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119-684: STS-107 was the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle program , and the 28th and final flight of Space Shuttle Columbia . The mission ended on February 1, 2003, with the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster which killed all seven crew members and destroyed the space shuttle. It was the 88th post- Challenger disaster mission. The flight launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on January 16, 2003. It spent 15 days, 22 hours, 20 minutes, 32 seconds in orbit . The crew conducted

238-604: A 15-year operational span with a 'launch per month' expected at the peak of the program, but extensive delays in the development of the International Space Station never created such a peak demand for frequent flights. Various shuttle concepts had been explored since the late 1960s. The program formally commenced in 1972, becoming the sole focus of NASA's human spaceflight operations after the Apollo , Skylab , and Apollo–Soyuz programs in 1975. The Shuttle

357-515: A Structural Test Article (STA-099), but was converted to a complete orbiter when this was found to be less expensive than converting Enterprise from its Approach and Landing Test configuration into a spaceworthy vehicle. On April 24, 1990, Discovery carried the Hubble Space Telescope into space during STS-31 . In the course of 135 missions flown, two orbiters ( Columbia and Challenger ) suffered catastrophic accidents, with

476-440: A continuous viscous fluid by changing the small fluid-mass limit of the generally unsolvable Navier–Stokes equations : where If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own weight, then a terminal velocity, also known as the settling velocity, is reached when this frictional force combined with the buoyant force exactly balance the gravitational force . The resulting settling velocity (or terminal velocity )

595-772: A controlled magnetic field. A shear stress is imposed on the liquid (or gas) due to the piston travel, and the viscosity is determined by measuring the travel time of the piston. The construction parameters for the annular spacing between the piston and measurement chamber, the strength of the electromagnetic field, and the travel distance of the piston are used to calculate the viscosity according to Newton's law of viscosity . The oscillating-piston viscometer technology has been adapted for small-sample viscosity and micro-sample viscosity testing in laboratory applications. It has also been adapted to high-pressure viscosity and high-temperature viscosity measurements in both laboratory and process environments. The viscosity sensors have been scaled for

714-598: A crew escape system for use during controlled gliding flight. Recommendation VIII – The nation's reliance on the shuttle as its principal space launch capability created a relentless pressure on NASA to increase the flight rate ... NASA must establish a flight rate that is consistent with its resources. The Shuttle program operated accident-free for seventeen years and 88 missions after the Challenger disaster, until Columbia broke up on reentry , killing all seven crew members, on February 1, 2003. The ultimate cause of

833-575: A lack of a defined shear field, which makes it unsuited to measuring the viscosity of a fluid whose flow behaviour is not known beforehand. Vibrating viscometers are rugged industrial systems used to measure viscosity in the process condition. The active part of the sensor is a vibrating rod. The vibration amplitude varies according to the viscosity of the fluid in which the rod is immersed. These viscosity meters are suitable for measuring clogging fluid and high-viscosity fluids, including those with fibers (up to 1000 Pa·s). Currently, many industries around

952-605: A minimum crew of four and about 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) of cargo, and being able to be rapidly turned around for future flights, with larger payloads like space station modules being lifted by the Saturn V . Two designs emerged as front-runners. One was designed by engineers at the Manned Spaceflight Center , and championed especially by George Mueller . This was a two-stage system with delta-winged spacecraft, and generally complex. An attempt to re-simplify

1071-581: A multitude of international scientific experiments. The disaster occurred during reentry while the orbiter was over Texas . Immediately after the disaster, NASA convened the Columbia Accident Investigation Board to determine the cause of the disintegration. The source of the failure was determined to have been caused by a piece of foam that broke off during launch and damaged the thermal protection system ( reinforced carbon-carbon panels and thermal protection tiles ) on

1190-421: A protective coating, such as enamel , or by changing the material of the sensor to a material such as 316L stainless steel . Vibrating viscometers are the most widely used inline instrument to monitor the viscosity of the process fluid in tanks, and pipes. The quartz viscometer is a special type of vibrational viscometer. Here, an oscillating quartz crystal is immersed into a fluid and the specific influence on

1309-572: A single drop of the fluid of interest is dropped on the surface of the crystal. The viscosity is extracted from the shift in the frequency data using the following equation Δ f = − f 0 3 / 2 η l ρ l π μ Q ρ Q {\displaystyle \Delta f=-f_{0}^{3/2}{\sqrt {\frac {\eta _{l}\rho _{l}}{\pi \mu _{Q}\rho _{Q}}}}} where f 0 {\displaystyle f_{0}}

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1428-411: A single measuring system. A built-in density measurement based on the oscillating U-tube principle allows the determination of kinematic viscosity from the measured dynamic viscosity employing the relation where: Bubble viscometers are used to quickly determine kinematic viscosity of known liquids such as resins and varnishes. The time required for an air bubble to rise is directly proportional to

1547-403: A single run is only possible if the sample being measured has Newtonian properties . Otherwise the change in driving head, which in turn changes the shear rate, will produce a different viscosity for the two bulbs. Stokes' law is the basis of the falling-sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through

1666-413: A temperature-controlled copper housing. The hollow internal cylinder – shaped as a conical rotor – is centered within the sample by hydrodynamic lubrication effects and centrifugal forces . In this way all bearing friction , an inevitable factor in most rotational devices, is fully avoided. The rotating fluid's shear forces drive the rotor, while a magnet inside the rotor forms an eddy current brake with

