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57-680: The name "Skykomish" comes from the Lushootseed name of the Skykomish people, sq̓ixʷəbš , meaning "upriver people." It is sometimes referred to by the nickname "Sky River" or "The Sky". The Skykomish River's main stem is 29 miles (47 km) long, from the confluence of its North and South fork, until it and the Snoqualmie forms the Snohomish River. Adding the longest headwater tributaries, South Fork Skykomish and Tye River,

114-543: A morphophonemic writing system meaning that it is a phonemic alphabet which does not change to reflect the pronunciation such as when an affix is introduced. The chart below is based on the Lushootseed Dictionary. Typographic variations such as ⟨p'⟩ and ⟨pʼ⟩ do not indicate phonemic distinctions. Capital letters are not used in Lushootseed. Some older works based on

171-589: A ceremonial language, spoken for heritage or symbolic purposes, and there are about 472 second-language speakers. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger and classified as Reawakening by Ethnologue. Despite this, many Lushootseed-speaking tribes are attempting to revitalize their language in daily use, with several language programs and classes offered across

228-467: A family experience. Wa He Lut Indian School teaches Lushootseed to Native elementary school children in their Native Language and Culture program. As of 2013 , an annual Lushootseed conference is held at Seattle University . A course in Lushootseed language and literature has been offered at Evergreen State College . Lushootseed has also been used as a part of environmental history courses at Pacific Lutheran University . It has been spoken during

285-500: A proclitic lə- must be added to the sentence on the next adverb. If there are no further adverbs in the sentence, the proclitic attaches to the head word of the predicate, as in the sentence xʷiʔ čəxʷ sixʷ ləbakʷɬ 'Don't get hurt again'. Almost all instances of a verb in Lushootseed (excluding the zero copula) carry a prefix indicating their tense and/or aspect . Below is a (non-exhaustive) list of these prefixes, along with their meanings and applications. The prefix ʔəs -

342-428: A result of climate change . As a whole, the area of the Skykomish watershed that was covered by glacial ice decreased from 3.8 km (1.5 sq mi) in 1958 to 1.7 km (0.66 sq mi) in 2022 - a 55% loss. Consequently, days with streamflow below the threshold necessary to maintain short-term survival of fish in the river has increased. Annual precipitation values had not been observed as declining. In

399-473: A short burst of energy', and is correctly used with ʔu -. In contrast, the verb təlawil , which means 'to jump or run for an extended period of time', is used with lə -: lə təlawil čəxʷ. 'You are jumping.' There are five possessive affixes, derived from the pronouns: The third person singular -s is considered marginal and does not work with an actual lexical possessor. Lushootseed, like its neighbors Twana , Nooksack , Klallam , and

456-493: A source published in 1990 (and therefore presumably reflecting the situation in the late 1980s), according to which there were 60 fluent speakers of Lushootseed, evenly divided between the northern and southern dialects. On the other hand, the Ethnologue list of United States languages also lists, alongside Lushootseed's 60 speakers, 100 speakers for Skagit, 107 for Southern Puget Sound Salish, and 10 for Snohomish (a dialect on

513-510: A verb, with no subject or object. All information beyond the action is to be understood by context. This can be demonstrated in ʔuʔəy’dub '[someone] managed to find [someone/something]'. Sentences which contain no verb at all are also common, as Lushootseed has no copula . An example of such a sentence is stab əw̓ə tiʔiɫ 'What [is] that?'. Despite its general status as VSO, Lushootseed can be rearranged to be subject-verb-object (SVO) and verb-object-subject (VOS). Doing so does not modify

570-457: Is a home for chinook, coho and pink salmon, steelhead and bull trout. North Fork South Fork Lushootseed language Lushootseed ( / l ʌ ˈ ʃ uː t s iː d / luh- SHOOT -tseed ), historically known as Puget Salish, Puget Sound Salish , or Skagit-Nisqually , is a Central Coast Salish language of the Salishan language family. Lushootseed is the general name for

627-633: Is of no relation.) Stevens left the Great Northern in 1903 for the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad , where he was promoted to vice-president. Then, in 1905, at Hill's recommendation, he was hired by United States President Theodore Roosevelt as chief engineer of the Panama Canal . Stevens' primary achievement in Panama was to build the infrastructure needed for the completion of

