Misplaced Pages

#651348

59-637: The Blossom expedition was a collecting expedition that principally procured ornithological specimens from Africa, South America, and islands in the South Atlantic Ocean for the collections of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History in Cleveland, Ohio . The expedition was initiated by Leonard Sanford , with museum trustee Elizabeth Blossom serving as its eponymous benefactor. The expedition took place from 1923 to 1926, with

118-422: A few thousand birds per year worldwide and populations will quickly recover from an episode of collecting as long as their habitat remains. Supporters of continued collecting also point to the greater scientific utility and legacy of museum specimens compared to blood samples or photographs, and argue that collecting for research offers the only source of avian mortality with a positive outcome for birds in terms of

177-476: A month with threads holding the bird in a natural position. The use of arsenic to preserve specimens was first introduced by Jean-Baptiste Bécoeur (1718-1777) but this method was publicly revealed only in 1800 by Louis Dufresne in Daudin's Traité Élémentaire et Complet d’Ornithologie (1800). In modern collections, salvaged or collected birds may be preserved in a number of ways. The most traditional preparation

236-682: A more scientific pursuit much later. Early scientific bird collections included those belonging to Pallas and Naumann in Germany, Latham and Tunstall in England and Adanson in France. Collections grew in size with increasing maritime activity, exploration and colonialism. For example, Charles Darwin collected over 400 bird specimens during his travels on the Beagle , and it was many years after his return to England that his bird collections from

295-504: A nature reserve visitor center or small college, to large research collections of the world's major natural history museums , the largest of which contain hundreds of thousands of specimens. Bird collections function much like libraries , with specimens arranged in drawers and cabinets in taxonomic order, curated by scientists who oversee the maintenance, use, and growth of collections and make them available for study through visits or loans. The roots of modern bird collections are found in

354-419: A recording of the bird's song before collection may be archived. Neither molecular samples nor sound recordings require a bird to be collected (killed). Finally, if the bird is too rotten for the skin and feathers to be preserved, as is the case with some salvaged specimens, the skeleton alone may be preserved. Dried tissue is removed from skeletons by using dermestid beetle larvae (genus Dermestes ). Whereas in

413-543: A scientific crew led by ornithologist George Finlay Simmons. Their ship, the Blossom , was initially captained by Emery Gray, though he left later in the expedition. They ultimately brought thirteen thousand natural history specimens and thousands of photographs to the United States, despite challenges brought about by the physical limits of their ship, personnel changes, and severe weather. Leonard Cutler Sanford ,

472-401: A surgeon and patron of ornithology , proposed collecting bird specimens from across the world to be shared by museums and brought the idea before Cleveland Museum of Natural History director Paul M. Rea in 1922. In the spring of 1923, trustees of the museum announced a two-year expedition with the purpose of bringing back ornithological specimens , and other larger specimens, from islands in

531-448: A thorough plate for identification of a given species. Accurate colour measurements using spectrometry are possible from specimens. For seabirds, museum specimens are adequate proxies for feather colour but not for skin colour. Bird collections have been useful for retrospective studies. Bird collections offer the potential for current and future researchers to make in-depth morphological and molecular study of past avian diversity. One of

590-502: A time of rampant deforestation and species extinctions, scientists and conservationists should take the lead in providing an example to local people not to kill or hunt birds. Where other techniques not involving killing of a bird are feasible, to take a specimen is viewed by some as simply unethical. Proponents of collecting counter-argue that compared to the many millions of birds killed each year by habitat destruction, domestic cats, window strikes, and tower kills, scientists collect only

649-597: A wide variety of purposes. All biological species including those of birds are represented by a holotype , the vast majority of which are full specimens (mostly skins) and in modern times explicitly designated in the original description of the taxon . All other putative members of the species may be compared to the holotype to confirm their identification. Rigorous studies of avian taxonomy are based on specimens from bird collections. Taxonomic studies rely on morphological and genetic characters to determine species limits and evolutionary relationships. Museum specimens have been

SECTION 10

#1732773033652

708-416: Is a study skin, in which almost all of the body inside the skin is removed and replaced with cotton so that the final result resembles a bird lying on its back with its wings folded. Borax is used as the preferred preservative as it is low in toxicity. This stereotypic posture was developed to enable many skins to be kept together in cabinets to protect them from insect and light damage. If a complete skeleton