1785-401: A test cell; the torque required to achieve a certain rotational speed is measured and plotted. There are two classical geometries in "cup and bob" viscometers, known as either the "Couette" or "Searle" systems, distinguished by whether the cup or bob rotates. The rotating cup is preferred in some cases because it reduces the onset of Taylor vortices at very high shear rates, but the rotating bob

1904-433: A test with any geometries runs through a table of several shear rates or stresses, the data can be used to plot a flow curve, that is a graph of viscosity vs shear rate. If the above test is carried out slowly enough for the measured value (shear stress if rate is being controlled, or conversely) to reach a steady value at each step, the data is said to be at "equilibrium", and the graph is then an "equilibrium flow curve". This

2023-549: A total cost projection for the program of roughly $ 54 billion (in 2011 dollars). The total cost of the actual 30-year service life of the Shuttle program through 2011, adjusted for inflation, was $ 196 billion. In 2010, the incremental cost per flight of the Space Shuttle was $ 409 million, or $ 14,186 per kilogram ($ 6,435 per pound) to low Earth orbit (LEO). In contrast, the comparable Proton launch vehicle cost

2142-628: A tradition dating back to the Gemini and Apollo programs. While the crew of STS-107 worked shifts in "red" and "blue" teams to work around the clock, on this mission each shift was still awoken with a "wake-up call"; the only other two-shift shuttle mission to do so was STS-99 . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Space Shuttle program The Space Shuttle program

2261-450: A wide range of industrial applications, such as small-size viscometers for use in compressors and engines, flow-through viscometers for dip coating processes, in-line viscometers for use in refineries, and hundreds of other applications. Improvements in sensitivity from modern electronics, is stimulating a growth in oscillating-piston viscometer popularity with academic laboratories exploring gas viscosity. Vibrational viscometers date back to

2380-513: Is an expanded crew. Crews of up to eight have been flown in the Orbiter, but it could have held at least a crew of ten. Various proposals for filling the payload bay with additional passengers were also made as early as 1979. One proposal by Rockwell provided seating for 74 passengers in the Orbiter payload bay, with support for three days in Earth orbit. With a smaller 64 seat orbiter, costs for

2499-403: Is based on a piston and cylinder assembly. The piston is periodically raised by an air lifting mechanism, drawing the material being measured down through the clearance (gap) between the piston and the wall of the cylinder into the space formed below the piston as it is raised. The assembly is then typically held up for a few seconds, then allowed to fall by gravity, expelling the sample out through

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2618-482: Is considerably accurate, but the measurements can vary due to variances in buoyancy because of the changing in shape of the bubble in the tube. However, this does not cause any sort of serious miscalculation. The basic design of a rectangular-slit viscometer/rheometer consists of a rectangular-slit channel with uniform cross-sectional area. A test liquid is pumped at a constant flow rate through this channel. Multiple pressure sensors flush-mounted at linear distances along

2737-487: Is given by where: Note that Stokes flow is assumed, so the Reynolds number must be small. A limiting factor on the validity of this result is the roughness of the sphere being used. A modification of the straight falling-sphere viscometer is a rolling-ball viscometer, which times a ball rolling down a slope whilst immersed in the test fluid. This can be further improved by using a patented V plate, which increases

2856-434: Is measured. By multiplying the time taken by the factor of the viscometer, the kinematic viscosity is obtained. Such viscometers can be classified as direct-flow or reverse-flow. Reverse-flow viscometers have the reservoir above the markings, and direct-flow are those with the reservoir below the markings. Such classifications exist so that the level can be determined even when opaque or staining liquids are measured, otherwise

2975-414: Is more commonly used, as the instrument design can be more flexible for other geometries as well. "Cone and plate" viscometers use a narrow-angled cone in close proximity to a flat plate. With this system, the shear rate between the geometries is constant at any given rotational speed. The viscosity can easily be calculated from shear stress (from the torque) and shear rate (from the angular velocity). If

3094-548: Is preferable over non-equilibrium measurements, as the data can usually be replicated across multiple other instruments or with other geometries. Rheometers and viscometers work with torque and angular velocity. Since viscosity is normally considered in terms of shear stress and shear rates, a method is needed to convert from "instrument numbers" to "rheology numbers". Each measuring system used in an instrument has its associated "form factors" to convert torque to shear stress and to convert angular velocity to shear rate. We will call

3213-682: Is scheduled to start ISS crew service from 2025. For missions beyond low Earth orbit , NASA is building the Space Launch System and the Orion spacecraft , part of the Artemis program . Space Shuttle missions have included: Early during development of the Space Shuttle, NASA had estimated that the program would cost $ 7.45 billion ($ 43 billion in 2011 dollars, adjusting for inflation) in development/non-recurring costs, and $ 9.3M ($ 54M in 2011 dollars) per flight. Early estimates for

3332-494: Is the Ubbelohde viscometer , which consists of a U-shaped glass tube held vertically in a controlled temperature bath. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise narrow bore (the capillary). Above there is a bulb, with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm. In use, liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, then allowed to flow down through the capillary into the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below

