The Smolensk War (1632–1634) was a conflict fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia .
130-733: Hostilities began in October 1632 when Russian forces tried to capture the city of Smolensk . Small military engagements produced mixed results for both sides, but the surrender of the main Russian force in February 1634 led to the Treaty of Polyanovka . Russia accepted Polish–Lithuanian control over the Smolensk region, which lasted for another 20 years. In 1632, Sigismund III Vasa , the king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania , died. Although
260-677: A 1,400-strong Qing-Joseon force and were defeated again by Joseon musketeers. Under the Three Branch System, similar to the Spanish Tercio , Joseon organized their army under firearm troops (artillery and musketeers), archers, and pikemen or swordsmen. The percentage of firearms in the Joseon army rose dramatically as a result of the shorter training period for firearms. In addition, the sulphur mines discovered in Jinsan reduced
390-510: A century of peace and the people not being familiar with warfare that this happened, it was really because the Japanese had the use of muskets that could reach beyond several hundred paces, that always pierced what they struck, that came like the wind and the hail, and with which bows and arrows could not compare. Arquebuses were imported by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) at an uncertain point, but
520-463: A century. The musketeers were the first infantry to give up armour entirely. Musketeers began to take cover behind walls or in sunken lanes and sometimes acted as skirmishers to take advantage of their ranged weapons. In England, the musket barrel was cut down from 4 ft (1.2 m) to 3 ft (0.91 m) around 1630. The number of musketeers relative to pikemen increased partly because they were now more mobile than pikemen. Muskets of
650-585: A ceremony in which they were laid before King Władysław. They also had to promise not to engage Commonwealth forces for the next three months. Shein's forces numbered around 12,000 at the time of their capitulation, but over 4,000, including most of the foreign contingent, immediately decided to defect to the Commonwealth. Several other towns and fortresses in the region were the site of smaller battles. Russian forces captured several significant locations during their advance in 1632, but Nagielski speculates that
780-637: A declaration of war and authorised a large payment (6.5 million zlotys , the highest tax contribution during Władysław's entire reign) for the raising of a suitable force. The intended relief force would have an effective strength of about 21,500 men and would include: 24 chorągiews of Winged Hussars (~3,200 horses), 27 chorągiews of light cavalry—also known as Cossack cavalry but not composed of Cossacks —(3,600 horses), 10 squadrons of raitars (~1,700 horses), 7 Lithuanian petyhor regiments (~780 horses), 7 large regiments of dragoons (~2,250 horses), and ~20 regiments of infantry (~12,000 men). Over 10,000 of
910-419: A far longer range, while preserving the musket's comparatively faster reloading rate. Their use led to a decline in the use of massed attacking formations, as these formations were too vulnerable to the accurate, long-range fire a rifle could produce. In particular, attacking troops were within range of the defenders for a longer period of time, and the defenders could also fire at them more quickly than before. As
1040-826: A large number of churches and cathedrals. The most famous of these are the Cathedral of the Assumption , the Immaculate Conception Church , and the Church of St. Michael the Archangel, which is one of the few structures from before the Mongol invasion remaining in Russia. The Smolensk Kremlin , built at the end of the 16th century during the reign of Tsars Fyodor I Ioannovich and Boris Godunov , under
1170-691: A long section of the city wall and one of its towers. Russian heavy artillery, mostly of Western manufacture, reached Smolensk in December 1632 with even heavier guns arriving the following March. After a preliminary artillery bombardment, Shein ordered an assault, which was repulsed by the Polish defenders. Nonetheless the siege was progressing; Smolensk's fortifications were being eroded, and the defenders were suffering heavy casualties and running out of supplies. By June 1633, some soldiers started to desert, and others talked of surrender. Despite these difficulties,
1300-468: A name change. Trigger guards began appearing in 1575. Bayonets were attached to muskets in several parts of the world from the late 16th to 17th centuries. Locks came in many different varieties. Early matchlock and wheel lock mechanisms were replaced by later flintlock mechanisms and finally percussion locks . In some parts of the world, such as China and Japan, the flintlock mechanism never caught on and they continued using matchlocks until
1430-523: A new threat begun to loom on the southern borders, where the Ottoman Empire was massing an invasion force. Thus Władysław began redirecting his reinforcements to that theater. Later that year, the Commonwealth forces under Stanisław Koniecpolski scored a victory in the south, ending a war against the Ottomans . Both sides introduced new tactics, units and equipment based on Western models, but
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#17327717799611560-452: A random direction from the aiming point. The practice of rifling, putting grooves in the barrel of a weapon, causing the projectile to spin on the same axis as the line of flight, prevented this veering off from the aiming point. Rifles already existed in Europe by the late 15th century, but they were primarily used as sporting weapons and had little presence in warfare. The problem with rifles
1690-529: A report presented to the Council of Ten on 24 September 1572, observed: They used for arms, swords, lances, arquebuses, which all the soldiers carry and use; their arms are also superior and better tempered than those of any other nation. The barrels of the arquebuses are generally six spans long and carry a ball little less than three ounces in weight. They use them with such facility that it does not hinder them drawing their bows nor handling their swords, keeping
1820-418: A result, while 18th-century attackers would only be within range of the defenders' weapons for the time it would take to fire a few shots, late-19th-century attackers might suffer dozens of volleys before they drew close to the defenders, with correspondingly high casualty rates. However, the use of massed attacks on fortified positions were not immediately replaced with new tactics, and as a result, major wars of
1950-403: A round ball, Nessler ball or Minié ball all wrapped up in paper. Cartridges would then be placed in a cartridge box, which would typically be worn on the musketeer's belt during a battle. Unlike a modern cartridge, this paper cartridge was not simply loaded into the weapon and fired. Instead, the musketeer would tear open the paper (usually with his teeth), pour some of the powder into the pan and
2080-510: A series of fierce engagements, Commonwealth forces gradually overran the Russian field fortifications, and the siege reached its final stages by late September. On 28 September 1633, Commonwealth forces took the main Russian supply points, and by 4 October the siege had broken. Shein's army retreated to its main camp, which was in turn surrounded by Commonwealth forces in mid-October. The besieged Russians waited for relief, but none arrived, as Commonwealth and Cossack cavalry had been sent to disrupt
