 and early 2016, but delivery of new tankers was projected to keep prices in check. Owners of large oil tanker fleets include Teekay Corporation , A P Moller Maersk , DS Torm , Frontline , MOL Tankship Management , Overseas Shipholding Group , and Euronav . In 2005, oil tankers made up 36.9% of
13500-429: The order to abandon ship, as two more air attacks narrowly missed the tanker. A superficial examination showed that the rent that had developed in the amidships section had widened and that the ship had indeed almost certainly broken her back. The two ships around the tanker were joined by HMS Bramham and by Ledbury which had returned from her search for Manchester . Meanwhile, Rye had again begun to tow Ohio with
13650-430: The other end of the journey, they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off-coast. Supertanker routes are typically long, requiring them to stay at sea for extended periods, often around seventy days at a time. The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. (The contract itself is known as a charter party . ) Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements:
13800-425: The past, ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as supertankers. "Supertankers" are the largest oil tankers, and the largest mobile man-made structures. They include very large and ultra-large crude carriers (VLCCs and ULCCs – see above) with capacities over 250,000 DWT. These ships can transport 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m ) of oil/318,000 metric tons. By way of comparison,
13950-503: The period from 1877 to 1885. In 1876, Ludvig and Robert Nobel , brothers of Alfred Nobel , founded Branobel (short for Brothers Nobel) in Baku , Azerbaijan . It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest oil companies in the world. Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges. Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced
14100-581: The price specified for carriage of cargo. The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways: by a lump sum rate, by rate per ton, by a time charter equivalent rate, or by Worldscale rate. In a lump sum rate arrangement, a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo, and the ship's owner/operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses. Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering, and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by
14250-460: The protection of the Spitfires, the danger of enemy attacks receded. After the tow line was parted, Ledbury was still secured to Ohio by a heavy wire which had been pulled round by the heavily yawing tanker, and had ended up alongside Penn , facing the wrong way. After a quick analysis of the possibilities, it was decided to tow the tanker with a destroyer on either side of the tanker. Bramham
14400-572: The quality and courage of the crew . " At about the time Ohio was transferred to the UK registry, her tonnages were revised to 9,514 GRT and 5,436 NRT . As the UK crew started to assemble, it became clear that a large convoy was being planned. Command of the ship passed to Captain Dudley W Mason , who at 39 had already held other commands. James Wyld was to be chief engineer . 48 hours after Ohio had been transferred to British registry, her crew
14550-528: The record of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement. His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the previous record-holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig. The first tanker over 100,000 dwt built in Europe was the British Admiral . The ship was launched at Barrow-in-Furness in 1965 by Elizabeth II . The world's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at
14700-788: The rest consisted of refined petroleum products. This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for the year. Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried, oil tankers moved 11,705 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 2005. By comparison, in 1970 1.44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for that year. In terms of amount carried and distance carried, oil tankers moved 6,487 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 1970. The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity, stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric-ton-miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight. In 2005, for each 1 DWT of oil tankers, 6.7 metric tons of cargo
14850-434: The rest were smaller designs. By comparison, 8.0 million DWT , 8.7 million DWT , and 20.8 million DWT worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively. Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping . Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LDT) and prices in
15000-500: The river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain. In the 1860s, Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania . Break-bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40-US-gallon (150 L) wooden barrels. But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem
15150-429: The salute on the battered bridge of Ohio , could spare not a moment's thought for the pride of bringing the ship to harbour, since the creaking plates showed that Ohio might still go to the bottom of the Grand Harbour. Pipes were now hauled aboard and emergency salvage pumps began to discharge the kerosene. At the same time, a fleet auxiliary, RFA Boxol , began to pump the 10,000 tons of fuel oil into her own tanks. As