3451-405: Is the resonant frequency, ρ l {\displaystyle \rho _{l}}  is the density of the fluid, μ Q {\displaystyle \mu _{Q}}  is the shear modulus of the quartz, and ρ Q {\displaystyle \rho _{Q}}  is the density of the quartz. An extension of this technique corrects

3570-468: The Challenger accident). The Shuttle program continued in September 1988 with the launch of Discovery on STS-26 . The accidents did not just affect the technical design of the orbiter, but also NASA. Quoting some recommendations made by the post- Challenger Rogers commission: Recommendation I – The faulty Solid Rocket Motor joint and seal must be changed. This could be a new design eliminating

3689-681: The Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission, SpaceX's Dragon 2 sent astronauts to the ISS, restoring America's human launch capability. The first operational SpaceX mission launched on November 15, 2020, at 7:27:17 p.m. ET, carrying four astronauts to the ISS. Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has been replaced with a very similar Artemis program . The Orion spacecraft has been left virtually unchanged from its previous design. The planned Ares V rocket has been replaced with

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3808-704: The X-37B . By 2012, cargo to the International Space Station was already being delivered commercially under NASA's Commercial Resupply Services by SpaceX's partially reusable Dragon spacecraft , followed by Orbital Sciences' Cygnus spacecraft in late 2013. Crew service to the ISS is currently provided by the Russian Soyuz and, since 2020, the SpaceX Dragon 2 crew capsule, launched on the company's reusable Falcon 9 rocket as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program . Boeing 's Starliner capsule

3927-698: The micro-encapsulation experiment part of the payload was completely recovered, increasing from 0% data to 90% data after recovering the samples fully intact for this experiment. In this same payload were numerous crystal-forming experiments by hundreds of elementary and middle school students from all across the United States. Miraculously most of their experiments were found intact in CIBX-2, increasing from 0% data to 100% fully recovered data. The BRIC-14 (moss growth experiment) and BRIC-60 ( Caenorhabditis elegans roundworm experiment) samples were found intact in

4046-480: The 1950s Bendix instrument, which is of a class that operates by measuring the damping of an oscillating electromechanical resonator immersed in a fluid whose viscosity is to be determined. The resonator generally oscillates in torsion or transversely (as a cantilever beam or tuning fork). The higher the viscosity, the larger the damping imposed on the resonator. The resonator's damping may be measured by one of several methods: The vibrational instrument also suffers from

4165-521: The Constellation program was never fully funded, and in early 2010 the Obama administration asked Congress to instead endorse a plan with heavy reliance on the private sector for delivering cargo and crew to LEO. The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The first of these vehicles, SpaceX Dragon 1 , became operational in 2012, and

4284-585: The ISS in the event of an emergency. STS-135 launched on July 8, 2011, and landed at the KSC on July 21, 2011, at 5:57 a.m. EDT (09:57 UTC). From then until the launch of Crew Dragon Demo-2 on May 30, 2020, the US launched its astronauts aboard Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Out of the five fully functional shuttle orbiters built, three remain. Enterprise , which was used for atmospheric test flights but not for orbital flight, had many parts taken out for use on

4403-465: The ISS on the Shuttle cost $ 272,000 in 2017 dollars, twice the cost of Cygnus and three times that of Dragon. NASA used a management philosophy known as success-oriented management during the Space Shuttle program which was described by historian Alex Roland in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster as "hoping for the best". Success-oriented management has since been studied by several analysts in

4522-416: The ISS suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired—serving twice as long as it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to President George W. Bush 's Vision for Space Exploration , use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of

4641-632: The ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point. The first experimental orbiter, Enterprise , was a high-altitude glider, launched from the back of a specially modified Boeing 747, only for initial atmospheric landing tests (ALT) . Enterprise' s first test flight was on February 18, 1977, only five years after the Shuttle program was formally initiated; leading to the launch of the first space-worthy shuttle Columbia on April 12, 1981, on STS-1 . The Space Shuttle program finished with its last mission, STS-135 flown by Atlantis , in July 2011, retiring

4760-590: The Mission Management Team gave the go for launch. This mission increased the ISS crew to three. Discovery touched down successfully on July 17, 2006, at 09:14 (EDT) on Runway 15 at Kennedy Space Center . Following the success of STS-121 , all subsequent missions were completed without major foam problems, and the construction of the ISS was completed (during the STS-118 mission in August 2007,

4879-744: The NASA budget was at the same time being severely constrained. Three were eventually presented to United States Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1969. The shuttle project rose to the top, largely due to tireless campaigning by its supporters. By 1970 the shuttle had been selected as the one major project for the short-term post-Apollo time frame. All Space Shuttle missions were launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Some civilian and military circumpolar space shuttle missions were planned for Vandenberg AFB in California. However,

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4998-575: The Space Shuttle Exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center visitor complex and has been on display there since June 29, 2013, following its refurbishment. On October 14, 2012, Endeavour completed an unprecedented 12 mi (19 km) drive on city streets from Los Angeles International Airport to the California Science Center , where it has been on display in a temporary hangar since late 2012. The transport from

5117-422: The accident was a piece of foam separating from the external tank moments after liftoff and striking the leading edge of the orbiter's left wing, puncturing one of the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels that covered the wing edge and protected it during reentry. As Columbia reentered the atmosphere at the end of an otherwise normal mission, hot gas penetrated the wing and destroyed it from the inside out, causing