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684-420: Is one of the most common. It indicates an imperfective aspect-present tense (similar to English '-ing') for verbs that do not involve motion. More specifically, a verb may use ʔəs - if it does not result in a change of position for its subject. It is commonly known as a "state of being": ʔəs ƛ̕ubil čəd. 'I am feeling fine.' or 'I am in good health.' If a verb does involve motion, the ʔəs - prefix

741-510: Is placed on the penultimate syllable. Some words do not fit the pattern, but generally, pronunciation is consistent in those ways. Northern Lushootseed also was affected by progressive dissimilation targeting palatal fricatives and affricates, whereas Southern Lushootseed was not, leading to some words like čəgʷəš ("wife") being pronounced čəgʷas in Northern dialects. Different dialects often use completely different words. For example,

798-556: Is pronounced xʷəlšucid . The southern pronunciation txʷəlšucid is derived from the original by de-voicing d into t and switching the position of l and ə . The English name "Lushootseed" is derived from dxʷləšucid . The prefix dxʷ- along with the suffix -ucid means "language." The root word , ləš , is an archaic word for the Puget Sound region. Some scholars, such as Wayne Suttles , believe it may be an old word for "people," possibly related to

855-423: Is replaced with lə -: lə ƛ̕a čəd ʔálʔal. 'I'm going home.' Completed or telic actions use the prefix ʔu -. Most verbs without ʔəs - or lə - will use ʔu -. Some verbs also exhibit a contrast in meaning between lə - and ʔu -, and only one of them is correct: ʔu saxʷəb čəxʷ. 'You jump(ed).' The verb saxʷəb literally means 'to jump, leap, or run, especially in

912-716: Is scheduled to be offered in August 2019, with the instructors Danica Sterud Miller, Assistant Professor of American Indian Studies at the University of Washington Tacoma , and Zalmai Zahir, a PhD student of theoretical linguistics at the University of Oregon . Lushootseed consists of two main dialect groups, Northern Lushootseed ( dxʷləšucid ) and Southern Lushootseed ( txʷəlšucid ~ xʷəlšucid ). Both of these dialects can then be broken down into subdialects: The Lower and Upper Skagit dialects have variously been categorized as being different from one another, or one in

969-663: Is the Rapid River , a tributary of the Beckler River , which in turn is a tributary of the South Fork Skykomish. Glacial loss in the higher portion of the watershed in the Cascades has led to declining streamflow, especially during the late summer. In 2022, researchers determined that Hinman Glacier , which as recently as 1971 was the largest glacier in the river's watershed, had completely retreated as

1026-651: The Beckler River joins it. To the west of the city of Skykomish, the Miller River joins it. Shortly before converging with the North Fork the river drops over Eagle Falls , followed by Canyon Falls and then, finally, Sunset Falls before its confluence with the North Fork. According to the U.S. Geological Survey , the South Fork is about twice the size of the North Fork in terms of both discharge and watershed area above their confluence at Index, making it

1083-490: The Minneapolis city engineer's office. For two years he carried out a variety of engineering tasks, including surveying and building railroads, and at the same time gained experience and an understanding of the subject. He became a practical engineer, self-taught and driven by a self-described "bull-dog tenacity of purpose." In 1878 Stevens married Harriet T. O'Brien. They had five children, two of whom died in infancy. By

1140-780: The North Straits Salish languages , are in the Central Coast Salish subgroup of the Salishan family of languages. The language is spoken by many peoples in the Puget Sound region, including the Duwamish , Suquamish , Squaxin , Muckleshoot , Snoqualmie , Nisqually , and Puyallup in the south and the Snohomish , Stillaguamish , Upper Skagit , and Swinomish in the north. Ethnologue quotes

1197-617: The Pacific Crest Trail . It flows as a small stream off the north slope of Skykomish Peak . The Wild Sky Wilderness protects tributaries and forests adjacent to the North Fork Skykomish, although not the river itself. The river flows generally in a southwestern direction from its source to its mouth. Just before picking up Goblin Creek, the river flows through a short but impressive canyon and within that canyon

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1254-541: The Puyallup Tribe . By their definition, a "speaker" includes anyone who speaks in Lushootseed for at least an hour each day. As of 2013 , the Tulalip Tribes ' Lushootseed Language Department teaches classes in Lushootseed, and its website has Lushootseed phrases with audio. The Tulalip Montessori School also teaches Lushootseed to young children. Tulalip Lushootseed language teachers also teach at