2210-489: A shot, and only then are they allowed to give fire. Each time the trumpet gives a blast, they fire one time, spread out in battle array according to the drilling patterns. If the trumpet keeps blasting without stopping, then they are allowed to fire all together until their fire is exhausted, and it's not necessary [in this case] to divide into layers. Frederick Lewis Taylor claims that a kneeling volley fire may have been employed by Prospero Colonna 's arquebusiers as early as
2340-418: A small piece of cloth for cleaning. A variation on the worm called the "screw and wiper" combined the typical design of a worm with a ball puller's screw. The heavy arquebus known as the musket appeared in Europe by 1521. In response to firearms, thicker armour was produced, from 15 kg (33 lb 1 oz) in the 15th century to 25 kg (55 lb 2 oz) in the late 16th century. Armour that
2470-591: A successful military operation in Korea during the Japanese invasions of Korea . Korean chief state councillor Ryu Seong-ryong noted the clear superiority of the Japanese musketeers over the Korean archers: In the 1592 invasion, everything was swept away. Within a fortnight or a month the cities and fortresses were lost, and everything in the eight directions had crumbled. Although it was [partly] due to there having been
2600-474: Is twinned with: Smolensk Strait between Livingston Island and Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica is named after the city. A Soviet post World War II project planned the creation of a light cruiser vessel named Smolensk. It was never constructed. Musket A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in
2730-578: Is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast , Russia , located on the Dnieper River, 360 kilometers (220 mi) west-southwest of Moscow . First mentioned in 863, it is one of the oldest cities in Russia. It has a population of 316,570 ( 2021 Census ) . The name of the city is derived from the name of the Smolnya River. Smolnya river flows through Karelian and Murmansk areas of north-western Russia. The origin of
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#17327717799612860-413: Is a diminutive of mosca , a fly. The first recorded usage of the term "musket" or moschetti appeared in Europe in the year 1499. Evidence of the musket as a type of firearm does not appear until 1521 when it was used to describe a heavy arquebus capable of penetrating heavy armour. This version of the musket fell out of use after the mid-16th century with the decline of heavy armour; however,
2990-607: Is located in European Russia on the banks of the upper Dnieper River , which crosses the city within the Smolensk Upland , which is the western part of the Smolensk–Moscow Upland . The Dnieper River flows through the city from east to west and divides it into two parts: the northern (Zadneprove) and southern (center). Within the city and its surroundings the river takes in several small tributaries . In
3120-485: Is sounded, at which the musketeers fire in concert, either all at once or in five volleys (齊放一次盡擧或分五擧)." This training method proved to be quite formidable in the 1619 Battle of Sarhu , in which 10,000 Korean musketeers managed to kill many Manchus before their allies surrendered. While Korea went on to lose both wars against the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636 , their musketeers were well respected by Manchu leaders. It
3250-520: The Battle of Bicocca (1522). However, this has been called into question by Tonio Andrade who believes this is an over interpretation as well as mis-citation of a passage by Charles Oman suggesting that the Spanish arquebusiers kneeled to reload, when in fact Oman never made such a claim. This is contested by Idan Sherer, who quotes Paolo Giovio saying that the arquebusiers kneeled to reload so that
3380-721: The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in Smolensk, but its government moved to Minsk as soon as the German forces had been driven out of the city several days later. In 1940, 18 km (11 mi) from Smolensk, the Katyn Massacre occurred, in which some 22,000 Polish POWs were murdered by the NKVD . At this time Boris Menshagin was mayor of Smolensk, with his deputy Boris Bazilevsky. Both of them would be key witnesses in
3510-634: The Cold War on the local workings of the Soviet government during its first two decades. The archives were returned to Russia by the United States in 2002. On 10 April 2010, a Tu-154 military jet carrying Polish president Lech Kaczyński , his wife, and many notable political and military figures crashed in a wooded area near Smolensk while approaching the local military airport. All ninety-six passengers died immediately on impact. The purpose of
3640-710: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania , some of Smolensk's boyars (e.g., the Sapiehas ) moved to Vilnius ; descendants of the ruling princes (e.g., the Tatishchevs , Kropotkins , Mussorgskys , Vyazemskys ) fled to Moscow . Three Lithuanian Smolensk regiments took part in the 1410 Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) against the Teutonic Knights . It was a severe blow to Lithuania when the city was taken by Vasily III of Russia in 1514. To commemorate this event,
3770-644: The Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Swedish deluge . After another siege, on 23 September 1654, Smolensk was recaptured by Russia. In the 1667 Truce of Andrusovo , the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth renounced its claims to Smolensk. Smolensk has been a special place to Russians for many reasons, not least for the fact that the local cathedral housed one of the most venerated Orthodox icons, attributed to St. Luke . Building
3900-468: The Minié ball (invented by Claude-Étienne Minié in 1849) became common. The development of breech-loading firearms using self-contained cartridges (introduced by Casimir Lefaucheux in 1835) and the first reliable repeating rifles produced by Winchester Repeating Arms Company in 1860 also led to their demise. By the time that repeating rifles became common, they were known as simply "rifles", ending
4030-569: The Mongol armies in 1240, Smolensk paid tribute to the Golden Horde , gradually becoming a pawn in the long struggle between Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Moscow . The last sovereign monarch of Smolensk was Yury of Smolensk ; during his reign the city was taken by Vytautas the Great of Lithuania on three occasions: in 1395, 1404, and 1408. After the city's incorporation into
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4160-602: The Musket Wars period in New Zealand, between 1805 and 1843, at least 500 conflicts took place between various Māori tribes—often using trade muskets in addition to traditional Māori weapons. The muskets were initially cheap Birmingham muskets designed for the use of coarse grain black powder. Maori favoured the shorter barrel versions. Some tribes took advantage of runaway sailors and escaped convicts to expand their understanding of muskets. Early missionaries—one of whom