5236-432: The airport took two days and required major street closures, the removal of over 400 city trees, and extensive work to raise power lines, level the street, and temporarily remove street signs, lamp posts, and other obstacles. Hundreds of volunteers, and fire and police personnel, helped with the transport. Large crowds of spectators waited on the streets to see the shuttle as it passed through the city. Endeavour , along with

5355-454: The area. In the course of 135 missions flown, two orbiters were destroyed, with loss of crew totalling 14 astronauts: There was also one abort-to-orbit and some fatal accidents on the ground during launch preparations. Close-up video footage of Challenger during its final launch on January 28, 1986, clearly shows that the problems began due to an O-ring failure on the right solid rocket booster (SRB). The hot plume of gas leaking from

5474-490: The classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerol as the fluid, and the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes. It includes many different oils and polymer liquids such as solutions . In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the frictional force (also called drag force ) exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers (e.g., very small particles) in

5593-426: The cost to deliver payload to low-Earth orbit were as low as $ 118 per pound ($ 260/kg) of payload ($ 635/lb or $ 1,400/kg in 2011 dollars), based on marginal or incremental launch costs, and assuming a 65,000 pound (30 000 kg) payload capacity and 50 launches per year. A more realistic projection of 12 flights per year for the 15-year service life combined with the initial development costs would have resulted in

5712-404: The debris field within a 12-mile (19 km) radius in east Texas. 80-87% of these live organisms survived the catastrophe. The moss and roundworms experiments' original primary mission was not nominal due to the lack of having the samples immediately after landing in their original state (they were discovered many months after the crash), but these samples helped the scientific community greatly in

5831-523: The design concepts as Chawla led the design of her maiden voyage STS-87 insignia. Clark also pointed out that the dove in the Columba constellation was mythologically connected to the explorers the Argonauts who released the dove. Throughout the shuttle program, sleeping astronauts were often awakened each morning by songs and short pieces of music chosen by their families, friends, and Mission Control,

5950-447: The experiments and investigations on the mission. In SPACEHAB RDM: In the payload bay attached to RDM: FREESTAR Additional payloads Because much of the data was transmitted during the mission, there was still large return on the mission objectives even though Columbia was lost on re-entry. NASA estimated that 30% of the total science data was saved and collected through telemetry back to ground stations. Around 5-10% more data

6069-408: The external forces (the shear stress) of the fluid, which affects the electrical response of the sensor. The calibration procedure as a pre-condition of viscosity determination by means of a quartz crystal goes back to B. Bode, who facilitated the detailed analysis of the electrical and mechanical transmission behavior of the oscillating system. On the basis of this calibration, the quartz viscosimeter

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6188-444: The external tank between flights.) Per-launch costs can be measured by dividing the total cost over the life of the program (including buildings, facilities, training, salaries, etc.) by the number of launches. With 135 missions, and the total cost of US$ 192 billion (in 2010 dollars), this gives approximately $ 1.5 billion per launch over the life of the Shuttle program. A 2017 study found that carrying one kilogram of cargo to

6307-461: The failed joint caused the collapse of the external tank, which then resulted in the orbiter's disintegration due to high aerodynamic stress. The accident resulted in the loss of all seven astronauts on board. Endeavour (OV-105) was built to replace Challenger (using structural spare parts originally intended for the other orbiters) and delivered in May 1991; it was first launched a year later. After

6426-402: The field of astrobiology and helped form new theories about microorganisms surviving a long trip in outer space while traveling on meteorites or asteroids. KSC landing was planned for Feb. 1 after a 16-day mission, but Columbia and crew were lost during re-entry over East Texas at about 9 a.m. EST, 16 minutes prior to the scheduled touchdown at KSC. Columbia began re-entry as planned, but

6545-537: The final Shuttle in the fleet. The Space Shuttle program formally ended on August 31, 2011. Before the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969 , NASA began studies of Space Shuttle designs as early as October 1968. The early studies were denoted "Phase A", and in June 1970, "Phase B", which were more detailed and specific. The primary intended use of the Phase A Space Shuttle was supporting the future space station , ferrying

6664-562: The fluid and a surface is a measure of the viscosity. The flow conditions must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar flow . At 20   °C, the dynamic viscosity (kinematic viscosity × density) of water is 1.0038   mPa·s and its kinematic viscosity (product of flow time × factor) is 1.0022   mm /s. These values are used for calibrating certain types of viscometers. These devices are also known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald viscometers , named after Wilhelm Ostwald . Another version

6783-421: The heat shield was compromised due to damage sustained during the ascent. The heat of re-entry was free to spread into the damaged portion of the orbiter, ultimately causing its disintegration and the death of all seven astronauts. The accident triggered a 7-month investigation and a search for debris, and over 85,000 pieces were collected throughout the initial investigation. This amounted to roughly 38 percent of

6902-690: The joint or a redesign of the current joint and seal. ... the Administrator of NASA should request the National Research Council to form an independent Solid Rocket Motor design oversight committee to implement the Commission's design recommendations and oversee the design effort. Recommendation II – The Shuttle Program Structure should be reviewed. ... NASA should encourage the transition of qualified astronauts into agency management Positions. Recommendation III – NASA and

