An urban area is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment . This is the core of a metropolitan statistical area in the United States, if it contains a population of more than 50,000.
128-455: A smart city is an urban area that uses digital technology to collect data and to operate/provide services. Data can be collected from citizens, devices, buildings, cameras. Applications include traffic and transportation systems , power plants, utilities , urban forestry , water supply networks , waste disposal , criminal investigations, information systems , schools, libraries, hospitals, and other community services . The foundation of
256-500: A Built-up area (BUA) as an area of built-up land of at least 20 hectares (0.077 sq mi), separated from other settlements by at least 200 metres (660 ft). For 2011 census data there are 5,493 built-up areas, of which 501 are divided into Built-up area sub-divisions (BUASD) for which data is also available. Each built-up area is named algorithmically, using Ordnance Survey place-name data. The ONS has produced census results from urban areas since 1951, since 1981 based upon
384-527: A Malthusian catastrophe is inevitable. Consequently, in his article, Hardin lamented the following proposal from the United Nations : The Universal Declaration of Human Rights describes the family as the natural and fundamental unit of society. [Article 16] It follows that any choice and decision with regard to the size of the family must irrevocably rest with the family itself, and cannot be made by anyone else. In addition, Hardin also pointed out
512-399: A positive feedback regulation. Contrary, in low carrying capacity zones (i.e., far from the equator), where environmental conditions are harsh K strategies are common (longer life expectancy, produce relatively fewer offspring and tend to be altricial, requiring extensive care by parents when young) and populations tend to have cooperative or mutualistic behaviors. If populations have
640-402: A "dynamic resilient grid." Smart grids are an important technology in smart cities. The improved flexibility of the smart grid permits greater penetration of highly variable renewable energy sources such as solar power and wind power. Energy Data Management Systems (EDMS) can help to save cities energy by recording data and using it to increase efficiency. For a smart city to function, it
768-480: A building at least every 200 m (660 ft) and at least 200 people. To be considered a town or a city ( kaupunki ) for statistical purposes, an urban area must have at least 15,000 people. This is not to be confused with the city / town designation used by municipalities . In France , an urban area ( Fr: aire d'attraction d'une ville ) is a zone encompassing an area of built-up growth (called an "urban unit" ( unité urbaine ) – close in definition to
896-412: A car, it becomes more likely that Person Z will suffer in each of those areas. Economists often urge the government to adopt policies that "internalize" an externality. The tragedy of the commons can also refer to the idea of open data . Anonymised data are crucial for useful social research and represent therefore a public resource – better said, a common good – which
1024-532: A city saves time and flexibility by driving, the resultant excessive driving of the community causes traffic congestion and environmental issues . This situation is worsened when public transportation services get little attention due to the use of personal vehicles. Philosophical predecessors of smart cities can be found in utopian works such as New Atlantis (1626). Another was Ebenezer Howard 's 1898 concept of Garden Cities . These were dense, size-limited cities founded in rural areas by private groups, combining
1152-421: A competitive behaviour in hostile environmental conditions they mostly are filtered out (die) by environmental selection; hence, populations in hostile conditions are selected to be cooperative. The effects of climate change have been given as a mass example of the tragedy of the commons. This perspective proposes that the earth, being the commons, has suffered a depletion of natural resources without regard to
1280-430: A conventional "transactional" relationship with its citizens. Yet, the term is open to many interpretations. Many cities have already adopted some sort of smart city technology. Smart city initiatives have been criticized as driven by corporations, poorly adapted to residents' needs, as largely unsuccessful, and as a move toward totalitarian surveillance . Historically, cities functioned as centers of innovation, and
1408-653: A densely settled core created from census blocks and contiguous qualifying territory that together have at least 2,000 housing units or 5,000 persons." There were 2,646 urban areas identified by the Census Bureau for 2020. 511 of these had a population of 50,000 or more. For the 2000 and 2010 censuses, the Census Bureau differentiated between two kinds of urban areas: urbanized areas and urban clusters. The term urbanized area denoted an urban area of 50,000 or more people. Urban areas under 50,000 people were called urban clusters . Urbanized areas were first delineated in
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#17327754084301536-543: A density requirement of 4,000 inhabitants per square kilometre (10,000/sq mi). Seoul is the largest urban area in South Korea . For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is a place having a minimum population of 5,000 of density 400 persons per square kilometre (1,000/sq mi) or higher, and 75% plus of the male working population employed in non-agricultural activities. Places administered by
1664-450: A file does not constitute the destruction of the file in the digital environment , and because it can be replicated and disseminated throughout the digital environment. However, it can still be considered a finite resource within the context of privacy laws and regulations that limit access to it. Finite digital resources can thus be digital commons . An example is a database that requires persistent maintenance, such as Misplaced Pages . As
1792-411: A herder put more than his allotted number of cattle on the common, overgrazing could result. For each additional animal, a herder could receive additional benefits, while the whole group shared the resulting damage to the commons. If all herders made this individually rational economic decision, the common could be depleted or even destroyed, to the detriment of all. Lloyd's pamphlet was written after
1920-506: A key role in smart cities. Electric companies, working partnership with city officials, technology companies and a number of other institutions, are among the major players that helped accelerate the growth of America's smart cities. According to David K. Owens, the former executive vice president of the Edison Electric Institute , two key elements that a smart city must have are an integrated communications platform and
2048-514: A large majority of the population, typically 75%, is not engaged in agriculture and/or fishing is sometimes used. Since 2000, China 's cities have expanded at an average rate of 10% annually. It is estimated that China's urban population will increase by 292 million people by 2050, when its cities will house a combined population of over one billion. The country's urbanization rate increased from 17.4% to 46.6% between 1978 and 2009. Between 150 and 200 million migrant workers work part-time in