15300-567: The same day as the Afrika Korps broke out and by 14 June, forced the British to retreat towards Tobruk. The Axis forces pursued the British into Egypt and the Desert Air Force lost the Libyan landing grounds from which to cover Malta convoys. Two weeks before the convoys, the carrier HMS Eagle began operations to deliver 63 Spitfires to Malta, which increased the number to 95 serviceable fighters. Air operations for
15450-478: The same day, German bombers attacked the convoy. On 12 August 20 Junkers Ju 88s attacked the convoy, while a further combined strike by 100 German and Italian Regia Aeronautica planes attacked the merchantmen. In the ensuing mayhem the Italian submarine Axum torpedoed Ohio amidships. A huge pillar of flame leapt high into the air. Ohio was on fire and seemed to be out of control. Captain Mason ordered
15600-488: The scrap metal market. In 1998, almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places such as Gadani , Alang and Chittagong . In 2004 and 2005, 7.8 million DWT and 5.7 million DWT respectively of oil tankers were scrapped. Between 2000 and 2005, the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between 5.6 million DWT and 18.4 million DWT . In this same timeframe, tankers have accounted for between 56.5% and 90.5% of
15750-500: The ship into 21 cargo tanks. The ship was launched the day after that scheduled, prompting superstitious fear in the welders, steel-cutters and other craftsmen who had assembled to watch her launch. She was christened in a ceremony presided over by the mother of William Starling Sullivant Rodgers, president of the Texas Oil Company , Florence E. Rodgers, who, grasping the ceremonial bottle of champagne in her hand, pronounced
15900-601: The ship over. On 10 July, Captain Petersen handed over the ship. There was no formal ceremony and little goodwill. The US flag was taken down, and Ohio henceforward sailed under the Red Ensign . Overnight she was transferred from US to UK registry. On 25 July the MoWT contracted her management to the Eagle Oil and Shipping Company , which was warned of the importance of the impending convoy and that " ... much might depend on
16050-408: The ship turned slowly to comb torpedoes, two sticks of bombs fell, one on either side of the tanker. The vessel was lifted clean out of the water. Cascades of spray and bomb splinters lashed the deck, she fell back with a crash. Ohio had differential gearing which slowed the propeller automatically; on other ships, the same effect would have shaken the engines out of their rooms. Continuously bombed,
16200-428: The ship's plates and the forward tank filled with water. The 3-inch (76 mm) gun at the bows was twisted in its mountings and put out of action. A formation of five Ju 88s was broken up by the tanker's anti aircraft guns, with the bombs falling harmlessly in the sea. One of Ohio ' s gunners shot down a Ju 87, but the aircraft crashed into the ship's starboard side, forward of the upper bridge, and exploded. Half
16350-690: The ships lost during "Harpoon" was Ohio ' s sister ship Kentucky , crippled by a German air attack and then abandoned. The tanker was eventually finished off by the Italian cruisers Raimondo Montecuccoli and Eugenio di Savoia and two destroyers. On 18 June, after the failures of "Harpoon" and "Vigorous", the Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet cabled UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill to express his doubts about attempting another convoy. Three days later Ohio steamed into
16500-460: The sinking of the crippled vessels of the convoy shortly after, just before sailing back to Pantelleria. Later In the evening, the surviving ships ran into a minefield off Malta. The destroyers Badsworth and Matchless and the freighter Orari struck mines and were damaged; the Polish destroyer ORP Kujawiak sank after midnight. Of the six merchantmen, Orari and Troilus reached Malta,
16650-724: The situation in the Western Desert should have been clarified. If Martuba or Benghazi in Cyrenaica had been captured by the Eighth Army , a westbound convoy from Alexandria might survive without cover from battleships and aircraft carriers. It would also be known if Luftwaffe aircraft had been diverted to the Russian Front and if the crisis in the Indian Ocean had abated, sufficient for ships to escort
16800-729: The speed of Axis reinforcement and expected to attack well before the Axis but Panzerarmee Afrika forestalled the Eighth Army by beginning an offensive on 21 January 1942. By 6 February, the British had been defeated, forced to retreat east of the Jebel Akhdar back to the Gazala line just west of Tobruk, where the Panzerarmee had begun its retirement seven weeks earlier. At the Battle of Gazala (26 May – 21 June), Panzerarmee Afrika attacked first again but appeared close to defeat until 11 June. The Allied Operation Julius began on
16950-400: The steering gear was put out of action, forcing the crew to steer with the emergency gear aft. The torpedo had blown a hole, 24 by 27 ft (7 by 8 m), in the port side of the midships pump-room. It had also blown a hole in the starboard side, flooding the compartment. There were jagged tears in the bulkheads and kerosene was spurting up from adjoining tanks, seeping in a film up through