7021-712: The last flight-qualified external tank (ET-94), is currently on display at the Science Center's Samuel Oschin Pavilion (in a horizontal orientation) until the completion of the Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center (a planned addition to the California Science Center). Once moved, it will be permanently displayed in launch configuration, complete with genuine solid rocket boosters and external tank. One area of Space Shuttle applications

7140-611: The late 1980s would be around US$ 1.5 million per seat per launch. The Rockwell passenger module had two decks, four seats across on top and two on the bottom, including a 25-inch (63.5 cm) wide aisle and extra storage space. Another design was Space Habitation Design Associates 1983 proposal for 72 passengers in the Space Shuttle Payload bay. Passengers were located in 6 sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp at launch, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal

7259-628: The leading edge of the orbiter's left wing. During re-entry the damaged wing slowly overheated and came apart, eventually leading to loss of control and disintegration of the vehicle. The cockpit window frame is now exhibited in a memorial inside the Space Shuttle Atlantis Pavilion at the Kennedy Space Center. The damage to the thermal protection system on the wing was similar to that of Atlantis which had also sustained damage in 1988 during STS-27 ,

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7378-403: The liquid will cover the markings and make it impossible to gauge the time the level passes the mark. This also allows the viscometer to have more than 1 set of marks to allow for an immediate timing of the time it takes to reach the 3rd mark , therefore yielding 2 timings and allowing subsequent calculation of determinability to ensure accurate results. The use of two timings in one viscometer in

7497-432: The liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity , which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter are normally used in

7616-697: The loss of Challenger , NASA grounded the Space Shuttle program for over two years, making numerous safety changes recommended by the Rogers Commission Report , which included a redesign of the SRB joint that failed in the Challenger accident. Other safety changes included a new escape system for use when the orbiter was in controlled flight, improved landing gear tires and brakes, and the reintroduction of pressure suits for Shuttle astronauts (these had been discontinued after STS-4 ; astronauts wore only coveralls and oxygen helmets from that point on until

7735-692: The loss of all crew members, totaling 14 astronauts. The accidents led to national level inquiries, detailed analysis of why the accidents occurred, and significant pauses where changes were made before the Shuttles returned to flight. After the Challenger disaster in January 1986, there was a delay of 32 months before the next Shuttle launch. A similar delay of 29 months occurred after the Columbia disaster in February 2003. The longest Shuttle mission

7854-578: The measure of viscosity) and displays the resulting viscosity value. The controller can calibrate the time-of-fall value to cup seconds (known as efflux cup), Saybolt universal second (SUS) or centipoise . Industrial use is popular due to simplicity, repeatability, low maintenance and longevity. This type of measurement is not affected by flow rate or external vibrations. The principle of operation can be adapted for many different conditions, making it ideal for process control environments. Sometimes referred to as electromagnetic viscometer or EMV viscometer,

7973-610: The mission, but initially the director stood firm. On October 31, 2006, NASA announced approval of the launch of Atlantis for the fifth and final shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope, scheduled for August 28, 2008. However SM4/ STS-125 eventually launched in May 2009. One impact of Columbia was that future crewed launch vehicles, namely the Ares I , had a special emphasis on crew safety compared to other considerations. The Space Shuttle retirement

8092-488: The number of rotations to distance traveled, allowing smaller, more portable devices. The controlled rolling motion of the ball avoids turbulences in the fluid, which would otherwise occur with a falling ball. This type of device is also suitable for ship board use. Also known as the Norcross viscometer after its inventor, Austin Norcross. The principle of viscosity measurement in this rugged and sensitive industrial device

8211-488: The numerous experiments that are the dawn of a new era for continued microgravity research on the International Space Station and beyond. The breadth of science and the exploration of space is illustrated by the Earth and stars. The constellation Columba (the dove ) was chosen to symbolize peace on Earth and the Space Shuttle Columbia . The seven stars also represent the mission crew members and honor

8330-409: The orbiter to lose control and disintegrate. After the Columbia disaster, the International Space Station operated on a skeleton crew of two for more than two years and was serviced primarily by Russian spacecraft. While the "Return to Flight" mission STS-114 in 2005 was successful, a similar piece of foam from a different portion of the tank was shed. Although the debris did not strike Discovery ,

8449-406: The orbiter vehicle. The mission insignia itself is the only patch of the shuttle program that is entirely shaped in the orbiter's outline. The central element of the patch is the microgravity symbol, μg , flowing into the rays of the astronaut symbol. The mission inclination is portrayed by the 39-degree angle of the astronaut symbol to the Earth's horizon . The sunrise is representative of

8568-478: The orbiter was again struck by a foam fragment on liftoff, but this damage was minimal compared to the damage sustained by Columbia ). The Columbia Accident Investigation Board, in its report, noted the reduced risk to the crew when a Shuttle flew to the International Space Station (ISS), as the station could be used as a safe haven for the crew awaiting rescue in the event that damage to the orbiter on ascent made it unsafe for reentry. The board recommended that for

8687-537: The orbiter would reenter the Earth's atmosphere and land like a glider at either the Kennedy Space Center or Edwards Air Force Base . The Shuttle is the only winged crewed spacecraft to have achieved orbit and landing, and the first reusable crewed space vehicle that made multiple flights into orbit. Its missions involved carrying large payloads to various orbits including the International Space Station (ISS), providing crew rotation for