1311-715: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: John Frank Stevens John Frank Stevens (April 25, 1853 – June 2, 1943) was an American civil engineer who built the Great Northern Railway in the United States and was chief engineer on the Panama Canal between 1905 and 1907. He also led the commission of American railway experts to Russia and was later President of

1368-401: The dialect continuum composed of two main dialects, Northern Lushootseed and Southern Lushootseed , which are further separated into smaller sub-dialects. Lushootseed was historically spoken across southern and western Puget Sound roughly between modern-day Bellingham and Olympia by a large number of Indigenous peoples , numbering 12,000 at its peak. Today, however, it is primarily

1425-637: The provisional government appealed to President Wilson for help with their transportation systems and overall ability to stay in the war. Stevens was selected to chair a board of prominent U.S. railroad experts sent to Russia to rationalize and manage a system that was in disarray; among his work was updating the Trans-Siberian Railway . Their official mission was to "aid in rehabilitation and conduct of its railways which had become demoralized and broken down and unable to function in any degree of efficiency". The board traveled across Russia on

1482-522: The 1890s the Great Northern Railway was built along the Skykomish, South Fork Skykomish, and Tye Rivers, crossing the crest of the Cascades at Stevens Pass . Today the track is owned by BNSF Railway , known as the Burlington Northern Railroad from 1970 to 1995. Stevens Pass is named after the Great Northern surveyor John Frank Stevens . Two railroad tunnels, both called Cascade Tunnel , were built at Stevens Pass. The first one

1539-727: The Canal project in 1907 to Roosevelt 's great annoyance, as the focus of the work turned to construction of the canal itself. Even though he had worked closely with the Panama Canal Commission chairman Theodore P. Shonts and was also able to directly approach the Roosevelt Administration with requests for the project, he only spent two years in Panama. As a railroad engineer, Stevens had little expertise in building locks and dams, and may have realized he

1596-496: The Cascades followed the Skykomish and North Fork Skykomish to Cady Pass . The Skykomish River is used for rafting and kayaking, especially around the Index, WA area during the summer months. The Skykomish River is mostly ranked between Class III and Class III+ rapids, depending on the circumstances and season, but includes Boulder Drop, a class IV+ rapids. Skykomish and its tributaries also popular place for recreational fishing. River

1653-534: The Dictionary of Puget Salish distinguishes between schwas that are part of the root word and those inserted through agglutination which are written in superscript. The Tulalip Tribes of Washington's Lushootseed Language Department created a display with nearly all the letters in the Lushootseed alphabet , sans the letter b̓, which is a rare sound which no words begin with. See the external links below for resources. The Lushootseed language originates from

1710-543: The Interallied Technical Board Stevens was born in rural Maine , near West Gardiner to John Stevens, a tanner and farmer, and Harriet Leslie French. He attended Maine State Normal School (now the University of Maine at Farmington ) for two years. At the conclusion of his schooling in 1873, bleak economic conditions held little promise of a job, and he chose to go west. Entry into the field of civil engineering evolved from his experience in

1767-692: The Trans-Siberian railway and noticed significant amount of inefficency and made a comprehensive list of suggestions. Russian officials were initially reluctant to implement them, but with Premier Kerensky interventions in September, progress started to happen, but it ended abruptly with the overthrow of the provisional government in the October Revolution . Stevens was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal by

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1824-671: The Tulalip Early Learning Academy, Quil Ceda-Tulalip Elementary in the Marysville School District, Totem Middle School, and Marysville-Getchell, Marysville-Pilchuck and Heritage High Schools. Since 1996, the Tulalip Lushootseed Department has hosted the annual dxʷləšucid sʔəsqaləkʷ ʔə ti wiw̓suʔ , a summer language camp for children. Teachers also offer family classes in the evening every year, making Lushootseed

1881-804: The War Department for his service in Russia. Stevens remained in Allied-occupied Manchuria and in 1919 headed the Inter-Allied Technical Board charged with the administration and operation of the Chinese Eastern and Siberian railways. His position on the board is also to avoid a Japanese takeover of the Chinese Eastern railway. He remained in an advisory capacity even after most occupying Allied troops were withdrawn. He finally left in 1923, after

1938-540: The age of 33, in 1886, Stevens was a principal assistant engineer for the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway , and in charge of building the line from Duluth, Minnesota to Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan , across the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . Although a large part of his work involved surveying, he assisted in all phases of railroading: reconnaissance, locating, organizing, and construction. In 1889, Stevens