2176-436: A limited-time exploitation monopoly given to inventors. Once the period has elapsed, the invention is in principle free to all, and many companies do indeed commercialize such products, now market-proven. However, around 50% of all patent applications do not reach successful commercialization at all, often due to immature levels of components or marketing failures by the innovators. Scholars have suggested that since investment
2304-498: A major survey of biologists to determine which publications in the twentieth century had become classic books or benchmark publications in biology. They report that Hardin’s 1968 article was the one having the greatest career impact on biologists and is the most frequently cited". However, the Ostroms point out that Hardin's analysis was based on crucial misconceptions about the nature of common property systems. In systems theory ,
2432-469: A minimum of 20 hectares (200,000 m ; 49 acres). Any areas [separated by] less than 200 metres [of non-urban space] are linked to become a single built-up area. Argentina and Japan are countries where the urbanization rate is over 90% while Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Mexico and the United States are countries where the urbanization rate is between 80% and 90%. There are two measures of
2560-552: A model for a great variety of resource problems in society today, such as water, forests, fish, and non-renewable energy sources such as oil, gas, and coal. Hardin's model posits that the tragedy of the commons may emerge if individuals prioritize self-interest. Government regulations have been instituted to avert resource degradation. However, extensive research spanning decades highlights instances where community-level resource management, operating independently of government intervention, has effectively overseen common resources. In
2688-572: A municipal corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee are automatically considered urban areas. The Census of India 2011 also defined the term "urban agglomeration" as an integrated urban area consisting of a core town together with its "outgrowths" (contiguous suburbs). In Pakistan , an area is a major city and municipality if it has more than 100,000 inhabitants according to census results. Cities include adjacent cantonments . Urbanisation in Pakistan has increased since
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#17327754084302816-406: A non-profit, it survives on a network of people contributing to maintain a knowledge base without expectation of direct compensation. This digital resource will deplete as Misplaced Pages may only survive if it is contributed to and used as a commons. The motivation for individuals to contribute is reflective of the theory because, if humans act in their own immediate interest and no longer participate, then
2944-507: A number of large cities . The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11 million in 2008 ), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia ), Cologne , Bonn , Dortmund , Essen , Duisburg , and Bochum . The Netherlands is the 30th-most densely populated country in the world, with 404.6 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,048/sq mi)—or 497 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,287/sq mi) if only
3072-472: A number of motivational, strategic, and structural factors that might be conducive to management of commons. In game theory , which constructs mathematical models for individuals' behavior in strategic situations, the corresponding "game", developed by Hardin, is known as the Commonize Costs ;– Privatize Profits Game ( CC–PP game ). Kopelman, Weber, & Messick (2002), in a review of
3200-641: A population centre remains unchanged from that of an urban area: a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per km . Mexico is one of many countries where the urbanization rate is at least 80%. Mexico City , its capital, is the largest urban area in the country. In the United States , the Census Bureau defines urban areas and delineates urban area boundaries after each census. The Bureau defines an urban area as "a statistical geographic entity consisting of
3328-411: A set of common goods, "the economy, the healthcare system, and the very air we breathe, for all of us. In a similar vein, it has been argued that higher sickness and mortality rates from COVID-19 in individualistic cultures with less obligatory collectivism, is another instance of the "tragedy of the commons". In the past two decades, scholars have been attempting to apply the concept of the tragedy of
3456-650: A smart city (or other community) uses information technologies to: They evolve towards a strong integration of all dimensions of human intelligence , collective intelligence , and also artificial intelligence within the city . According to Mitchell, the intelligence of cities "resides in the increasingly effective combination of digital telecommunication networks (the nerves), ubiquitously embedded intelligence (the brain), sensors and tags (the sensory organs), and software (the knowledge and cognitive competence)". The physical components of IT systems are crucial to early-stage smart city development. Wired infrastructure
3584-486: A smart city involves modifications in planning, management, and operational processes. This data can subsequently be analyzed to identify areas for improvement and optimize urban services. The concept of smart cities emerged from cities' adoption of information and communications technologies. ICTs present challenges given financial limitations, technical obstacles, and privacy and security concerns. ICTs are also not uniformly accessible across communities, contributing to
3712-695: A smart city is built on the integration of people, technology, and processes, which connect and interact across sectors such as healthcare, transportation, education, and infrastructure, etc. Smart cities are characterized by the ways in which their local governments monitor, analyze, plan, and govern the city. In a smart city, the sharing of data extends to businesses, citizens and other third parties who can derive benefit from using that data. The three largest sources of spending associated with smart cities as of 2022 were visual surveillance , public transit, and outdoor lighting. Smart cities integrate information and communication technology (ICT), and devices connected to
3840-409: A suburb of another urban area rather than as a self-contained urban entity, or is geographically remote from other urban communities. Accordingly, the new definition set out three distinct types of population centres: small (population 1,000 to 29,999), medium (population 30,000 to 99,999) and large (population 100,000 or greater). Despite the change in terminology, however, the demographic definition of
3968-413: Is bandwidth , which can become congested when too many people try to access the digital environment. Alternatively, one can think of the network itself as a common resource which can be exhausted through overuse. Therefore, when talking about resources running out in a digital environment, it could be more useful to think in terms of the access to the digital environment being restricted in some way; this