8806-563: The original astronauts who paved the way to make research in space possible. Six stars have five points, the seventh has six points like a Star of David , symbolizing the Israeli Space Agency's contributions to the mission. An Israeli flag is adjacent to the name of Payload Specialist Ramon , who was the first Israeli in space. The crew insignia or 'patch' design was initiated by crew members Dr. Laurel Clark and Dr. Kalpana Chawla. First-time crew member Clark provided most of

8925-417: The oscillating behavior defines the viscosity. The principle of quartz viscosimetry is based on the idea of W. P. Mason. The basic concept is the application of a piezoelectric crystal for the determination of viscosity. The high-frequency electric field that is applied to the oscillator causes a movement of the sensor and results in the shearing of the fluid. The movement of the sensor is then influenced by

9044-622: The other orbiters. It was later visually restored and was on display at the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center until April 19, 2012. Enterprise was moved to New York City in April 2012 to be displayed at the Intrepid Museum , whose Space Shuttle Pavilion opened on July 19, 2012. Discovery replaced Enterprise at the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center . Atlantis formed part of

9163-412: The plan was cancelled in 1972. It flew 135 missions and carried 355 astronauts from 16 countries, many on multiple trips. The Space Shuttle , composed of an orbiter launched with two reusable solid rocket boosters and a disposable external fuel tank , carried up to eight astronauts and up to 50,000 lb (23,000 kg) of payload into low Earth orbit (LEO). When its mission was complete,

9282-547: The primary shuttle contractors should review all Criticality 1, 1R, 2, and 2R items and hazard analyses. Recommendation IV – NASA should establish an Office of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance to be headed by an Associate Administrator, reporting directly to the NASA Administrator. Recommendation VI – NASA must take actions to improve landing safety. The tire, brake and nosewheel system must be improved. Recommendation VII – Make all efforts to provide

9401-577: The program budget: for example, during fiscal years 2004 to 2006, NASA spent around $ 13 billion on the Space Shuttle program, even though the fleet was grounded in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster and there were a total of three launches during this period of time. In fiscal year 2009, NASA budget allocated $ 2.98 billion for 5 launches to the program, including $ 490 million for "program integration", $ 1.03 billion for "flight and ground operations", and $ 1.46 billion for "flight hardware" (which includes maintenance of orbiters, engines, and

9520-448: The program was grounded once again for this reason. The second "Return to Flight" mission, STS-121 launched on July 4, 2006, at 14:37 (EDT). Two previous launches were scrubbed because of lingering thunderstorms and high winds around the launch pad, and the launch took place despite objections from its chief engineer and safety head. A five-inch (13 cm) crack in the foam insulation of the external tank gave cause for concern; however,

9639-501: The regular crew. Some passenger modules used hardware similar to existing equipment, such as the tunnel, which was also needed for Spacehab and Spacelab During the three decades of operation, various follow-on and replacements for the STS Space Shuttle were partially developed but not finished. Examples of possible future space vehicles to supplement or supplant STS: One effort in the direction of space transportation

9758-549: The remaining flights, the Shuttle always orbit with the station. Prior to STS-114, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe declared that all future flights of the Space Shuttle would go to the ISS, precluding the possibility of executing the final Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission which had been scheduled before the Columbia accident, despite the fact that millions of dollars worth of upgrade equipment for Hubble were ready and waiting in NASA warehouses. Many dissenters, including astronauts , asked NASA management to reconsider allowing

9877-426: The resonant and overtone frequencies of the quartz crystal are tracked and used to determine changes in mass as well as the viscosity , shear modulus , and other viscoelastic properties of the liquid or thin film. One benefit of using the quartz crystal microbalance to measure viscosity is the small amount of sample required for obtaining an accurate measurement. However, due to the dependence viscoelastic properties on

9996-407: The same path that it entered, creating a shearing effect on the measured liquid, which makes this viscometer particularly sensitive and good for measuring certain thixotropic liquids. The time of fall is a measure of viscosity, with the clearance between the piston and inside of the cylinder forming the measuring orifice. The viscosity controller measures the time of fall (time-of-fall seconds being

10115-414: The sample around the sphere. The motion of the sphere is monitored by a video camera ⑤ located below the cell. The torque applied to the sphere is proportional to the difference in the angular velocity of the magnetic field Ω B and the one of the sphere Ω S . There is thus a linear relationship between ( Ω B − Ω S )/ Ω S and the viscosity of the liquid. This new measuring principle

10234-399: The sample preparation techniques and thickness of the film or bulk liquid, there can be errors up to 10% in measurements in viscosity between samples. An interesting technique to measure the viscosity of a liquid using a quartz crystal microbalance which improves the consistency of measurements uses a drop method. Instead of creating a thin film or submerging the quartz crystal in a liquid,

10353-733: The second mission after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster . However, the damage on STS-27 occurred at a spot that had more robust metal (a thin steel plate near the landing gear), and that mission survived the re-entry. STS-107 carried the SPACEHAB Research Double Module ( RDM ) on its inaugural flight, the Freestar experiment (mounted on a Hitchhiker Program rack), and the Extended Duration Orbiter pallet. SPACEHAB