767-712: Is about 23–25 °C (73–77 °F), decreasing to some 17–20 °C (63–68 °F) in the mountains. There can be remarkably cool weather with warmer wet season starting in June and ending in November with colder dry season starting in December and ending in May. Administratively, the island of Brava is covered by one municipality, Concelho da Brava . This municipality consists of two freguesias (civil parishes): São João Baptista and Nossa Senhora do Monte . The municipal seat

826-479: Is desired, a flat skin may be prepared: all bones, muscle, digestive and other soft tissue is carefully removed and the feathers and skin are stretched flat and dried. A more recent preparation method pioneered by the Royal Ontario Museum removes all bones for a complete skeleton while also producing a round skin without bill or legs (called a ROM, though if one set of wing and leg bones remain with

885-505: Is the city Nova Sintra . Since 2012, the Movement for Democracy (MpD) is the ruling party of the municipality, and its president is Orlando da Luz Vieira Balla. The results of the latest elections, in 2016 : The island's main town is Nova Sintra . The island's two parishes São João Baptista and Nossa Senhora do Monte are subdivided into 16 population zones for statistical purposes: São João Baptista Nossa Senhora do Monte In

944-404: Is the highest point on the island, reaching 976 metres elevation. Being highly mountainous this island has a quite diverse climate. Brava island has moderate arid climate ( BWh according to Köppen–Geiger climate classification system) along the coast and semi-arid mild tropical climate BSh with very balanced temperatures year round in the interior. The average annual temperature on the coast

1003-489: Is unnecessary, arguably motivated by the personal field scores of individuals or by competition between museums, rather than the result of a strict scientific rationale; that collecting, in extreme cases of species on the verge of extinction, can pose a threat to bird populations; and that in many cases in which the necessity of specimens is claimed, new technology such as digital photography and blood sample analysis of mist-netted individuals could instead be used. Finally, at

1062-462: The Blossom was docked in Charleston, South Carolina, the museum sold her to da Lomba, who then used her for business ventures until she was shipwrecked off the coast of Africa in 1930. The expedition produced thirteen thousand specimens of animals, in addition to photographs, thousands of feet of film, and scientific data, despite not making it to South Georgia Island as originally planned. Of

1121-798: The Galapagos inspired (in part) his theory of evolution through natural selection . The Paris museum had 463 bird specimens in 1793 and this grew to 3411 in 1809; The Berlin museum had 2000 specimens in 1813 growing to 13,760 around 1850. In 1753 there were 1172 bird specimens in the museum established by Sir Hans Sloane but these appear to have perished before they moved to the British Museum. Early specimens from Captain Cook's voyages as well as those described by Latham in his General Synopsis of Birds (1781–1785) were also lost possibly due to poor preservation technique. The scale of collections grew to

1180-620: The South Atlantic Ocean . At the time, the American Museum of Natural History had initiated the Whitney South Sea Expedition , and the two museums planned to exchange material to enhance both collections. Elizabeth Bingham Blossom, a trustee of the Cleveland museum, was to finance the museum's expedition. Rea and the museum trustees selected George Finlay Simmons, an ornithologist and future president of

1239-493: The 1830s, the population was estimated at 8,000. The economy of the island is mainly based on (irrigated) agriculture and fishing. Main agricultural goods include coffee, potatoes including sweet potatoes, corn (maize), banana and sugar cane. There are several football clubs on Boa Vista, organised in the Brava Regional Football Association . The Esperadinha Airport , inaugurated in 1992,

SECTION 20

#1732773033652

1298-526: The 18th- and 19th-century explorations of Europeans intent on documenting global plant and animal diversity. It was a fashion to collect and display natural curiosities in Victorian England. Some wealthy cabinet naturalists were able to amass large collections using networks of field collectors. These early collections were not intended for scientific study and the collectors gave importance to aesthetics rather than scientific value. It grew into

1357-487: The Massachusetts whaling port of New Bedford . The island of Brava is 10.5 km long (north to south) and its width is 9.3 km. Its area is 62.51 km (24.14 sq mi). Practically the whole island is a stratovolcano . It lies in the lee of the enormous Fogo volcano. Volcanic activity on the island has been mainly located along three lines, which all intersect at the crest of ground that forms

1416-543: The University of Montana , as the leader of the expedition. The scientific crew consisted of taxidermist Robert H. Rockwell, biologist Kenneth Cuyler, and field naturalist Allan Moses. The museum ran a newspaper advertisement seeking a ship captain that was "Inclined to Piracy", which ultimately led to the selection of Emery Gray. Manuel Tomas Chantre, a former member of the United States Navy , served as