4290-658: The Nuremberg Trials over the massacre. During World War II , Smolensk once again saw wide-scale fighting during the first Battle of Smolensk when the city was captured by the Germans on 16 July 1941. The first Soviet counteroffensive against the German army was launched in August but failed. However, the limited Soviet victories outside the city halted the German advance for a crucial two months, granting time to Moscow's defenders to prepare in earnest. Over 93% of
4420-580: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1611 after a long twenty-month siege , during the Time of Troubles and Dimitriads . Weakened Muscovy temporarily ceded Smolensk land to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Truce of Deulino . The city was granted Magdeburg rights in 1611 and was the seat of Smolensk Voivodeship for the next forty-three years. To recapture the city, the Tsardom of Russia launched
4550-553: The Senate of Poland agreed to increase the size of the army, but Grand Lithuanian Hetman Lew Sapieha objected, arguing that the current forces were enough and that war was not likely. Nonetheless the Field Lithuanian Hetman Krzysztof Radziwiłł recruited an additional 2,000 soldiers. Russia, having recovered to a certain extent from the Time of Troubles , agreed with the assessment that
4680-598: The Tsar founded the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow and dedicated it to the icon of Our Lady of Smolensk . In order to repel future Polish–Lithuanian attacks, Boris Godunov made it his priority to heavily fortify the city. The stone kremlin constructed in 1597–1602 is the largest in Russia. It features thick walls and numerous watchtowers. Heavy fortifications did not prevent the fortress from being taken by
4810-697: The Varangian chieftains Askold and Dir , while on their way to Kiev, decided against challenging Smolensk on account of its large size and population. The first foreign writer to mention the city was the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus . In De Administrando Imperio (c. 950) he described Smolensk as a key station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks . The Rus' people sailed from
4940-657: The royal army numbered barely 3,000 men; the Smolensk garrison was about 500 strong, and most garrisons in the border area were composed not of regular or mercenary soldiers but of 100 to 200 local volunteers. Aware that Russia was preparing for war, in the spring of 1632 the Sejm (Polish–Lithuanian parliament) increased the army by recruiting an additional 4,500 men; by mid-1632 the deputy voivode ( podwojewoda ) of Smolensk , Samuel Drucki Sokoliński [ pl ] , had about 500 volunteers from pospolite ruszenie and 2,500 regular army soldiers and Zaporozhian Cossacks . In May
5070-687: The 15th, 16th and 17th centuries (from the days of the Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars ). A major supporter of the war was the Tsar's father, Patriarch Filaret , who represented the anti-Polish camp at court. Inspired by the Zemsky Sobor 's (Russian parliament's) call for vengeance and reclamation of lost lands, the Russian army sallied west. The Russian army that crossed the Lithuanian border in early October 1632 had been carefully prepared and
5200-463: The 16th to 19th centuries were accurate enough to hit a target of 50 cm (20 in) in diameter at a distance of 100 m (330 ft). At the same distance, musket bullets could penetrate a steel bib about 4 mm (0.16 in) thick, or a wooden shield about 130 mm (5.1 in) thick. The maximum range of the bullet was 1,100 m (1,200 yd). The speed of the bullets was between 305 and 540 m/s (1,000 and 1,770 ft/s), and
5330-452: The 1800s. The differences between the arquebus and musket post-16th century are therefore not entirely clear, and the two have been used interchangeably on several occasions. Flintlocks are not usually associated with arquebuses. A variation of the musket known as the caliver , a standardized "calibre" (spelled "caliber" in the US), appeared in Europe around 1567–9. According to Jacob de Gheyn,
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5460-405: The 19th century when percussion locks were introduced. In the latter half of the 18th century, several improvements were added to the musket. In 1750, a detent was added to prevent the sear from catching in the half-cock notch. A roller bearing was introduced in 1770 to reduce friction and increase sparks. In 1780, waterproof pans were added. The phrase "lock, stock, and barrel" refers to
5590-608: The Baltic region up the Western Dvina ( Daugava ) River as far as they could then they portaged their boats to the upper Dnieper . It was in Smolensk that they supposedly mended any leaks and small holes that might have appeared in their boats from being dragged on the ground and they used tar to do that, hence the city name. The Principality of Smolensk was founded in 1054. Due to its central position in Kievan Rus' ,
5720-515: The Baptist (1180, also partly rebuilt). The most remarkable church in the city is called Svirskaya (1197, still standing); it was admired by contemporaries as the most beautiful structure east of Kiev . Smolensk had its own veche since the very beginning of its history. Its power increased after the disintegration of Kievan Rus' , and although it was not as strong as the veche in Novgorod ,
5850-399: The Commonwealth nobility quickly elected Sigismund's son Władysław IV Vasa as their new ruler, Poland's neighbours, expecting delays in the electoral process, tested the Commonwealth's perceived weakness. Swedish king Gustav II Adolph sent envoys to Russia and the Ottoman Empire to propose an alliance and war against the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth was not ready for war. In 1631,
5980-562: The Commonwealth side. Shein began surrender negotiations in January 1634, and by February they were in full swing. The Russians finally signed a surrender treaty on 25 February 1634, and on 1 March they vacated their camp. (Some scholars, such as Rickard and Black, give the date of 1 March for Shein's capitulation.) Under the surrender terms, the Russians had to leave behind most of their artillery but were allowed to retain their banners after
6110-487: The Commonwealth would be weakened by the death of its king, and unilaterally attacked without waiting for the Swedes and the Ottomans. Russia's aim was to gain control of Smolensk, which it had ceded to the Commonwealth in 1618 at the Truce of Deulino , ending the last Russo-Polish War . Smolensk was the capital of the Commonwealth's Smoleńsk Voivodeship , but it had often been contested, and it changed hands many times during
6240-486: The Great , recruited in 1744 from a Jäger unit of game-keepers and foresters, but the rifle's slow rate of fire still restricted their usage. The invention of the Minié ball in 1849 solved both major problems of muzzle-loading rifles. Rifled muskets of the mid-19th century, like the Springfield Model 1861 which dealt heavy casualties at the Battle of Four Lakes , were significantly more accurate, with
6370-525: The Ming only began fielding matchlocks in 1548. The Chinese used the term "bird-gun" to refer to arquebuses and Turkish arquebuses may have reached China before Portuguese ones. In Zhao Shizhen's book of 1598 AD, the Shenqipu , there were illustrations of Ottoman Turkish musketeers with detailed illustrations of their muskets, alongside European musketeers with detailed illustrations of their muskets. There