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4096-547: Is 56.2% urbanized, with roughly one-quarter of the countries reported as greater than 80% urbanized. Data is taken from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook estimates from 2020. According to Demographia, these are the 202 largest urban areas in the world by population (as of 2023): The UN publishes data on cities, urban areas and rural areas, but relies almost entirely on national definitions of these areas. The UN principles and recommendations state that due to different characteristics of urban and rural areas across
4224-493: Is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre (1,000/sq mi). If two or more urban areas are within 2 km (1.2 mi) of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area, provided they do not cross census metropolitan area or census agglomeration boundaries. In the Canada 2011 Census , Statistics Canada redesignated urban areas with
4352-739: Is associated with intellectual curiosity and creativeness, and various projects have demonstrated that knowledge workers participate in a diverse mix of cultural and artistic activities. Since mobility is a key area of smart city development, building a capable workforce through education initiatives is necessary. A city's learning capacity includes its education system, including available workforce training and support, and its cultural development and exchange. Numerous Smart city programs also focus on soft infrastructure development, like increasing access to voluntary organizations and designated safe zones. This focus on social and relational capital means diversity, inclusion, and ubiquitous access to public services
4480-831: Is by no means inevitable, since the individuals concerned may be able to achieve mutual restraint by consensus. Others have contended that the metaphor is inapposite because its exemplar – unfettered access to common land – did not exist historically, the right to exploit common land being controlled by law. The work of Elinor Ostrom , who received the Nobel Prize in Economics , is seen by some economists as having refuted Hardin's claims. Hardin's views on over-population have been criticised as simplistic and racist. The concept of unrestricted-access resources becoming spent, where personal use does not incur personal expense, has been discussed for millennia. Aristotle wrote that "That which
4608-449: Is called information entropy . In terms of pollution, there are some scholars who look only at the pollution that occurs in the digital environment itself. They argue that unrestricted use of digital resources can cause an overproduction of redundant data which causes noise and corrupts communication channels within the digital environment. Others argue that the pollution caused by the overuse of digital resources also causes pollution in
4736-603: Is common to the greatest number gets the least amount of care. Men pay most attention to what is their own: they care less for what is common." In 1833, the English economist William Forster Lloyd published "Two Lectures on the Checks to Population", a pamphlet that included a hypothetical example of over-use of a common resource. This was the situation of cattle herders sharing a common parcel of land on which they were each entitled to let their cows graze. He postulated that if
4864-421: Is considered to be rural by the Census Bureau. The largest urban area in the United States is that of New York City and its surrounding suburbs. The New York– Jersey City – Newark , NY–NJ urban area had a population of 19,426,449 as of 2020, while the larger metropolitan area had a population of 20,140,470, and the combined statistical area had a population of 23,582,649. The next five largest urban areas in
4992-686: Is divided into 5 regions for planning purposes by the URA, even though as a city state Singapore is defined as a single continuous urban area. It is further subdivided into 55 urban planning areas , which acts as the boundaries of planned towns within the country. In Vietnam , there are six types of urban areas: Bangkok is the largest urban area in Thailand . As in other Nordic countries , an urban area ( taajama in Finnish ) in Finland must have
5120-400: Is found in the animal kingdom. Hardin said that if the children of improvident parents starved to death, if overbreeding was its own punishment, then there would be no public interest in controlling the breeding of families. Hardin blamed the welfare state for allowing the tragedy of the commons; where the state provides for children and supports over breeding as a fundamental human right,
5248-550: Is highly urbanized. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, and fewer than one in ten live in rural areas. About 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 15 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world, with a population of 18 million all up. Córdoba has around 1.5 million people living in
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5376-602: Is liable to exhaustion. Some feel that the law should provide a safe haven for the dissemination of research data, since it can be argued that current data protection policies overburden valuable research without mitigating realistic risks. An expansive application of the concept can also be seen in Vyse's analysis of differences between countries in their responses to the COVID-19 pandemic . Vyse argues that those who defy public health recommendations can be thought of as spoiling
5504-754: Is necessary for it to manage an enormous amount of data collected through the embedded devices and systems in its environment. This is also important for the cities growth and security. Smart cities use a variety of data collection, processing, and disseminating technologies, in conjunction with data security and privacy measures, in attempting to encourage innovation and improve citizens' quality of life. This can relate to topics including utilities, health, transportation, entertainment and government services. Online collaborative sensor data management platforms are on-line database services that allow sensor owners to register and connect their devices to feed data into an on-line database for storage and allow developers to connect to
5632-658: Is often connected to patentability , such inactive patents form a rapidly growing category of underprivileged technologies and ideas that, under current market conditions, are effectively unavailable for use. Thus, "Under the current system, people are encouraged to register new patents, and are discouraged from using publicly available patents." The case might be particularly relevant to technologies that are relatively more environmentally/human damaging but also somewhat costlier than other alternatives developed contemporaneously. More general examples (some alluded to by Hardin) of potential and actual tragedies include: A parallel
5760-595: Is one concept of a smart city that provides access to public services through any connected device, bringing easy accessibility to every infrastructure. Criticisms of smart cities include: Urban area Urban areas originate through urbanization , and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs . In urbanism , the term "urban area" contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets ; in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment . The development of earlier predecessors of modern urban areas during