1995-596: The annual Tribal Canoe Journeys that takes place throughout the Salish Sea . There are also efforts within the Puyallup Tribe. Their website and social media, aimed at anyone interested in learning the language, are updated often. To facilitate the use of Lushootseed in electronic files, in 2008 the Tulalip Tribes contracted type designer Juliet Shen to create Unicode -compliant typefaces that met

2052-433: The boundary between the northern and southern varieties). Some sources given for these figures, however, go back to the 1970s when the language was less critically endangered. Linguist Marianne Mithun has collected more recent data on the number of speakers of various Native American languages, and could document that by the end of the 1990s there were only a handful of elders left who spoke Lushootseed fluently. The language

2109-475: The canal. "The digging," he said, "is the least thing of all." He proceeded immediately to build warehouses, machine shops, and piers. Communities for the personnel were planned and built to include housing, schools, hospitals, churches, and hotels. He authorized extensive sanitation and mosquito-control programs that eliminated yellow fever and other diseases from the Isthmus. Reflecting his background, he saw

2166-627: The coastal region of Northwest Washington State and the Southwest coast of Canada. There are words in the Lushootseed language which are related to the environment and the fishing economy that surrounded the Salish tribes. The following tables show different words from different Lushootseed dialects relating to the salmon fishing and coastal economies. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lushootseed: Article 1 of

2223-505: The construction of the Oregon Trunk Line . Hill promoted him to chief engineer in 1895, and later to general manager. He was an efficient administrator with remarkable technical skills and imagination. During his time at the Great Northern, Stevens built over a thousand miles of railroad, including the original Cascade Tunnel . (Most other Pacific Northwest landmarks with the word "Stevens" are named after Isaac Stevens , who

2280-613: The early stage of the canal project itself as primarily a problem in railroad engineering, which included rebuilding the Panama Railway and devising a rail-based system for disposing of the soil from the excavations. Stevens argued the case against a sea level canal of the kind that the French had tried to build. He convinced Theodore Roosevelt of the necessity of a high-level canal built with dams and locks. Stevens, like his predecessor John Findley Wallace , resigned suddenly from

2337-420: The first position, the subject pronoun takes the second, and 'Lummi' is pushed to the end of the sentence. Negation in Lushootseed takes the form of an adverb xʷiʔ 'no, none, nothing' which always comes at the beginning of the sentence that is to be negated. It is constructed in two possible ways, one for negatives of existence, and one for negatives of identity. If taking the form of a negative of identity,

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2394-472: The following phrases: Lushootseed has four subject pronouns: čəd 'I' (first-person singular), čəɬ 'we' (first-person plural), čəxʷ 'you' (second-person singular), and čələp 'you' (second-person plural). It does not generally refer to the third person in any way. The subject pronoun always comes in the second position in the sentence: dxʷləbiʔ čəxʷ ʔu 'Are you Lummi?' xʷiʔ čəd lədxʷləbiʔ 'I am not Lummi.' Here, negation takes

2451-728: The length is 62.4 miles (100 km). The Skykomish's drainage basin is 834 square miles (2,160 km) in area. U.S. Highway 2 and the BNSF Railway are routed to follow the Skykomish River, South Fork Skykomish, and Tye River to Stevens Pass and the Cascade Tunnel . The headwaters of the North Fork Skykomish River are located in the Henry M. Jackson Wilderness near Dishpan Gap along

2508-467: The nasals [m] , [m̰] , [n] , and [n̰] may appear in some speech styles and words as variants of /b/ and /d/ . Lushootseed can be considered a relatively agglutinating language, given its high number of morphemes, including a large number of lexical suffixes. Word order is fairly flexible, although it is generally considered to be verb-subject-object (VSO). Lushootseed is capable of creating grammatically correct sentences that contain only

2565-483: The needs of the language. Drawing upon traditional Lushootseed carvings and artwork, she developed two typefaces: Lushootseed School and Lushootseed Sulad. In the summer of 2016, the first ever adult immersion program in Lushootseed was offered at the University of Washington's Tacoma campus . It was sponsored by The Puyallup Tribal Language Program in partnership with University of Washington Tacoma and its School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences. A similar program

2622-484: The region. Lushootseed has been historically known as Niskwalli/Nisqually, Puget Sound Salish, Puget Salish, Pugué, Squaxon, Skagit, and Skagit-Nisqually. The name of the language in Lushootseed is pronounced (and spelled) variably across different dialects. In the northern dialects, the language is called dxʷləšucid . In most southern dialects, it is txʷəlšucid , whereas in the Muckleshoot dialect it