6500-656: The Polish–Lithuanian Sejm, who were unwilling to fight Sweden after the Treaty of Sztumska Wieś . The Russians, unable to see benefit in such an alliance, were also unenthusiastic, and the proposed alliance came to nothing. The war cost the Commonwealth treasury about 4,300,000 zlotys . The Battle of Smolensk is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw , with the inscription "SMOLENSK 18 X 1632–25 II 1634". Smolensk Smolensk
6630-471: The Polish–Lithuanian forces proved more adept with these innovations than the Russians. However, the main factors that kept the Russians from winning were the delay in moving siege artillery to Smolensk and the severe disruption of Russian supply lines by Polish cavalry. A scapegoat was nevertheless needed: Mikhail Shein was accused of treason and, together with his second-in-command Artemy Izmaylov and
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#17327717799616760-440: The Russian perspective it was likely that Władysław's abnegation of his claim was more important, in terms of the subsequent increase in internal stability, than the loss of disputed borderland. Despite not winning militarily, the Russians may have scored a diplomatic triumph. Other authors, such as Hellie, support this interpretation. Already during the later stages of the war, when the Commonwealth army moved from Smolensk to Bely,
6890-563: The Russian rear lines, freeing the Polish–Lithuanian units under Radziwiłł and Gosiewski to join the effort to break the siege. Władysław's brother, John II Casimir , commanded one of the regiments in the relief army. Another notable commander was the Field Crown Hetman , Marcin Kazanowski . King Władysław IV, a great supporter of the modernization of the Commonwealth army, proved to be a good tactician, and his innovations in
7020-473: The Russian rear. Some historians also cite dissent and internal divisions in the Russian camp as responsible for their inaction and ineffectiveness. (Jasienica blames the Russian warlords, and Parker the foreign mercenaries.) The Tatar invasion threatening the south Russian borderlands was a contributory factor, with many soldiers and boyars from those regions deserting the Russian camp to return to protect their homeland. Some foreign mercenaries also deserted to
7150-619: The Russian throne, King Władysław wanted to continue the war or, because the Polish-Swedish Treaty of Altmark would soon be expiring, ally with the Russians to strike against Sweden. However, the Sejm wanted no more conflict. As Stanisław Łubieński , the Bishop of Płock , wrote two weeks after Shein's surrender: "Our happiness is in remaining within our borders, guaranteeing health and well-being." With neither side keen on prolonging
7280-557: The Smolensk garrison (about 1,600 men with 170 artillery pieces under the command of the Voivode of Smolensk , Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski ), strengthened by the local nobility, which formed a pospolite ruszenie force of about 1,500 strong. The city's fortifications had also recently been improved with Italian-style bastions . Shein constructed lines of circumvallation around the fortress. Using tunnels and mines, his forces damaged
7410-424: The Sri Lankan soldiers to the point where, according to the Portuguese chronicler, Queirós, they could "fire at night to put out a match" and "by day at 60 paces would sever a knife with four or five bullets" and "send as many on the same spot in the target." Despite initial reluctance, the Safavid Empire of Persia rapidly acquired the art of making and using handguns. A Venetian envoy, Vincenzo di Alessandri, in
7540-445: The VI convocation was elected on 13 September 2020. The party composition of the current city council is as follows: United Russia – 23 deputies, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation – 4 deputies, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia – 1 deputy, A Just Russia – 1 deputy, Party of Pensioners – 1 deputy. Smolensk has a warm-summer humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ). By European standards,
7670-402: The Wokou pirates in Zhejiang Province. Qi Jiguang trained troops in their use for several years until they [muskets] became one of the skills of the Chinese, who subsequently used them to defeat the Japanese." By 1607 Korean musketeers had been trained in the fashion which Qi Jiguang prescribed, and a drill manual had been produced based on the Chinese leader's Jixiao Xinshu . Of the volley fire,
7800-461: The ability to hit a man-sized target at a distance of 500 yards (460 m) or more. The smoothbore musket generally allowed no more than 300 yards (270 m) with any accuracy. The Crimean War (1853–1856) saw the first widespread use of the rifled musket for the common infantryman and by the time of the American Civil War (1861–1865) most infantry were equipped with the rifled musket. These were far more accurate than smoothbore muskets and had
7930-480: The administrative center of Smolensky District , even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Smolensk Urban Okrug —an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , this administrative unit also has urban okrug status. Chairman of the City Council of the VI convocation (since 24 December 2021) – Anatoly Ovsyankin ( United Russia ). The Smolensk City Council of
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#17327717799618060-521: The back. The second rank, either marching forward or standing still, [will next] fire together [and] then march to the back. After that, the third and following ranks will do the same. Thus before the last ranks have fired, the first will have reloaded. In the 18th century, regular light infantry began to emerge. In contrast to the front-line infantry, they fought in the loose formation, used natural shelters and terrain folds. In addition, they were better prepared to target single targets. This type of troops
8190-601: The caliver was a smaller musket that did not require a fork rest. Benerson Little described it as a "light musket". Matchlock firearms were used in India by 1500, in Đại Việt by 1516, and in Southeast Asia by 1540. According to a Burmese source from the late 15th century, King Minkhaung II would not dare attack the besieged town of Prome due to the defenders' use of cannon and small arms that were described as muskets, although these were probably early matchlock arquebuses or wall guns . The Portuguese may have introduced muskets to Sri Lanka during their conquest of
8320-403: The city developed rapidly. By the end of the 12th century, the princedom was one of the strongest in Eastern Europe , so that Smolensk princes frequently controlled the Kievan throne. Numerous churches were built in the city at that time, including the church of Sts. Peter and Paul (1146, reconstructed to its presumed original appearance after World War II ) and the church of St. John
8450-399: The city was 863 AD, two years after the founding of Kievan Rus' . According to Russian Primary Chronicle , Smolensk (probably located slightly downstream, at the archaeological site of Gnezdovo ) was located on the area settled by the East Slavic Radimichs tribe in 882 when Oleg of Novgorod took it in passing from Novgorod to Kiev . The town was first attested two decades earlier, when