17100-521: The stricken tanker after being ordered to go in search of the cruiser HMS Manchester , which had been crippled by Italian motor torpedo boats . Penn ' s commanding officer, Commander JH Swain RN, offered Captain Mason a tow with a heavy 10-inch manila hemp rope. With the tow line in place Penn moved ahead, straining her engines to the limit. Ohio continued to list to port. The two ships were making no progress, and were even drifting astern with
17250-482: The submarine HMS Upholder was lost. On 10 March, the cruiser HMS Naiad was sunk by a U-boat and on 10 May, three of four destroyers were sunk by the Luftwaffe . In February and March, Axis losses were 9 per cent of supplies sent, in April less than one per cent and May losses were 7 per cent. The Axis was able to reinforce North Africa sufficient for General Erwin Rommel to try to attack before
17400-572: The supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers. Some particular variables include winter temperatures, excess tanker tonnage, supply fluctuations in the Persian Gulf , and interruptions in refinery services. In 2006, time-charters tended towards long term. Of the time charters executed in that year, 58% were for a period of 24 or more months, 14% were for periods of 12 to 24 months, 4% were from 6 to 12 months, and 24% were for periods of less than 6 months. From 2003,
17550-713: The system is still used today. Besides that, there is the flexible market scale, which takes typical routes and lots of 500,000 barrels (79,000 m ). Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products. Crude carriers are among the largest, ranging from 55,000 DWT Panamax -sized vessels to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of over 440,000 DWT. Smaller tankers, ranging from well under 10,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT Panamax vessels, generally carry refined petroleum products, and are known as product tankers. The smallest tankers, with capacities under 10,000 DWT generally work near-coastal and inland waterways. Although they were in
17700-416: The tanker kept on steaming until another explosion to starboard sent her reeling to port. The engine-room lights went out because the master switches had been thrown off by the force of the explosion. An electrician quickly switched them on again. The boiler fires had been blown out, and it was a race against time to restore them before the steam pressure dropped too low to work the fuel pumps. The engineers lit
17850-456: The tanker. These were swiftly followed by Spitfires. Three of the German planes were shot down or manoeuvred to evade the Spitfires, but one bomber held its course and a 1,000-pound bomb landed in the tanker's wake. Ohio was flung forward, parting Rye ' s tow, buckling the stern plates of the tanker and forming a great hole. Ohio was sinking little more than 45 miles west of Malta. Under
18000-584: The tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct. Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude oil futures in 1983, it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil, which could change with every contract. Shell and BP , the first companies to use the system, abandoned the AFRA system in 1983, later followed by the US oil companies. However,
18150-498: The tugs made fast ahead and astern and the tanker was soon proceeding up the channel to the Grand Harbour entrance. There, a great welcome awaited them. On the ramparts above the wreck-strewn harbour, on the Barracca, Fort Saint Angelo and Senglea , great crowds of Maltese men and women waved and cheered and a brass band on the end of the mole was giving a spirited rendition of Rule Britannia . Captain Mason, however, standing at
18300-602: The two convoys began on 24 May, when Vickers Wellington bombers of 104 Squadron from Malta began bombing airfields and ports in Sicily and southern Italy. On 11 June, the Wellingtons were withdrawn to accommodate six Wellington torpedo bombers of 38 Squadron , Bristol Beaufort torpedo-bombers of 217 Squadron and Martin Baltimore reconnaissance aircraft of 69 Squadron . Aircraft from Gibraltar, Malta and Egypt also began reconnaissance flights on 11 June, searching for
18450-466: The vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums. It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead; its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line, cofferdams for added safety, and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo. The ship was built in Britain, and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent for
18600-424: The voyage charter, the time charter, the bareboat charter , and contract of affreightment . In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port. In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs. In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing
18750-444: The width, or beam, of the ship. These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead. Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect , where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize. But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems. This approach, almost universal today,