5888-952: Is one of the most urbanised countries in the world, with more than 50% of the population residing in Australia's three biggest urban centres. Statistics New Zealand defines urban areas in New Zealand, which are independent of any administrative subdivisions and have no legal basis. There are four classes of urban area: major urban areas (population 100,000+), large urban areas (population 30,000–99,999), medium urban areas (population 10,000–29,999) and small urban areas (population 1,000–9,999). As of 2021, there are 7 major urban areas, 13 large urban areas, 22 medium urban areas and 136 small urban areas. Urban areas are reclassified after each New Zealand census , so population changes between censuses does not change an urban area's classification. According to Statistics Canada , an urban area in Canada
6016-404: Is projected population growth. The UN forecasts global population to reach 9.6 to 13.2 billion by 2100, with cities absorbing 80% of this growth. An important goal of smart city initiatives is to use ICTs to address the tragedy of the commons problem. This phenomenon occurs when individuals acting in their own self-interest deplete a communal resource. For example, while each individual driver in
6144-423: Is realized through: Smart cities use data and technology to create efficiencies, improve sustainability, create economic development, and enhance quality of life factors for people living and working in the city. A variety of different datasets may need to be integrated to create a smart energy infrastructure. Employment of smart technologies enables the more efficient application of integrated energy technologies in
6272-613: Is required to support the IoT and wireless technologies central to more interconnected living. A wired city environment provides general access to continually updated digital and physical infrastructure. The latest in telecommunications, robotics , IoT, and various connected technologies can then be deployed to support human capital and productivity. Intelligence in smart cities has been demonstrated in three ways: Examples of instrumentation intelligence are those implemented in Amsterdam . This
6400-506: Is the largest city by population and area, with a population of 19.10 million. In Bangladesh , there are total 11 City Corporations and 329 Municipal Corporations and 203 Small towns , which serves as the center for Upazilas . According to 2011 population census, Bangladesh has an urban population of 28%, with a growth rate of 2.8%. At this growth rate, it is estimated that the urban population of Bangladesh will reach 79 million or 42% of total population by 2035. In 2020, 54 percent of
6528-465: Is the subject of climate change discussion. The global commons of environmental resource consumption or selfishness, as in the fossil fuel industry has been theorised as not realistically manageable. This is due to the crossing of irreversible thresholds of impact before the costs are entirely realised. The commons dilemma is a specific class of social dilemma in which people's short-term selfish interests are at odds with long-term group interests and
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#17327754084306656-520: Is traditionally done manually, through an electronic pass but can even be done by means of ANPR cameras connected to the bollard system. According to McKinsey, smart city initiatives can have measurable positive impacts on the quality of life of its citizens and visitors. The human framework of a smart city – its economy, knowledge networks, and human support systems – is an important indicator of its success. For example, arts and culture initiatives are common focus areas in smart city planning. Innovation
6784-489: Is underlying any tragedy of the commons. In terms of the solution, scholars agree that cooperation rather than regulation is the best way to mitigate a tragedy of the digital commons. The digital world is not a closed system in which a central authority can regulate the users, as such some scholars argue that voluntary cooperation must be fostered. This could perhaps be done through digital governance structure that motivates multiple stakeholders to engage and collaborate in
6912-468: Is worked in to city planning. The development of a knowledge economy is also central to Smart city projects. Smart cities seeking to be hubs of economic activity in emerging tech and service sectors stress the value of innovation in city development. Smart cities leverage a number of technologies: Additional supporting technology and trends include remote work , telehealth , the blockchain ,and online banking technology, A "ubiquitous city"(U-city)
7040-888: The European Union . The 2015 Chancellor’s Budget for the United Kingdom proposed to invest £140 million in smart cities and IoT. Smart city competitions were launched in the 2010s by Bloomberg Philanthropies , the Rockefeller Foundation , and the United States Department of Transportation . In 2016, AT&T launched an alliance with Cisco, Deloitte , Ericsson , General Electric , IBM, Intel , and Qualcomm , with municipal partners Atlanta, Georgia ; Chicago, Illinois ; and Dallas, Texas . Key characteristics that define innovative urban environments include: It has been suggested that
7168-481: The Internet of things (IOT) network to optimize city services and connect to citizens. ICT can be used to enhance quality, performance, and interactivity of urban services, to reduce costs and resource consumption and to increase contact between citizens and government. Smart city applications manage urban flows and allow for real-time responses. A smart city may be more prepared to respond to challenges than one with
7296-565: The U.S. Department of Agriculture 's natural resources inventory , urban areas are officially known as developed areas or urban and built-up areas. Such areas include cities, ethnic villages, other built-up areas of more than 10 ac (4 ha), industrial sites, railroad yards, cemeteries, airports, golf courses, shooting ranges, institutional and public administration sites, and similar areas. The 1997 national resources inventory placed over 98,000,000 ac (40,000,000 ha) in this category, an increase of 25,000,000 ac (10,000,000 ha) since 1982. Argentina
7424-428: The common good . In academia, a range of related terminology has also been used as shorthand for the theory or aspects of it, including resource dilemma , take-some dilemma , and common pool resource . Commons dilemma researchers have studied conditions under which groups and communities are likely to under- or over-harvest common resources in both the laboratory and field. Research programs have concentrated on
7552-412: The digital divide . No commonly accepted definition of "smart city" has emerged. Evaluating smart city initiatives becomes difficult without agreement on parameters. It also hampers the ability to compare projects and identify best practices. Deakin and Al Waer list four factors that contribute to the definition of a smart city: Deakin defines the smart city as one that uses ICT to meet the demands of
7680-480: The enclosure movement had eliminated the open field system of common property. Carl Dahlman and others have asserted that his description was historically inaccurate, pointing to the fact that the system endured for hundreds of years without producing the disastrous effects claimed by Lloyd. In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin explored this social dilemma in his article "The Tragedy of the Commons", published in
7808-401: The externalities , the impact on neighboring and future populations. The collective actions of individuals, organisations, and governments continue to contribute to environmental degradation . Mitigation of the long-term impacts and tipping points require strict controls or other solution, but this may come as a loss to different industries. The sustainability of population and industry growth