1475-484: The biological knowledge gained. Although taking small blood samples from wild birds is often viewed as a harmless alternative to collecting, it reduces survival by as much as 33% and does not provide the benefits of a voucher specimen. Scientists have pointed out that bird populations represent renewable resources, and that scientific collecting represents only a tiny and non-additive proportion of annual bird mortality. However, examples exist of species whose extinction

1534-553: The earliest and most famous examples of this was the use of egg collections from the 19th and early 20th centuries in determining that the pesticide DDT was producing eggshell-thinning in raptors. The ornithologists who collected the eggs could never have known that their work would one day help establish causes for declines and help in making conservation strategies to save bird such as peregrine falcons from possible extinction. As threats to bird populations grow and extinctions continue, historical specimens are valuable in documenting

1593-574: The early 16th century as shown in the writings of Conrad Gesner and Pierre Belon . Belon provided instructions on the removal of viscera and the use of salt to preserve bird specimens in his 1555 book on birds. These were further improved in the 17th century and a range of preservatives included ash (potassium carbonate), salt, sulphur, alum, alcohol and various plant extracts were used. In the early days of bird collections, most specimens were mounted in unrealistic positions often with their wings raised as if they were about to take flight. These were kept in

1652-524: The expedition collected specimens of vireos , among other species. On their way back to the United States, they spent five days studying in the southwestern corner of the Sargasso Sea . The Blossom sailed north and landed in South Carolina on June 4, 1926, returning to the United States after traveling for more than two years and seven months and over 22,000 miles (35,000 kilometres). After

1711-432: The expedition made biological surveys . Rockwell and Moses collected specimens of seabirds and spent a month in a cave they secured after driving away land crabs . The two men joined with the rest of the expedition to travel to Rio de Janeiro , where they experienced difficulty in finding replacements for their crew, and then to Ascension Island , Saint Helena , Fernando de Noronha , and Rocas . At Fernando de Noronha,

1770-447: The expedition was reported lost back home. By the time the expedition reached São Vicente, Cape Verde , the Blossom had been heavily damaged. They spent a month there while the ship was repaired and continued collecting specimens. Meanwhile, Rockwell and da Lomba separately went to Brava , Cape Verde, where they planned to collect specimens for ten days. The men were left stranded at Brava for three months, as Simmons decided to explore

1829-484: The expedition, Simmons worked at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History as a curator of ornithology, where he arranged the museum's collections for research. Cuyler also took a position as part of the museum's scientific staff. Bird collections Bird collections are curated repositories of scientific specimens consisting of birds and their parts. They are a research resource for ornithology ,

Blossom expedition - Misplaced Pages Continue

1888-569: The expedition, and separately returned to Cleveland with specimens and fieldwork collected by the expedition after six weeks. Gray and Chantre both left the expedition in Dakar and were replaced with members of the Italian Regia Marina , while Robertson and the group of college-aged men were replaced by a group of sailors from Cape Verde. The expedition originally planned to first travel to Trindade and Martim Vaz and then move on to

1947-476: The expedition. After spending almost five months in continental Africa, they had collected a total of nearly eighteen hundred bird skins, six hundred birds preserved in formaldehyde , 166 pressed plants, twenty-six large mammals, and more than 350 specimens of small mammals, reptiles, and fishes. They also completed fieldwork at every location, which produced measurements, color studies , photographs, and film stock . Museum director Rea came to Dakar to meet with

2006-541: The fungus Roccella tinctoria was discovered, which was traded as a textile dye. From the end of the 18th century, whaling ships from North America started hunting whales around the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. They used the harbours of Brava ( Fajã de Água and Furna ) to stock up on supplies and drinking water. They hired men from Brava as sailors, and several of these men from Brava settled around

2065-406: The future. The issue of whether birds should continue to be actively collected for research has been the subject of some debate among ornithologists (examples of this can be found in the lively exchanges between Remsen and Bekoff & Elzanowski, between Vuilleumier and Donegan, and between Dubois & Nemesio and Donegan ). Those opposed to collecting believe that much of current collecting