8580-439: The city was destroyed during the fighting; the ancient icon of Our Lady of Smolensk was lost. Nevertheless, it escaped total destruction. In late 1943, Hermann Göring had ordered Gotthard Heinrici to destroy Smolensk in accordance with the Nazi "scorched earth" policy. He refused and was punished for it. The city was finally liberated on 25 September 1943, during the second Battle of Smolensk . The rare title of Hero City
8710-424: The city, commanded by Deputy Voivode Samuel Drucki-Sokoliński , held out throughout 1633 while the Commonwealth, under its newly elected King Władysław IV , organised a relief force. The Sejm had been informed about the Russian invasion by 30 October 1632, and, starting in November, had discussed the possibility of relief. However, the process was delayed until the spring of 1633, when the Sejm officially sanctioned
8840-401: The city. In celebration the Central Bank of Russia issued commemorative coins made of precious metals. Owing to its long and rich history, Smolensk is home to many examples of Russian architecture ranging from the Kievan Rus period to post-WWII Stalinist style . Although the city was destroyed several times over, many historically and culturally significant buildings remain, including
8970-399: The city. Total losses were estimated at 30,000 men. Apart from other military monuments, central Smolensk features the Eagles monument, unveiled in 1912 to mark the centenary of Napoleon's Russian campaign . At the beginning of World War I , the 56th Smolensk Infantry Division was first assigned to the First Army of the Imperial Russian Army . They fought at the Battle of Tannenberg . It
9100-626: The climate is quite cold for its latitude on 54°N . The far inland position warms springs up relatively quickly, with May being quite a bit milder than September. Smolensk has several factories including the Smolensk Aviation Plant and several electronics and agricultural machinery factories. Smolensk is located on the M1 main highway and Moscow–Brest Railway . Since 1870, there is a railway connection between Smolensk and Moscow. Local public transport includes buses and trolleybuses. Public transportation network includes buses, trolleybuses, trams, and marshrutkas . There are two airports located in
9230-403: The coastline and lowlands in 1505, as they regularly used short barrelled matchlocks during combat. However, P. E. P. Deraniyagala points out that the Sinhalese term for gun, 'bondikula', matches the Arabic term for gun, 'bunduk'. Also, certain technical aspects of the early Sri Lankan matchlock were similar to the matchlocks used in the Middle East, thus forming the generally accepted theory that
9360-489: The delay in the arrival of their main force and artillery at Smolensk caused by this dilution of effort may have cost them the siege and consequently the war. In July 1633, the Russians took the towns of Polatsk , Velizh , Usvyat , and Ozerishche . Polatsk was the scene of particularly heavy fighting as the Russians captured the city and part of the fortress. However, attacks on Vitebsk and Mstsislaw were successfully repulsed. Polish forces laid siege to Putivl , but due to
9490-492: The desertion of their Cossack allies they were forced to withdraw. In the autumn of 1633, Commonwealth forces retook Dorogobuzh , an important Russian supply point after its capture the year before. This setback wrecked Russian plans to send reinforcements to Shein's army, although in any event the Russians did not begin to gather a 5,000-strong army for that purpose until January 1634. Also that autumn, Grand Crown Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski defeated an Ottoman incursion in
9620-414: The double-barrel shot gun ( Tuparra – two barrel) during fighting often using women to reload the weapons when fighting from a Pā (fortified village or hillfort). They often resorted to using nails, stones or anything convenient as "shot". From the 1850s, Māori were able to obtain superior military style muskets with greater range. One of the authors was a Pakeha (European) who lived among Māori, spoke
9750-448: The early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus , capable of penetrating plate armour . By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually disappeared as the use of heavy armour declined, but musket continued as the generic term for smoothbore long guns until the mid-19th century. In turn, this style of musket was retired in the 19th century when rifled muskets (simply called rifles in modern terminology) using
9880-500: The enemy with either fire or bayonet. This allowed the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic infantry a much greater degree of mobility compared to their Ancien Régime opponents, and also allowed much closer cooperation of infantry with cavalry and artillery, which were free to move in between the infantry columns of the former rather than being trapped in between the linear formation of the latter. The colonne d'attaque
10010-637: The entire infantry. In the 19th century, a new tactic was devised by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars . This was the ' colonne d'attaque' , or attack column, consisting of one regiment up to two brigades of infantry. Instead of advancing slowly all across the battlefield in line formations, the French infantry were brought forward in such columns, preceded by masses of skirmishers to cover and mask their advance. The column would then normally deploy into line right before engaging
10140-533: The era of the musket. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, firearms were often named after animals, and the word musket derived from the French word mousquette , which is a male sparrowhawk . An alternative theory is that derives from the 16th-century French mousquet, -ette , from the Italian moschetti, -etta , meaning the bolt of a crossbow . The Italian moschetti
10270-665: The expense of producing gunpowder. Under the reign of Sukjong of Joseon (1700s), 76.4% of the local standing army in Chungcheong were musketeers. Under the reign of King Yeongjo , Yoon Pil-Un, Commander of the Sua-chung, improved on firearms with the Chunbochong (천보총), which had a greater range of fire than the existing ones. Its usage is thought to have been similar to the Afghan jezail or American long rifle . During
10400-419: The first days of September, the main body of the relief forces approaching Smolensk numbered around 14,000. The Russian army, recently reinforced, numbered 25,000. Only when Cossack reinforcements, led by Tymosz (Timofiy) Orendarenko and numbering between 10,000 and 20,000, arrived on 17 September would the Commonwealth army gain numerical superiority. The Cossacks under Orendarenko and Marcin Kazanowski raided
10530-591: The first file has finished shooting they make space for the next (which is coming up to shoot) without turning face, countermarching [contrapassando] to the left but showing the enemy only the side of their bodies, which is the narrowest of the body, and [taking their place at the rear] about one to three steps behind, with five or six pellets in their mouths, and two lighted matchlock fuses ... and they load [their pieces] promptly ... and return to shoot when it's their turn again." Most historians, including Geoffrey Parker , have ignored Eguiluz, and have erroneously attributed