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#17327754084307936-428: The urban revolution of the 4th millennium BCE led to the formation of human civilization and ultimately to modern urban planning , which along with other human activities such as exploitation of natural resources has led to a human impact on the environment . In 1950, 764 million people or about 30 percent of the world's 2.5 billion people lived in urban areas. By 2014, it was 3.9 billion or about 53 percent of
8064-565: The "negative commons" of pollution (i.e., instead of dealing with the deliberate privatization of a positive resource, a "negative commons" deals with the deliberate commonization of a negative cost, pollution). As a metaphor , the tragedy of the commons should not be taken too literally. The "tragedy" is not in the word's conventional or theatric sense, nor a condemnation of the processes that lead to it. Similarly, Hardin's use of "commons" has frequently been misunderstood, leading him to later remark that he should have titled his work "The Tragedy of
8192-454: The Equator), where biodiversity is higher, because of natural resources abundance. This abundance or excess of resources, causes animal populations to have "r" reproduction strategies (many offspring, short gestation, less parental care, and a short time until sexual maturity), so competition is affordable for populations. Also, competition could select populations to have "r" behaviour in
8320-716: The IBM Smarter Cities Challenge. In 2010, Cisco Systems , with $ 25 million from the Clinton Foundation , established its Connected Urban Development program in partnership with San Francisco, Amsterdam, and Seoul. In 2011, a Smart City Expo World Congress in Barcelona attracted 6000 people from 50 countries. The European Commission in 2012 established the Smart Cities Marketplace, a centralized hub for urban initiatives in
8448-464: The Logic of Appropriateness, suggests that the cooperation is better explained by the question: "What does a person like me (identity) do (rules) in a situation like this (recognition) given this culture (group)?" Strategic factors also matter in commons dilemmas. One often-studied strategic factor is the order in which people take harvests from the resource. In simultaneous play, all people harvest at
8576-663: The North American urban area) and its commuter belt ( couronne ). Americans would find the INSEE definition of the urban area to be similar to their metropolitan area . The largest cities in France, in terms of urban area population (2017), are Paris (12,628,266), Lyon (2,323,221), Marseille (1,760,653), Toulouse (1,360,829), Bordeaux (1,247,977), Lille (1,191,117), Nice (1,006,201), Nantes (972,828), Strasbourg (790,087) and Rennes (733,320). Germany has
8704-672: The Northern and Western ones. Urban areas in Sweden ( tätorter ) are statistically defined localities, totally independent of the administrative subdivision of the country. There are 1,956 such localities in Sweden , with a population ranging from 200 to 1,372,000 inhabitants. In 2013 the United Kingdom 's Office for National Statistics (ONS) published 2011 Built-up Areas – Methodology and Guidance which sets out its definition of
8832-617: The Philippine population lived in urban areas. With an estimated population of 16.3 million, Metro Manila is the most populous metropolitan area in the Philippines and the 11th in the world . However, the greater urban area is the 5th largest in the world with a population of 20,654,307 people (2010 estimate). As an island city-state , about 5.6 million people live and work within 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi). With 64 islands and islets , Singapore Island makes up
8960-407: The U.S. are those of Los Angeles , Chicago , Miami , Houston , and Dallas . 80.0 percent of the population of the United States lives within the boundaries of an urban area as of the 2020 census. The concept of Urbanized Areas as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau is often used as a more accurate gauge of the size of a city, since in different cities and states the lines between city borders and
9088-565: The United States in the 1950 census, while urban clusters were added in the 2000 census. The distinction between urbanized areas and urban clusters was removed for the 2020 census. Urban areas consist of a densely-settled urban core, plus surrounding developed areas that meet certain density criteria. Since urban areas are composed of census blocks and not cities, counties, or county-equivalents, urban area boundaries may consist of partial areas of these political units. Urban areas are distinguished from rural areas : any area not part of an urban area
9216-599: The United States, fishing communities employ a strategy wherein access to local fishing areas is restricted to accepted members, resembling a private, members-only club. Membership is sustained through fee payments, and outsiders are met with resistance, showcasing a quasi-privatized system. Another case study involves beavers in Canada, historically crucial for natives who, as stewards, organized to hunt them for food and commerce. Non-native trappers, motivated by fur prices, contributed to resource degradation, wresting control from
9344-489: The Unregulated Commons". The metaphor illustrates the argument that free access and unrestricted demand for a finite resource ultimately reduces the resource through over-exploitation , temporarily or permanently. This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals or groups, each of whom is motivated to maximize the use of the resource to the point in which they become reliant on it, while
9472-524: The advent of the digital era presented opportunities and challenges to apply technology to create urban environments that are more efficient, sustainable , and livable. The shift to smart cities necessitates a comprehensive restructuring of city management and operations, leading citizen participation , and methods of public service delivery. Cities seek to upgrade their infrastructure and service delivery, to promote social inclusion, technological adoption, and economic development. The transformation into
9600-593: The area of the Aral Sea and the Los Angeles water system supply, especially at Mono Lake and Owens Lake ). In economics, an externality is a cost or benefit that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit. Negative externalities are a well-known feature of the "tragedy of the commons". For example, driving cars has many negative externalities; these include pollution , carbon emissions , and traffic accidents. Every time Person A gets in
9728-506: The benefits of the city and the country. Other conceptions include those of Edward Bellamy , Frank Lloyd Wright , and Le Corbusier . Critics of smart cities draw parallels between the weaknesses of these utopian visions and the weaknesses of smart cities today. The concept of "smart cities" emerged from global cities' recent adoption of information and communications technologies for urban use, which can be used to improve efficiency, sustainability, and livability in urban environments. Some of