2124-473: The highest part of the island. Brava has no documented historical eruptions, but its youthful volcanic morphology and the fact that earthquake swarms still occur indicate the potential for future eruptions; its last eruption was during the Holocene era. 13% of the island area is forested. North of Brava are several uninhabited islets; the largest ones are Ilhéu de Cima and Ilhéu Grande . Monte Fontainhas

2183-508: The impacts of human activities and causes of decline for threatened species. Bird collections have also been used to gauge the flow of environmental pollutants over time. A study of soot deposits on specimens collected within the United States Manufacturing Belt was used to track concentrations of atmospheric black carbon over a 135-year span. Other possible uses for bird specimens not known today may arise in

2242-466: The island of South Georgia . Ultimately, they could not travel to South Georgia Island because of personnel changes, delays caused by severe weather, and the physical limits of the ship. The Blossom was ill-prepared for such a journey; her anchor hoist broke upon their departure from Africa and had to be hauled on board manually. The Blossom reached Trindade and Martin Vaz more than forty days later, where

2301-433: The need to collect specimens for research, yet collections continue to act as a vital shared resource for science (particularly taxonomy) and conservation. In an era of mass extinction, bird collections will evidence lost species. Early specimens represent birds that were pets or came from menageries. The oldest surviving bird specimens include an African grey parrot once owned by Frances Teresa Stuart (1647–1702) that

2360-553: The open and the colours were prone to fading and the specimens themselves prone to damage by beetles. In Berlin, J. L. Frisch started using tightly enclosed glass jars for every mount to prevent pest damage. During this time, Comte de Reaumur at the Paris Museum had managed to find techniques to preserve specimens dry and without loss of colour. This technique was however a secret and similar results were later achieved by pickling using salt, ground pepper and alum and drying for

2419-520: The past arsenic was routinely added to skins to protect them from destruction by insects, specimens prepared today are generally protected by an initial freezing period to kill insects and their eggs followed by keeping them in high-quality museum cases in a climate-controlled room. Each specimen has data associated with it, and the amount of data available is usually directly correlated with the specimen's scientific value. Most specimens are of little value for research without accompanying information, such as

Blossom expedition - Misplaced Pages Continue

2478-427: The point where they needed more space and full-time curators. In the earliest days of ornithology, collecting was the dominant method of bird observation and study. This approach has diminished with the growth of the discipline. The use of mist-netting and photography, blood sampling (for DNA, immunological and other studies), the development of optics and the use of other new techniques for studying birds have reduced

2537-472: The population of Brava started with the arrival of settlers from Madeira and the Azores . Settlement of Brava took a rise in 1680 when it received many refugees from the nearby larger island of Fogo after its volcano erupted and covered the island with ash. Frequent pirate attacks forced the population towards the interior of the island, where the town Nova Sintra was founded around 1700. Around 1720,

2596-421: The preferred source for scoring these characteristics , as they allow studies to be replicated – anyone may go back and repeat the study using the same specimens to verify the conclusions. However, it has alternatively been argued that such re-examination can be undertaken from archived photographs without killing the study piece. In the case of molecular studies, the preservation of a specimen that can vouch for

2655-480: The production of plates for ornithological field guides . The close-up observation and opportunity for manipulation provided by preserved study skins makes them, together with field observations and photography, to be an important basis for painters of field guide plates of birds. Most bird species have several unique plumages that distinguish immature from adults, males from females, and breeders from non-breeders. Thus, many different specimens may be required to produce

2714-601: The rest of the Cape Verde archipelago before recovering them. The angered Rockwell only conceded when Simmons told him that the expedition was to travel to continental Africa to collect big-game specimens. Although the main goal of the expedition to northwestern Africa was to collect birds to use in a comparative study of specimens from Cape Verde, Cuyler and Rockwell were sent on a side expedition in Bundu . They spent several weeks collecting larger mammals before returning to

2773-491: The science of birds, and for other scientific disciplines in which information about birds is useful. These collections are archives of avian diversity and serve the diverse needs of scientific researchers, artists, and educators. Collections may include a variety of preparation types emphasizing preservation of feathers , skeletons , soft tissues , or (increasingly) some combination thereof. Modern collections range in size from small teaching collections, such as one might find at

2832-535: The ship's navigator . John da Lomba, a Cape Verde native, assisted with sailing. They also brought along Carl T. Robertson, an associate editor from The Plain Dealer who was to chronicle the expedition, as well as a group of college-aged men. The expedition's ship, a schooner , was built in 1920. When she was purchased by the museum, her name was changed from the Lucy R to the Blossom , after Elizabeth Blossom. She