10660-414: The guns (銃裝不及), and frequently this mismanagement costs the lives of many people. Thus, whenever the enemy gets to within a hundred paces' distance, they [the musketeers] are to wait until they hear a blast on the bamboo flute, at which they deploy themselves in front of the troops, with each platoon (哨) putting in front one team (隊). They [the musketeer team members] wait until they hear their own leader fire
10790-506: The infantry would be organized based on the Western model, previously not common in Commonwealth armies. Meanwhile, Field Hetman of Lithuania and Voivode of Vilnius , Krzysztof Radziwiłł , and Voivode Gosiewski established a camp about 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) from Smolensk, moving from Orsha to Bajów and later, Krasne. By February 1633, they had amassed around 4,500 soldiers, including over 2,000 infantry, and were engaged in raiding
10920-542: The invention of the countermarch to Maurice of Nassau , although the publication of the Milicia, Discurso y Regla Militar antedates Maurice's first letter on the subject by two years. Regardless, it is clear that the concept of volley fire had existed in Europe for quite some time during the 16th century, but it was in the Netherlands during the 1590s that the musketry volley really took off. The key to this development
11050-485: The kinetic energy was 1,600–4,000 J (1,200–3,000 ft⋅lbf). The heavy musket went out of favour around the same time the snaphance flintlock was invented in Europe, in 1550. The snaphance was followed by the "true" flintlock in the late 17th century. While the heavy variant of the arquebus died out due to the decline of heavy armour, the term "musket" itself stuck around as a general term for 'shoulder arms' fireweapons, replacing "arquebus," and remained until
11180-447: The king manage to capture Vyazma . By the spring of 1634, the Russians had not only lost Shein's army but were threatened by Tatar raids that ravaged southern Russia. Patriarch Filaret had died the previous year, and without him the war fervour lessened. Even before the end of 1633, Tsar Michael of Russia was considering how best to end the conflict. Because he had once been elected Tsar of Russia and could realistically lay claim to
11310-416: The language fluently, had a Māori wife and took part in many intertribal conflicts as a warrior. The musket was a smoothbore firearm and lacked rifling grooves that would have spun the bullet in such a way as to increase its accuracy. The last contact with the musket barrel gives the ball a spin around an axis at right angles to the direction of flight. The aerodynamics result in the ball veering off in
11440-459: The late 19th century and early 20th century tended to produce very high casualty figures. Many soldiers preferred to reduce the standard musket reloading procedures to increase the speed of fire. This statement is from Thomas Anburey who served as a lieutenant in Burgoyne's army: "Here I cannot help observing to you, whether it proceeded from an idea of self-preservation, or natural instinct, but
11570-573: The latter hung at their saddle bows till occasion requires them. The arquebus is then put away behind the back so that one weapon does not impede the use of the other. During the Sengoku period of Japan, arquebuses were introduced by Portuguese merchantmen from the region of Alentejo in 1543 and by the 1560s were being mass-produced locally. By the end of the 16th century, the production of firearms in Japan reached enormous proportions, which allowed for
11700-479: The latter's son Vasily, executed in Moscow on April 28, 1634. Learning from this defeat, the Russians would adopt new and more successful tactics in the Polish–Russian War (1654–1656) . After the war, Władysław gave the Russians the border town of Serpeysk and nearby territories, hoping to persuade the Tsar to join in an anti-Swedish alliance. However, the king was ultimately unable to overcome objections from
11830-434: The manual says that "every musketeer squad should either divide into two musketeers per layer or one and deliver fire in five volleys or in ten." Another Korean manual produced in 1649 describes a similar process: "When the enemy approaches to within a hundred paces, a signal gun is fired and a conch is blown, at which the soldiers stand. Then a gong is sounded, the conch stops blowing, and the heavenly swan [a double-reed horn]
11960-489: The mid-19th century. The Minié ball was small enough in diameter that it could be loaded as quickly as a round ball, even with a barrel that had been fouled with black powder residue after firing many shots, and the expanding skirt of the Minié ball meant that it would still form a tight fit with the barrel and impart a good spin into the round when fired. This gave the rifled musket an effective range of several hundred yards, which
12090-509: The military. The volley fire technique transformed soldiers carrying firearms into organized firing squads with each row of soldiers firing in turn and reloading in a systematic fashion. Volley fire was implemented with cannons as early as 1388 by Ming artillerists, but volley fire with matchlocks was not implemented until 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries used it during the Battle of Mohács . The matchlock volley fire technique
12220-496: The more common attachments was a ball screw or ball puller, which was a screw that could be screwed into the lead ball to remove it if it had become jammed in the barrel, similar to the way that a corkscrew is used to remove a wine cork. Another attachment was called a worm, which was used to clear debris from the barrel, such as paper wadding that had not been expelled. Some worm designs were sturdy enough that they could be used to remove stuck ammunition. The worm could also be used with
12350-516: The musket was not entirely new to the island by the time the Portuguese came. In any case, soon native Sri Lankan kingdoms, most notably the Kingdom of Sitawaka and the Kingdom of Kandy , manufactured hundreds of Lankan muskets, with a unique bifurcated stock, longer barrel and smaller calibre, which made it more efficient in directing and using the energy of the gunpowder. These were mastered by
12480-610: The new Cathedral of the Assumption was a great project which took more than a century to complete. Despite slowly sinking into an economic backwater, Smolensk was still valued by the Tsars as a key fortress defending the route to Moscow . It was made the seat of Smolensk Governorate in 1708. In August 1812, two of the largest armies ever assembled clashed in Smolensk. During the hard-fought battle , described by Leo Tolstoy in War and Peace (Book Three Part Two Chapter 4), Napoleon entered
12610-566: The outskirts of the city; Smolensk South (civilian) and Smolensk North (military); however, there are no regular flights scheduled to Smolensk South Airport. Smolensk is home to the Smolensk State University (SMOLGU) and the Smolensk State Medical University (affiliated as university in 2015) (SSMU); together with colleges of further education and other educational institutes. Smolensk