10472-459: The second, Orbital Sciences 's Cygnus did so in 2014. The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth. These spacecraft, like SpaceX 's Dragon 2 and Boeing CST-100 Starliner were expected to become operational around 2020. On

10591-448: The shear stress as that occurring at an average radius r a . The EMS viscometer measures the viscosity of liquids through observation of the rotation of a sphere driven by electromagnetic interaction: Two magnets attached to a rotor create a rotating magnetic field. The sample ③ to be measured is in a small test tube ②. Inside the tube is an aluminium sphere ④. The tube is located in a temperature-controlled chamber ① and set such that

10710-412: The shear stress form factor C 1 and the shear rate factor C 2 . The following sections show how the form factors are calculated for each measuring system. where where r is the radius of the plate. Note: The shear stress varies across the radius for a parallel plate. The above formula refers to the 3/4 radius position if the test sample is Newtonian. where: Note: C 1 takes

10829-414: The shift in the resonant frequency by the size of the drop deposited on the quartz crystal. Rotational viscometers use the idea that the torque required to rotate an object in a fluid is a function of the viscosity of that fluid. They measure the torque required to rotate a disk or bob in a fluid at a known speed. "Cup and bob" viscometers work by defining the exact volume of a sample to be sheared within

10948-560: The six FREESTAR experiments, Critical Viscosity of Xenon-2 (CVX-2), that flew unpressurized in the payload bay during the mission after recovering the viscometer and hard drive damaged but fully intact in the debris field in Texas. NASA recovered a commercial payload, Commercial Instrumentation Technology Associates (ITA) Biomedical Experiments-2 (CIBX-2), and ITA was able to increase the total data saved from STS-107 from 0% to 50% for this payload. This experiment studied treatments for cancer, and

11067-507: The smaller Space Launch System (SLS), which is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware. Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1), an uncrewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft, launched on December 5, 2014, on a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Viscometer In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the object is stationary and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative motion of

11186-461: The space station, and performing service missions on the Hubble Space Telescope . The orbiter also recovered satellites and other payloads (e.g., from the ISS) from orbit and returned them to Earth, though its use in this capacity was rare. Each vehicle was designed with a projected lifespan of 100 launches, or 10 years' operational life. Original selling points on the shuttles were over 150 launches over

11305-399: The sphere is situated in the centre of the two magnets. The rotating magnetic field induces eddy currents in the sphere. The resulting Lorentz interaction between the magnetic field and these eddy currents generate torque that rotates the sphere. The rotational speed of the sphere depends on the rotational velocity of the magnetic field, the magnitude of the magnetic field and the viscosity of

11424-414: The stream-wise direction measure pressure drop as depicted in the figure: Measuring principle: The slit viscometer/rheometer is based on the fundamental principle that a viscous liquid resists flow, exhibiting a decreasing pressure along the length of the slit. The pressure decrease or drop ( ∆ P ) is correlated with the shear stress at the wall boundary. The apparent shear rate is directly related to

11543-456: The surrounding copper housing. An equilibrium rotor speed is established between driving and retarding forces, which is an unambiguous measure of the dynamic viscosity. The speed and torque measurement is implemented without direct contact by a Hall-effect sensor counting the frequency of the rotating magnetic field . This allows a highly precise torque resolution of 50  pN·m and a wide measuring range from 0.2 to 30,000 mPa·s with

11662-413: The upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the kinematic viscosity. The calibration can be done using a fluid of known properties. Most commercial units are provided with a conversion factor. The time required for the test liquid to flow through a capillary of a known diameter of a certain factor between two marked points

11781-582: The use of Vandenberg AFB for space shuttle missions was canceled after the Challenger disaster in 1986. The weather criteria used for launch included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning . The first fully functional orbiter was Columbia (designated OV-102), built in Palmdale, California . It

11900-400: The viscosity of the liquid, so the faster the bubble rises, the lower the viscosity. The alphabetical-comparison method uses 4 sets of lettered reference tubes, A5 through Z10, of known viscosity to cover a viscosity range from 0.005 to 1,000 stokes . The direct-time method uses a single 3-line times tube for determining the "bubble seconds", which may then be converted to stokes. This method

12019-451: The world consider these viscometers to be the most efficient system with which to measure the viscosities of a wide range of fluids; by contrast, rotational viscometers require more maintenance, are unable to measure clogging fluid, and require frequent calibration after intensive use. Vibrating viscometers have no moving parts, no weak parts and the sensitive part is typically small. Even very basic or acidic fluids can be measured by adding

12138-489: Was STS-80 lasting 17 days, 15 hours. The final flight of the Space Shuttle program was STS-135 on July 8, 2011. Since the Shuttle's retirement in 2011, many of its original duties are performed by an assortment of government and private vessels. The European ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle supplied the ISS between 2008 and 2015. Classified military missions are being flown by the US Air Force's uncrewed spaceplane ,

12257-455: Was $ 141 million, or $ 6,721 per kilogram ($ 3,049 per pound) to LEO and the Soyuz 2.1 was $ 55 million, or $ 6,665 per kilogram ($ 3,023 per pound), despite these launch vehicles not being reusable. NASA's budget for 2005 allocated 30%, or $ 5 billion, to space shuttle operations; this was decreased in 2006 to a request of $ 4.3 billion. Non-launch costs account for a significant part of