18900-569: The words: I name this good ship Ohio . May God go with her and all who sail in her. Good luck… The ship slid down No. 2 slipway, entering the waters of the Delaware River . The existence of Ohio would, in her initial years, be uneventful and ordinary, plying between Port Arthur and various other American harbors. She set a speed record from Bayonne to Port Arthur, covering 1,882 miles (3,029 km) in four days and twelve hours, an average of more than seventeen knots. In 1942, Britain
19050-401: The world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from 326.1 million DWT in 1970 to 960.0 million DWT in 2005. The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers, represents 72.9% of the world's fleet. In 2005, 2.42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. 76.7% of this was crude oil, and
19200-610: The world's total scrapped ship tonnage. In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26.9 to 31.5 years. In 2005, the price for new oil tankers in the 32,000–45,000 DWT , 80,000–105,000 DWT , and 250,000–280,000 DWT ranges were $ 43 million, $ 58 million, and $ 120 million respectively. In 1985 these vessels would have cost $ 18 million, $ 22 million, and $ 47 million respectively. Oil tankers are often sold second hand. In 2005, 27.3 million DWT worth of oil tankers were sold used. Some representative prices for that year include $ 42.5 million for
19350-490: The world. In Worldscale negotiations, operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate. The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100. If a given charter party settled on 85% of the Worldscale rate, it would be expressed as WS 85. Similarly, a charter party set at 125% of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125. The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as
19500-543: Was waging war in the Mediterranean against the German Afrika Korps and Italian forces in North Africa. Crucial to this theatre of operations was the island of Malta, sitting in the middle of Axis supply lines and, if supplied with sufficient munitions, aircraft and fuel, capable of causing severe shortages to the German and Italian armies in North Africa. Munitions and aircraft were available – during
19650-399: Was a skillful compromise, promising broad cargo-carrying capacity to the merchant and speed, balance, and stability to the mariner. Above the waterline her design echoed the outward curve of a schooner 's bow, bearing the influence of the old American clipper ship design. She was the lead ship of her class of eight ships, all owned by The Texas Company. The threat of a rearming Germany and
19800-483: Was attacked by the Italian submarine Uarsciek at 2:52 a.m. which claimed a hit but the explosion was premature. At dawn an Italian aircraft spotted the convoy 50 nmi (58 mi; 93 km) north of Cape Bougaroni, about halfway between Algiers and Bizerte. Two British fighters managed to shoot it down before it could send a sighting report. Escapade fired on a submarine but it turned out to be Westcott returning from refuelling. The Italian submarine Giada
19950-731: Was carried. Similarly, each 1 DWT of oil tankers was responsible for 32,400 metric-ton miles of carriage. The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia, Western Africa, North Africa, and the Caribbean, with 196.3, 196.3, 130.2 and 246.6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions. The main discharge ports were located in North America, Europe, and Japan with 537.7, 438.4, and 215.0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions. International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in
20100-461: Was completed. The ship's company numbered 77, including 24 Royal Navy and Royal Artillery Marine Regiment DEMS gunners. The ship was then moved to King George V Dock, Glasgow for the fitting of one Bofors 40 mm and six Oerlikon 20 mm anti-aircraft guns. After the failure of the mid-June convoys, it was wondered if Malta could hold out on the meagre supplies rescued from "Harpoon" and "Vigorous" and small deliveries carried by submarine and by
20250-428: Was decided to begin the operation in August. Ohio steamed down to Dunglass on the Clyde and loaded 11,500 tons of kerosene and diesel fuel oils. She was the only ship carrying these supplies which were so vital to Malta's survival. Before she sailed she was given special strengthening to protect her against the shock of bombs exploding near her. In the previous convoy, the tanker Kentucky had been sunk with only
20400-403: Was detached and travelled to Malta alone, delivered ammunition, then sailed back next day to rejoin the convoy escorts. At dawn on 15 June, near Pantelleria , the lightly defended convoy was subjected to a coordinated attack by Axis aircraft and the Italian 7th Cruiser Division ( Ammiraglio di divisione [Vice-Admiral] Alberto da Zara ), Raimondo Montecuccoli , Eugenio di Savoia and
20550-563: Was escorted by Force X, the anti-aircraft cruiser HMS Cairo , nine destroyers, the fast minelayer HMS Welshman and smaller ships. Distant cover was provided by the battleship HMS Malaya , aircraft carriers Argus and Eagle , cruisers HMS Kenya , Charybdis and Liverpool , with several destroyers. Eagle carried 16 Sea Hurricanes of 801 Naval Air Squadron (801 NAS) and 813 NAS and four Fairey Fulmars of 807 NAS . Argus had two more Fulmars of 807 NAS and 18 Swordfish of 824 NAS . The convoy