12740-964: The princes had to take its opinion into consideration; several times in 12th and 13th centuries there was an open conflict between them. [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Lithuania 1404–1514 [REDACTED] Principality of Moscow 1514–1547 [REDACTED] Tsardom of Russia 1547–1611 [REDACTED] Poland–Lithuania 1611–1656 [REDACTED] Tsardom of Russia 1656–1721 [REDACTED] Russian Empire 1721–1812 [REDACTED] French occupation 1812 [REDACTED] Russian Empire 1812–1917 [REDACTED] Russian Republic 1917–1918 [REDACTED] Belarusian People's Republic 1918–1919 [REDACTED] Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia 1919 [REDACTED] Russian SFSR 1919–1922 [REDACTED] Soviet Union 1922–1941 [REDACTED] German occupation 1941–1943 [REDACTED] Soviet Union 1943–1991 [REDACTED] Russia 1991–present Although spared by
12870-501: The rear areas of the Russian besiegers to disrupt their logistics . Hetman Radziwiłł also managed to break through the Russian lines on several occasions, bringing about 1,000 soldiers and supplies into Smolensk to reinforce the fortress and raising the defenders' morale. By the summer of 1633, the relief force, led personally by the king and numbering about 25,000 (20,000 in the Polish–Lithuanian army, according to Jasienica ), arrived near Smolensk; they reached Orsha on 17 August 1633. By
13000-507: The rest into the barrel, follow it with the ammunition (and the paper as wadding if not using a Minié ball), then use the ramrod as normal to push it all into the barrel. While not as fast as loading a modern cartridge, this method did significantly speed up the loading process since the pre-measured charges meant that the musketeer did not have to carefully measure out the black powder with every shot. Some ramrods were equipped with threaded ends, allowing different attachments to be used. One of
13130-598: The river's name is less clear. One possibility is the old Slavic word смоль ( smol' ) for black soil , which might have colored the waters of the Smolnya. An alternative origin could be the Russian word смола ( smola ), which means resin , tar , or pitch . Pine trees grow in the area, and the city was once a center of resin processing and trade. The Byzantine emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) recorded its name as Μιλινισκα ( Miliniska ). The city
13260-515: The second line of arquebusiers could fire without endangering those in front of them. European gunners might have implemented countermarch to some extent since at least 1579 when the Englishman Thomas Digges suggested that musketeers should, "after the old Romane manner make three or four several fronts, with convenient spaces for the first to retire and unite himselfe with the second, and both these if occasion so require, with
13390-591: The size of the Russian army was 23,961. Compared to former Russian armies, Shein's army was significantly modernised. Dissatisfied with their traditional formations of musket -equipped infantry (the streltsy ), the Russians looked to foreign officers to update the equipment and training of their troops based on the Western European model of regulars , dragoons , and reiters . Eight such regiments, totaling 14,000 to 17,000 men, comprised part of Shein's army. Commonwealth forces in Smolensk were composed of
13520-404: The slow reloading time became an increasing problem. The difficulty of reloading—and thus the time needed to do it—was diminished by making the musket ball much smaller than the internal diameter of the barrel, so as the interior of the barrel became dirty from soot from previously fired rounds, the musket ball from the next shot could still be easily rammed. To keep the ball in place once the weapon
13650-529: The so-called " Smolensk War " against the Commonwealth in 1632. After a defeat at the hands of king Wladislaw IV , the city remained in Polish–Lithuanian hands. In 1632, the Uniate bishop Lew Kreuza built his apartments in Smolensk; they were later converted into the Eastern Orthodox Church of Saint Barbara . The hostilities resumed in 1654 when the Commonwealth was being affected by
13780-401: The soldiers greatly improved the mode they were taught in, as to expedition. For as soon as they had primed their pieces and put the cartridge into the barrel, instead of ramming it down with their rods, they struck the butt end of the piece upon the ground, and bringing it to the present, fired it off". This practice was known as 'tap-loading'. As muskets became the default weapon of armies,
13910-403: The south of the Commonwealth, freeing his force to lay siege to the Russian town of Sevsk ; although Koniecpolski failed to take the fortress, he tied down large Russian forces, preventing them from moving north towards Smolensk. After the relief of Smolensk in the spring of 1634, the Commonwealth army moved towards the fortress Belaya . However, the siege of Belaya turned to a fiasco although
14040-417: The supervision of the architect Fyodor Kon , is one of the greatest achievements of Russian medieval architecture and military engineering. Being the site of many great battles in Russian history, Smolensk is home to many monuments commemorating its rich military history. Smolensk serves as the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions , it also serves as
14170-418: The term itself stuck around as a general descriptor for "shoulder arms" fire weapons into the 19th century. The differences between the arquebus and musket post-16th century are therefore not entirely clear, and the two have been used interchangeably on several occasions. According to historian David A. Parrot, the concept of the musket as a legitimate innovation is uncertain and may consist of nothing more than
14300-504: The third; the shot [musketeers] having their convenient lanes continually during the fight to discharge their peces." The Spanish too displayed some awareness of the volley technique. Martín de Eguiluz described it in the military manual, Milicia, Discurso y Regla Militar , dating to 1586: "Start with three files of five soldiers each, separated one from the other by fifteen paces, and they should comport themselves not with fury but with calm skillfulness [con reposo diestramente] such that when
14430-439: The three main parts of a musket. Sixteenth- and 17th-century musketeers used bandoliers which held their pre-measured charges and lead balls. The Minié ball , which despite its name was actually bullet-shaped and not ball-shaped, was developed in the 1840s. The Minié ball had an expanding skirt which was intended to be used with rifled barrels, leading to what was called the rifled musket , which came into widespread use in
14560-517: The time. In Korea, the Joseon dynasty underwent a devastating war with the newly unified Japan that lasted from 1592 to 1598. The shock of this encounter spurred the court to undergo a process of military strengthening. One of the core elements of military strengthening was to adopt the musket. According to reformers, "In recent times in China they did not have muskets; they first learned about them from
14690-505: The use of artillery and fortifications based on Western ideas greatly contributed to the eventual Polish–Lithuanian success. He had replaced the old arquebusiers with musketeers , and standardized the Commonwealth artillery (introducing 3- to 6- pounder regimental guns), both to great effect. Commonwealth's cavalry, including the Winged Hussars , significantly restricted Russian mobility, forcing them to stay in their trenches. In