12376-632: Was a 14-year-old prisoner in the Terezín concentration camp . The copy was in the possession of Ilan Ramon and was lost in the disintegration. Ramon also traveled with a dollar bill received from the Lubavitcher Rebbe . An Australian experiment, created by students from Glen Waverley Secondary College , was designed to test the reaction of zero gravity on the web formation of the Australian garden orb weaver spider . Examples of some of

12495-452: Was announced in January 2004. President George W. Bush announced his Vision for Space Exploration , which called for the retirement of the Space Shuttle once it completed construction of the ISS. To ensure the ISS was properly assembled, the contributing partners determined the need for 16 remaining assembly missions in March 2006. One additional Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission

12614-467: Was approved in October 2006. Originally, STS-134 was to be the final Space Shuttle mission. However, the Columbia disaster resulted in additional orbiters being prepared for launch on need in the event of a rescue mission. As Atlantis was prepared for the final launch-on-need mission, the decision was made in September 2010 that it would fly as STS-135 with a four-person crew that could remain at

12733-482: Was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area. There were some efforts to analyze commercial operation of STS. Using the NASA figure for average cost to launch a Space Shuttle as of 2011 at about $ 450 million per mission, a cost per seat for a 74 seat module envisioned by Rockwell came to less than $ 6 million, not including

12852-547: Was cancelled in 2002, and the HL-20 was cancelled in 1993. Several other programs in this existed such as the Station Crew Return Alternative Module (SCRAM) and Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV) According to the 2004 Vision for Space Exploration, the next human NASA program was to be Constellation program with its Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles and the Orion spacecraft ; however,

12971-461: Was delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on March 25, 1979, and was first launched on April 12, 1981—the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin 's space flight —with a crew of two. Challenger (OV-099) was delivered to KSC in July 1982, Discovery (OV-103) in November 1983, Atlantis (OV-104) in April 1985 and Endeavour (OV-105) in May 1991. Challenger was originally built and used as

13090-554: Was developed by Sakai et al. at the University of Tokyo. The EMS viscometer distinguishes itself from other rotational viscometers by three main characteristics: By modifying the classic Couette-type rotational viscometer, it is possible to combine the accuracy of kinematic viscosity determination with a wide measuring range. The outer cylinder of the Stabinger viscometer is a sample-filled tube that rotates at constant speed in

13209-403: Was developed which allows continuous viscosity determination in resting and flowing liquids. The quartz crystal microbalance functions as a vibrational viscometer by the piezoelectric properties inherent in quartz to perform measurements of conductance spectra of liquids and thin films exposed to the surface of the crystal. From these spectra, frequency shifts and a broadening of the peaks for

13328-817: Was evolved into two programs, the Orbital Space Plane Program and the Next Generation Launch Technology program. OSP was oriented towards provided access to the International Space Station. Other vehicles that would have taken over some of the Shuttles responsibilities were the HL-20 Personnel Launch System or the NASA X-38 of the Crew Return Vehicle program, which were primarily for getting people down from ISS. The X-38

13447-550: Was first flown on STS-57. On the day of the experiment, a video taken to study atmospheric dust may have detected a new atmospheric phenomenon, dubbed a "TIGER" (Transient Ionospheric Glow Emission in Red). On board Columbia was a copy of a drawing by Petr Ginz , the editor-in-chief of the magazine Vedem , who depicted what he imagined the Earth looked like from the Moon when he

13566-406: Was invented at Cambridge Viscosity (Formally Cambridge Applied Systems) in 1986. The sensor (see figure below) comprises a measurement chamber and magnetically influenced piston. Measurements are taken whereby a sample is first introduced into the thermally controlled measurement chamber where the piston resides. Electronics drive the piston into oscillatory motion within the measurement chamber with

13685-599: Was made in the form of the DC-3 , designed by Maxime Faget , who had designed the Mercury capsule among other vehicles. Numerous offerings from a variety of commercial companies were also offered but generally fell by the wayside as each NASA lab pushed for its own version. All of this was taking place in the midst of other NASA teams proposing a wide variety of post-Apollo missions, a number of which would cost as much as Apollo or more. As each of these projects fought for funding,

13804-418: Was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the International Space Station and were formally initiated in 1983 by President Ronald Reagan , but

13923-414: Was saved and collected through recovering samples and hard drives intact on the ground after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster , increasing the total data of saved experiments despite the disaster from 30% to 35-40%. About five or six Columbia payloads encompassing many experiments were successfully recovered in the debris field. Scientists and engineers were able to recover 99% of the data for one of

14042-635: Was the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) program, initiated in 1994 by NASA. This led to work on the X-33 and X-34 vehicles. NASA spent about US$ 1 billion on developing the X-33 hoping for it be in operation by 2005. Another program around the turn of the millennium was the Space Launch Initiative , which was a next generation launch initiative. The Space Launch Initiative program was started in 2001, and in late 2002 it

14161-427: Was the fourth human spaceflight program carried out by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which accomplished routine transportation for Earth-to-orbit crew and cargo from 1981 to 2011. Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft where it was the only item funded for development, as a proposed nuclear shuttle in

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