20700-472: Was eventually sunk by an aerial torpedo from a SM.79 bomber that Bedouin shot down as it sank. Twenty-eight of the Bedouin crew were killed and more than 200 were rescued and taken prisoner by the Italians; the majority by the small hospital ship Meta . The Italian squadron was attacked by mistake at 2:20 p.m. by German Ju. 88 bombers, without suffering any damage. The Italian warships witnessed
20850-595: Was finally taken two weeks later, when a launch sped out to the ship anchored in the Clyde and Texaco's London agent, accompanied by an official of the UK Ministry of War Transport came aboard. They met the Captain, who was told that the ship was to be requisitioned and handed over to a UK crew. The US crew and the captain were exasperated by the seemingly outrageous order, but had no other option but to give in, and started to pack their kit whilst UK seamen began to take
21000-441: Was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk , Lumen , and Lux . Others point to Glückauf , another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into
21150-524: Was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft. The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy . The ship had a length overall of 56 metres (184 ft), a beam of 8.2 metres (27 ft), and a draft of 2.7 metres (9 ft). Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of
21300-427: Was immediately ordered to make for port, while Penn remained coupled to the starboard side. The speed was increased but limited to 5 knots (9.3 km/h). Ohio ' s deck was awash amidships. Now under the protection of the coastal batteries of Malta, the group of ships were slowly moving around the island, approaching Grand Harbour . The coastal batteries fired on a creeping U-boat 's conning tower, and drove off
21450-523: Was in the vicinity and at 6:05 a.m. fired two torpedoes at Eagle , which logged an underwater explosion at 6:14 a.m. The crew of Giada heard three explosions and claimed a hit. Another Italian aircraft saw the convoy at 7:45 a.m. 90 nmi (100 mi; 170 km) south-west of Cape Teulada in Sardinia, close to the operational area of Aeronautica della Sardegna (Air Sardinia) which had been reinforced to 175 operational bombers and fighters,
21600-501: Was joined by Force F (two battleships and six destroyers) and then a further five destroyers. Further warships joined the convoy en route to Gibraltar. By the 8 August the convoy numbered 67 vessels. The convoy left Gibraltar in thick fog on 9 August. A day later, four torpedoes from the German submarine U-73 struck the aircraft-carrier HMS Eagle which sank in four minutes, killing 260 men, and losing all but four planes. On
21750-401: Was recovered and taking the disabled Bedouin in tow when the Italian cruisers with two destroyers reappeared; the tow was cast off, leaving Bedouin adrift. At 2:30 p.m., Partridge managed to withdraw and run for Gibraltar but Bedouin had already been hit during the battle by at least twelve 152 mm (6.0 in) shells plus several near misses and had taken on a severe list. Bedouin
21900-488: Was redundant. Hitler and Mussolini agreed to Panzerarmee Afrika pursuing the British into Egypt for the rest of June and into July, which meant cancelling Hercules. After the success of Operation Crusader (18 November – 30 December 1941), the Eighth Army advanced 800 km (500 mi) westwards to El Agheila in Libya, capturing airfields and landing grounds to provide air cover for Malta convoys. The British misjudged
22050-496: Was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991, and Knock Nevis in 2004 (when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker). In 2009 she was sold for the last time, renamed Mont , and scrapped . As of 2011, the world's two largest working supertankers are the TI-class supertankers TI Europe and TI Oceania . These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for
22200-525: Was the subject of a half-hearted attack by the Italian Fleet; the Italians intercepted the convoy and inflicted much damage on several escorts in the Second Battle of Sirte but the weaker British force fended off the Italian squadron. The attack on the convoy meant that the convoy reached Malta in the morning and not at night as expected, leaving the merchant ships exposed to Axis air attack. In
22350-674: Was the world's largest flag state for oil tankers, with 528 of the vessels in its registry. Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers: Liberia (464), Singapore (355), China (252), Russia (250), the Marshall Islands (234) and the Bahamas (209). The Panamanian, Liberian, Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers' Federation to be flags of convenience . By comparison,
22500-545: Was weight: they weighed 29 kilograms (64 lb), representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel. Other problems with barrels were their expense, their tendency to leak, and the fact that they were generally used only once. The expense was significant: for example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production. In 1863, two sail-driven tankers were built on England's River Tyne . These were followed in 1873 by
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