14820-483: The valleys are stretched streets, high ridges, hills, and headlands form the mountain. Smolensk is situated on seven hills (mountains). The old part of the city occupies the high, rugged left (south) bank of the Dnieper River. The area features undulating terrain, with a large number of tributaries, creeks and ravines. Smolensk is among the oldest Russian cities of the known Rus' era. The first recorded mention of
14950-619: The visit was to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre . In June 2013, archaeologists of the Russian Academy of Sciences discovered and unearthed ancient temples in Smolensk dated to the middle to second half of the 12th century, built on the left bank of the Dnieper River. At the time the city was the capital of Smolensk principality . In September 2013, Smolensk widely celebrated its 1,150th anniversary with funds spent on different construction and renovation projects in
15080-548: The war, they began negotiating, not for an armistice but for "eternal peace." Talks began on 30 April 1634, and the Treaty of Polyanovka was signed in June, putting an end to hostilities. The treaty confirmed the pre-war status quo , with Russia paying a large war indemnity (20,000 rubles in gold), while Władysław agreed to surrender his claim to the Russian throne and return the royal insignia to Moscow. Jasienica notes that from
15210-411: Was William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg who in 1594 described the technique in a letter to his cousin: I have discovered ... a method of getting the musketeers and soldiers armed with arquebuses not only to keep firing very well but to do it effectively in battle order ... in the following manner: as soon as the first rank has fired together, then by the drill [they have learned] they will march to
15340-441: Was 2 mm (0.079 in) thick required nearly three times as much energy to penetrate as did armour that was only 1 mm (0.039 in) thick. During the siege of Parma in 1521, many Spanish soldiers reportedly used an "arquebus with rest", a weapon much larger and more powerful than the regular arquebus. However, at this point, long-barrelled, musket-calibre weapons had been in use as wall-defence weapons in Europe for almost
15470-501: Was a significant improvement over the smooth bore musket. For example, combat ranges of 300 yd (270 m) were achievable using the rifled muskets during the American Civil War . Musketeers often used paper cartridges, which served a purpose similar to that of modern metallic cartridges in combining bullet and powder charge. A musket cartridge consisted of a pre-measured amount of black powder and ammunition such as
15600-404: Was a trained gunsmith—refused to help Māori repair muskets. Later, common practice was to enlarge the percussion hole and to hold progressively smaller lead balls between the fingers so that muskets could fire several shots without having to remove fouling. Likewise, Māori resorted to thumping the butt of the musket on the ground to settle the ball instead of using a ramrod. Māori favoured the use of
15730-636: Was also illustration and description of how the Chinese had adopted the Ottoman kneeling position in firing while using European-made muskets, though Zhao Shizhen described the Turkish muskets as being superior to the European muskets. The Wu Pei Chih (1621) later described Turkish muskets that used a rack and pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at
15860-544: Was bestowed on Smolensk after the war. After the Germans captured the city in 1941, they found the intact archives of the Smolensk Oblast Committee of the Communist Party, the so-called Smolensk Archive . The archive was moved to Germany, and a significant part of it eventually ended up in the United States, providing Western scholars and intelligence specialists with unique information during
15990-463: Was designed to fight against irregular enemy troops, such as militia, guerrillas and natives. At the beginning of the 19th century, the number of light infantry increased dramatically. In the French army, light infantry accounted for 25% of the infantry. In the Russian Army, 50 light infantry regiments and one company in each battalion were formed, which accounted for about 40% of light infantry in
16120-479: Was henceforth adopted by all European armies during and after the Napoleonic Wars . While some British historians, such as Sir Charles Oman , have postulated that it was the standard French tactic to charge enemy lines of infantry head on with their columns, relying on the morale effect of the huge column, and hence were often beaten off by the devastating firepower of the redcoats, more current research into
16250-472: Was loaded, it would be partially wrapped in a small piece of cloth. However, the smaller ball could move within the barrel as the musket was fired, decreasing the accuracy of musket fire (it was complained that it took a man's weight in lead musket balls to kill him). The development of volley fire —by the Ottomans, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Dutch—made muskets more feasible for widespread adoption by
16380-485: Was next seen in mid-16th-century China as pioneered by Qi Jiguang and in late-16th-century Japan. Qi Jiguang elaborates on his countermarch volley fire technique in the Jixiao Xinshu : All the musketeers, when they get near the enemy are not allowed to fire early, and they're not allowed to just fire everything off in one go, [because] whenever the enemy then approaches close, there won't be enough time to load
16510-736: Was subsequently transferred to the 10th Army and fought at the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes . In March 1918 , the Belarusian People's Republic , proclaimed in Minsk under the German occupation, declared Smolensk part of it. In February–December 1918, Smolensk was home to the headquarters of the Western Front, North-West Oblast Bolshevik Committee and Western Oblast Executive Committee. On 1 January 1919,
16640-600: Was the first Qing emperor Hong Taiji who wrote: "The Koreans are incapable on horseback but do not transgress the principles of the military arts. They excel at infantry fighting, especially in musketeer tactics." Afterwards, the Qing dynasty requested Joseon to aid in their border conflict with Russia. In 1654, 370 Russians engaged a 1,000-man Qing-Joseon force at the mouth of the Songhua River and were defeated by Joseon musketeers. In 1658, five hundred Russians engaged
16770-463: Was the tendency for powder fouling to accumulate in the rifling, making the piece more difficult to load with each shot. Eventually, the weapon could not be loaded until the bore was wiped clean. For this reason, smoothbore muskets remained the primary firearm of most armies until the mid-19th century. It was not until 1611 that rifles started seeing some limited usage in warfare by Denmark. Around 1750, rifles began to be used by skirmishers of Frederick
16900-594: Was under the experienced command of Mikhail Borisovich Shein , who had previously defended Smolensk against the Poles during the 1609–1611 siege . Several towns and castles fell as the Russians advanced, and on 28 October 1632 (the same day that the historic town of Dorogobuzh was taken), Shein moved to begin the siege of Smolensk . Former Polish estimates of the size of the Russian forces varied from 25,000 through 30,000 to 34,500, with 160 artillery pieces. Recent research on 17th-century Russian archive documents showed that
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