9856-402: The boundaries of these towns. This distinction may give a misleading impression in some cases, since some localities with only village status may have acquired larger and denser populations than many many smaller towns with most excessive example of Poznań , most spread urban area of the country with population of the city app. 534 thousand and metropolitan area around 1 million inhabitants. On
9984-621: The capital and largest city of Russia , has a population estimated at 12.4 million residents within the city limits, while over 17 million residents in the urban area, and over 20 million residents in the Moscow Metropolitan Area . It is among the world's largest cities , being the most populous city entirely within Europe , the most populous urban area in Europe, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, and also
10112-414: The city allowing the development of more self-sustaining areas or even positive energy districts that produce more energy than they consume. A smart city is powered by "smart connections" for various items such as street lighting, smart buildings , distributed energy resources (DER), data analytics , and smart transportation. Amongst these things, energy is paramount; this is why utility companies play
10240-479: The commons problem is one of the ten most common system archetypes . The Tragedy of the Commons archetype can be illustrated using a causal loop diagram. Like Lloyd and Thomas Malthus before him, Hardin was primarily interested in the problem of human population growth . But in his essay, he also focused on the use of larger (though finite) resources such as the Earth's atmosphere and oceans, as well as pointing out
10368-433: The commons to the digital environment. However, between scholars there are differences on some very basic notions inherent to the tragedy of the commons: the idea of finite resources and the extent of pollution. On the other hand, there seems to be some agreement on the role of the digital divide and how to solve a potential tragedy of the digital commons. Many digital resources have properties that make them vulnerable to
10496-486: The concept of the "urban area" used in road safety statistics. This term was first created by Geographer Brian Manning. The last concept is also known as " built-up area in road safety ". According to the definition by the Office for National Statistics , "Built-up areas are defined as land which is 'irreversibly urban in character', meaning that they are characteristic of a town or city. They include areas of built-up land with
10624-487: The context of avoiding over-exploitation of common resources , Hardin concluded by restating Hegel 's maxim (which was quoted by Engels ), "freedom is the recognition of necessity". He suggested that "freedom" completes the tragedy of the commons. By recognizing resources as commons in the first place, and by recognizing that, as such, they require management, Hardin believed that humans "can preserve and nurture other and more precious freedoms". Hardin's article marked
10752-402: The cooperative or competitive behaviour in bacteria populations. When resources availability is high, bacterial populations become competitive and aggressive with each other, but when environmental resources are low, they tend to be cooperative and mutualistic . Ecological studies have hypothesised that competitive forces between animals are major in high carrying capacity zones (i.e., near
10880-425: The costs of the exploitation are borne by all those to whom the resource is available (which may be a wider class of individuals than those who are exploiting it). This, in turn, causes demand for the resource to increase, which causes the problem to snowball until the resource collapses (even if it retains a capacity to recover). The rate at which depletion of the resource is realized depends primarily on three factors:
11008-453: The database and build their own applications based on that data. Electronic cards (known as smart cards ) are another common component in smart city contexts. These cards possess a unique encrypted identifier that allows the owner to log into a range of government provided services (or e-services ) without setting up multiple accounts. The single identifier allows governments to aggregate data about citizens and their preferences to improve
11136-405: The decision-making process. Other scholars argue more in favor of formal or informal sets of rules, like a code of conduct, to promote ethical behavior in the digital environment and foster trust. Alternative to managing relations between people, some scholars argue that it is access itself that needs to be properly managed, which includes expansion of network capacity. Patents are effectively
11264-404: The degree of urbanization of a population. The first, urban population, describes the percentage of the total population living in urban areas, as defined by the country. The second measure, rate of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over the given period of time. According to Urbanization by sovereign state article, the world as a whole
11392-610: The destruction of salmon runs on rivers that have been dammed (most prominently in modern times on the Columbia River in the Northwest United States and historically in North Atlantic rivers), and the devastation of the sturgeon fishery (in modern Russia, but historically in the United States as well). In terms of water supply, another example is the limited water available in arid regions (e.g.,
11520-426: The distance between each building has to be of less than 50 m, although exceptions are made due to parks, industrial areas, rivers, and similar. Groups of houses less than 400 m from the main body of an urban area are included in the urban area. In Poland , official "urban" population figures simply refer to those localities which have the status of towns ( miasta ). The "rural" population is that of all areas outside
11648-697: The earliest interventions in urban planning include the use of computational statistical analysis by the Community Analysis Bureau in Los Angeles in the late 1960's and the establishment by Singapore of the National Computer Board in 1981. The smart city concept experienced a major surge around 2005. Tech companies sought to create information systems to enhance operational efficiency for cities. A global movement emerged advocating smart cities. IBM launched its Smarter Planet marketing initiative in 2008, which included
11776-471: The experimental research on cooperation in commons dilemmas, identify nine classes of independent variables that influence cooperation in commons dilemmas: social motives, gender, payoff structure, uncertainty, power and status, group size, communication, causes, and frames. They organize these classes and distinguish between psychological individual differences (stable personality traits) and situational factors (the environment). Situational factors include both
11904-563: The extent of irreversible urban development indicated on Ordnance Survey maps. The definition is an extent of at least 20 ha and at least 1,500 census residents. Separate areas are linked if less than 200 m (220 yd) apart. Included are transportation features. The UK has five Urban Areas with a population over a million and a further sixty nine with a population over one hundred thousand . The Australian Bureau of Statistics refers to urban areas as Urban Centres, which it generally defines as population clusters of 1,000 or more people. Australia