2891-508: The ship, and left on November 10. Eight days later, they were met with severe storms that lasted for two weeks. Flooding caused several issues on the ship, such as damage to equipment, spoilage of food supplies, and contamination of barrels holding fresh drinking water due to their improper sealing. The Blossom reached Cape Verde , in West Africa , on December 10, where they began collecting specimens. 200 miles (320 kilometres) off course,

2950-509: The skin the preparation is called a shmoo in North America). Alternatively, the entire bird (or any soft parts associated with preparations described above) may be preserved in alcohol. For any of these methods, several supplemental preparations may be made. For example, a wing may be removed and preserved separately as a spread wing for better study of flight feathers; a tissue sample may be removed and frozen for molecular analyses; or

3009-447: The source of the tissue sample used to gather genetic data has been recommended, as genetic analysis often yields surprising results that make reexamination of the original specimen crucial. Studies on ectoparasites , usually obtained during capture, but also obtained from old museum specimens, are valuable for studies on coevolution and zoonoses . In addition to taxonomic research, collections can provide information relevant to

SECTION 50

#1732773033652

3068-482: The specimens collected, over five thousand were birds, while most of the remainder were saltwater fishes and invertebrates . According to the Encyclopedia of Cleveland History , the cost of the expedition was $ 75,000. The Morning Journal provides a figure of $ 125,000 for the amount of funding provided by Elizabeth Blossom, which accounts for the purchase of the Blossom and the salaries of its crew. After

3127-600: The study of variety of other ornithological questions, including comparative anatomy , ecology , behavior , disease , and conservation . Forensic ornithologists use collections to identify species involved in aircraft bird strikes , imported materials containing bird parts, and birds killed through various human activities, legal and illegal. In addition, collections are used by zooarchaeologists to identify bird bones at prehistoric human sites or species of origin for feathers used in human cultural artifacts . Collections also have been heavily used by artists, particularly for

3186-409: The time and place the bird was found or collected. This and other important information, such as mass, sex, fat deposition, and degree of skull ossification , is written on a label along with a unique field and museum number. Modern computerized museum databases include all of this information for each specimen, as well as the types of methods used to prepare the bird. Modern collections seek to maximize

3245-499: The utility of each preserved individual, and this includes recording detailed information about it. Most modern specimens also include a tissue sample preserved for genetic study. Online access to collections' data is becoming increasingly available, and a cross-institutional database covering millions of computerized bird records is in development. Freeze drying of whole specimens, especially of small birds, has been adopted for use in teaching collections. Bird collections are used for

3304-479: The world's bird collections have been argued to be inadequate in documenting avian diversity, from taxonomic, geographic, and temporal perspectives, with some parts of tropical regions considered under-represented in particular museums. Underrepresented taxa continue to be actively collected by ornithologists, generally using either firearms or mist-nets. Permitting agencies oversee these activities in most countries. Techniques to preserve birds were attempted even from

3363-706: Was buried with its owner in London’s Westminster Abbey. Several mummified ibis and falcons have been recorded from Egyptian tombs dating from 600 to 300 BC. Bird specimens obtained from the 18th century for natural history collections were most often obtained using firearms. Shotguns with "dust" shot were preferred to reduce damage to the specimens. Today, specimens come from a variety of sources. Many (perhaps most) are salvaged from birds killed by window and communications tower strikes, domestic cats , by-catch from fisheries, die-offs from disease, vehicle strikes, and other accidental sources of mortality. However,

3422-579: Was completely revamped with equipment necessary for a long expedition, including new sails and a motor for raising the anchor , and contained a cabin for living space , a darkroom , a room for drying specimens, and a radio room. Held in storage were "approximately one-and-one-half tons of food for each man" as well as coffee, tea, cocoa, and barrels containing 4,500 US gallons (17,000 litres) of water. The Blossom began its journey from New London, Connecticut , on October 29, 1923. The expedition then stopped at Gardiner's Bay , Long Island , to perform work on

3481-523: Was directly contributed to by museum collecting (e.g. Guadalupe caracara , ivory-billed woodpecker ). The last bird of the extinct Black Mamo from Molokai was shot for collecting. Brava, Cape Verde Brava was discovered in 1462 by the Portuguese explorer Diogo Afonso . There is no evidence of human presence on the Cape Verde islands before the arrival of the Portuguese. Around 1620

#651348