2679-517: The river drops over Deer Falls . A short ways down from that, the river flows through an even shorter but very twisted and unusually shaped canyon at Bear Creek Falls . The South Fork Skykomish River begins at the confluence of the Tye River and the Foss River , to the east of Skykomish . From the confluence the South Fork flows northwest. Near the eastern boundary of the city of Skykomish,

2736-581: The same, but are both recognized as being distinct from the Sauk dialect. There is no consensus on whether the Skykomish dialect should be grouped into Northern or Southern Lushootseed. Dialects differ in several ways. Pronunciation between dialects is different. In Northern dialects, the stress of the word generally falls on the first non-schwa of the root, whereas in the Southern dialects, stress usually

2793-404: The true hydrologic source of the Skykomish River. The South Fork average flow of 2,431 cu ft/s (68.8 m/s) is sourced from a drainage area of 355 square miles (920 km), compared to the North Fork which has an average flow of 1,216 cu ft/s (34.4 m/s) from a drainage area of 146 square miles (380 km). In turn the source of the South Fork – in terms of streamflow –

2850-720: The water flows out of both tunnels into the Tye River. An interpretive center for the Iron Goat Trail , located at Scenic on the upper Tye River, describes the history of the area including the old railroad and new trail. The interpretive center was built near the site of one of the greatest railroad tragedies in American history, the Wellington Disaster . One of the Native American trails crossing

2907-492: The word " Salish ." Lushootseed has a complex consonantal phonology and 4 vowel phonemes. Along with more common voicing and labialization contrasts, Lushootseed has a plain-glottalic contrast, which is realized as laryngealized with sonorants , and ejective with voiceless stops or fricatives. It is one of only three known languages to possess all three types of glottalized consonant (ejectives, implosives, and resonants). Lushootseed has no phonemic nasals . However,

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2964-816: The word for "raccoon" is x̌aʔx̌əlus in Northern Lushootseed, whereas bəlups is used in Southern Lushootseed. Morphology also differs between Northern and Southern Lushootseed. Northern Lushootseed and Southern Lushootseed have related, but different determiner systems. There are also several differences in utilizing the prefix for marking "place where" or "reason for," in subordinate clauses, with Northern Lushootseed using dəxʷ- and Southern Lushootseed using sxʷ- . See Determiners for more information on this dialectical variation. According to work published by Vi Hilbert and other Lushootseed-language specialists, Lushootseed uses

3021-460: The words themselves, but requires the particle ʔə to mark the change. The exact nature of this particle is the subject of some debate. Prepositions in Lushootseed are almost entirely handled by one word, ʔal, which can mean 'on, above, in, beside, around' among a number of potential other meanings. They come before the object they reference, much like in English. Examples of this can be found in

3078-535: Was built slightly north of the pass. It was replaced in 1929 with the New Cascade Tunnel, which at 7.8 miles (12.6 km) long was for nearly 60 years the longest railroad tunnel in North America and is still the longest in the United States. The New Cascade Tunnel is a few miles south of Stevens Pass. Its western entrance is near the confluence of Tunnel Creek and the Tye River. A small amount of

3135-493: Was extensively documented and studied by linguists with the aid of tribal elder Vi Hilbert , d. 2008, who was the last speaker with a full native command of Lushootseed. There are efforts at reviving the language, and instructional materials have been published. In 2014, there were only five second-language speakers of Lushootseed. As of 2022, although there were not yet native speakers, there were approximately 472 second-language Lushootseed speakers, according to data collected by

3192-529: Was hired by James J. Hill as a locating engineer for the Great Northern Railway . Stevens earned acclaim in 1889 when he explored Marias Pass , Montana, and determined its practicability for a railroad. He also discovered a pass through the Cascade Range, Stevens Pass , which bears his name. Stevens set railroad construction standards in the Mesabi Range of northern Minnesota, and supervised

3249-426: Was no longer the best person for the remainder of the job. Stevens would also have been aware that the original Cascade Tunnel , for which he was responsible, had been built too close to the ruling grade (maximum gradient for a single locomotive) and was perhaps turning from a credit to a debit. The true reasons for his resignation have never been known. Following the collapse of Imperial Russia in 1917, leaders of

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