12032-434: The freedom of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all. Hardin discussed problems that cannot be solved by technical means, as distinct from those with solutions that require "a change only in the techniques of the natural sciences , demanding little or nothing in the way of change in human values or ideas of morality ". Hardin focused on human population growth , the use of the Earth's natural resources , and
12160-403: The globe, a global definition is not possible. European countries define urbanized areas on the basis of urban-type land use , not allowing any gaps of typically more than 200 metres (220 yd), and use satellite imagery instead of census blocks to determine the boundaries of the urban area. In less-developed countries , in addition to land use and density requirements, a requirement that
12288-468: The indigenous population. Conservation laws enacted in the 1930s in response to declining beaver populations led to the expulsion of trappers, legal acknowledgment of natives, and enforcement of customary laws. This intervention resulted in productive harvests by the 1950s. Situations exemplifying the "tragedy of the commons" include the overfishing and destruction of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland ,
12416-410: The journal Science . The essay derived its title from the pamphlet by Lloyd , which he cites, on the over-grazing of common land: Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit – in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in
12544-494: The land area is counted. The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam , The Hague , and Utrecht . The Randstad has a population of 7 million inhabitants and is the 6th largest metropolitan area in Europe. Norway defines urban areas ("tettsteder") similarly to the other Nordic countries . Unlike in Denmark and Sweden,
12672-525: The largest city by land area on the European continent. Saint Petersburg , the cultural capital, is the second-largest city, with a population of roughly 5.4 million inhabitants. Other major urban areas are Yekaterinburg , Novosibirsk , Kazan , Nizhny Novgorod , and Chelyabinsk . Spain is a very highly urbanized country. Madrid is its largest urban area. The Southern and Eastern coasts with Barcelona , Valencia and Málaga are more urbanised than
12800-617: The largest urban area in the country. According to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific , the country has the highest urbanised population in Southeast Asia, with 100 percent of its population living in an urban area. The Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) is responsible for the urban land-use planning, which designates land use and urban density of the country. The country
12928-403: The level of the individual causes the whole species or population to be driven extinct , can be seen as an extreme form of an evolutionary tragedy of the commons. From an evolutionary point of view, the creation of the tragedy of the commons in pathogenic microbes may provide us with advanced therapeutic methods. Microbial ecology studies have also addressed if resource availability modulates
13056-419: The mainstream acceptance of the term "commons" as used to connote a shared resource. As Frank van Laerhoven and Elinor Ostrom have stated: "Prior to the publication of Hardin’s article on the tragedy of the commons (1968), titles containing the words 'the commons', 'common pool resources,' or 'common property' were very rare in the academic literature." They go on to say: "In 2002, Barrett and Mabry conducted
13184-422: The major cities, returning home to the countryside periodically with their earnings. China has more cities with one million or more long-term residents than any other country, including the three global cities of Beijing , Hong Kong, and Shanghai ; by 2025, the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants. The figures in the table below are from the 2008 census, and are only estimates of
13312-513: The majority of the world's population lived in a city. By that time a high estimate calculated up to 3.5 million square kilometers of land were urban, estimates ranging from 1% of global land area. In 2014 there were 7.3 billion people living on the planet, of which the global urban population comprised 3.9 billion. The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs at that time predicted
13440-529: The market (the citizens of the city), based on community involvement. Studies of smart city projects can be used as an alternative to difficult-to-define broad definitions in order to clarify what smart cities are. Notable disparities among smart city definitions include the relative focus on economic advantages versus environmental or social benefits and specific technology choices. Smart city definitions include: The main issues surrounding smart city research include: An important motivation for smart cities
13568-543: The most urbanised nation in South Asia. Furthermore, 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more. Karachi is the most populated city in Pakistan closely followed by Lahore according to the 2017 Census . In Bangladesh , there are total 532 urban areas, which are divided into three categories. Those are City Corporation , Municipal Corporation (Pourasova) and Upazila town . Among those urban areas, Dhaka
13696-437: The new term " population centre "; the new term was chosen in order to better reflect the fact that urban vs. rural is not a strict division, but rather a continuum within which several distinct settlement patterns may exist. For example, a community may fit a strictly statistical definition of an urban area, but may not be commonly thought of as "urban" because it has a smaller population, or functions socially and economically as
13824-443: The number of users wanting to consume the common in question, the consumptive nature of their uses, and the relative robustness of the common. The same concept is sometimes called the "tragedy of the fishers", because fishing too many fish before or during breeding could cause stocks to plummet. The tragedy of the commons can be considered in relation to environmental issues such as sustainability . The commons dilemma stands as
13952-530: The other hand, the Katowice urban area with numerous large and medium cities covers 1,468 km and has above 2 million people. The metropolitan areas in Poland are the biggest urban zones (e.g. Katowice metropolitan area , Łódź metropolitan area and Szczecin metropolitan area ) and have great impact on the rural surroundings, as it is around Lublin , Radom , Kielce , Tarnów and Białystok . Moscow ,
14080-453: The other users would merely replace them, the predictable result being a " tragedy " for all. The concept has been widely discussed, and criticised, in economics , ecology and other sciences. The metaphorical term is the title of a 1968 essay by ecologist Garrett Hardin . The concept itself did not originate with Hardin, but rather extends back to classical antiquity, being discussed by Aristotle . The principal concern of Hardin's essay
14208-402: The physical environment. They argue that unrestricted use of digital resources causes misinformation, fake news, crime, and terrorism, as well as problems of a different nature such as confusion, manipulation, insecurity, and loss of confidence. Scholars disagree on the particularities underlying the tragedy of the digital commons; however, there does seem to be some agreement on the cause and
14336-446: The problem of individuals acting in rational self-interest by claiming that if all members in a group used common resources for their own gain and with no regard for others, all resources would still eventually be depleted. Overall, Hardin argued against relying on conscience as a means of policing commons, suggesting that this favors selfish individuals – often known as free riders – over those who are more altruistic. In
14464-838: The provision of services and to determine common interests of groups. This technology has been implemented in Southampton. Cognitive technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning , can be trained on the data generated by connected city devices to identify patterns. The efficacy and impact of particular policy decisions can be quantified by cognitive systems studying the continuous interactions of humans with their urban surroundings. Bicycle-sharing systems are an important element in smart cities. Intelligent transportation systems and CCTV systems are also being developed. Retractable bollards allow to restrict access inside city centers (i.e. to delivery trucks resupplying outlet stores). Opening and closing of such barriers
14592-425: The resource becomes misinformed or depleted. Arguments surrounding the regulation and mitigation requirements for digital resources may become reflective of natural resources. This raises the question whether one can view access itself as a finite resource in the context of a digital environment. Some scholars argue this point, often pointing to a proxy for access that is more concrete and measurable. One such proxy
14720-458: The same time, whereas in sequential play people harvest from the pool according to a predetermined sequence – first, second, third, etc. There is a clear order effect in the latter games: the harvests of those who come first – the leaders – are higher than the harvest of those coming later – the followers. The interpretation of this effect is that the first players feel entitled to take more. With sequential play, individuals adopt
14848-408: The solution. The cause of the tragedy of the commons occurring in the digital environment is attributed by some scholars to the digital divide. They argue that there is too large a focus on bridging this divide and providing unrestricted access to everyone. Such a focus on increasing access without the necessary restrictions causes the exploitation of digital resources for individual self-interest that
14976-421: The task (social and decision structure) and the perception of the task. Empirical findings support the theoretical argument that the cultural group is a critical factor that needs to be studied in the context of situational variables. Rather than behaving in line with economic incentives, people are likely to approach the decision to cooperate with an appropriateness framework. An expanded, four factor model of
15104-571: The time of independence and has several different causes. The majority of southern Pakistan's population lives along the Indus River . Karachi is its most populous city. In the northern half of the country, most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore , Faisalabad , Rawalpindi , Islamabad , Gujranwala , Sialkot , Gujrat , Jhelum , Sargodha , Sheikhupura , Nowshera , Mardan and Peshawar . During 1990–2008, city dwellers made up 36% of Pakistan's population, making it
15232-404: The tragedy of the commons, including data , virtual artifacts and even limited user attention . Closely related are the physical computational resources, such as CPU , RAM , and network bandwidth , that digital communities on shared servers rely upon and govern. Some scholars argue that digital resources are infinite, and therefore immune to the tragedy of the commons, because downloading
15360-504: The urban area, while Rosario , Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.2 million inhabitants each and La Plata , Mar del Plata , Salta and Santa Fe have at least 500,000 people each. Tragedy of the commons The tragedy of the commons is a concept which states that if many people enjoy unfettered access to a finite, valuable resource, such as a pasture , they will tend to overuse it and may end up destroying its value altogether. Even if some users exercised voluntary restraint,
15488-470: The urban population would occupy 68% of the world population by 2050, with 90% of that growth coming from Africa and Asia. Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. They are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density and urban sprawl . Urban areas are also mostly found in the United States , Canada , Brazil , Mexico , Argentina , Chile , Japan and Australia and many other countries where
15616-492: The urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large " floating populations " of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult; the figures below include only long-term residents. In Japan , urbanized areas are defined as contiguous areas of densely inhabited districts (DIDs) using census enumeration districts as units with
15744-435: The urbanization rate is over 80%. Unlike an urban area, a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area, but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically connected to the urban core city, typically by employment ties through commuting , with the urban core city being the primary labor market. The concept of an "urban area" as used in economic statistics should not be confused with
15872-474: The urbanized area of that city are often not the same. For example, the city of Greenville, South Carolina has a city population just over 68,000 and an urbanized area population of around 400,000, while Greensboro, North Carolina has a city population just over 285,000 and an urbanized area population of around 300,000 — meaning that Greenville is actually "larger" for some intents and purposes, but not for others, such as taxation, local elections, etc. In
16000-419: The welfare state. Hardin argued that if individuals relied on themselves alone, and not on the relationship between society and man, then people will treat other people as resources, which would lead to the world population growing and for the process to continue. Parents breeding excessively would leave fewer descendants because they would be unable to provide for each child adequately. Such negative feedback
16128-401: The world's 7.3 billion people that lived in urban areas. The change was driven by a combination of increased total population and increased percent of population living in urban areas. In 2009, the number of people living in urban areas (3.42 billion) surpassed the number living in rural areas (3.41 billion), and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that
16256-399: Was drawn in 2006 between the tragedy of the commons and the competing behaviour of parasites that, through acting selfishly, eventually diminish or destroy their common host. The idea has also been applied to areas such as the evolution of virulence or sexual conflict , where males may fatally harm females when competing for matings. The idea of evolutionary suicide , where adaptation at
16384-481: Was overpopulation of the planet. To prevent the inevitable tragedy (he argued) it was necessary to reject the principle (supposedly enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ) according to which every family has a right to choose the number of its offspring, and to replace it by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon". Some scholars have argued that over-exploitation of the common resource
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