Alania was a medieval kingdom of the Iranian Alans ( Proto-Ossetians ) that flourished between the 9th–13th centuries in the Northern Caucasus , roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia , Chechnya , Ingushetia , and modern North Ossetia–Alania . With its capital at Maghas , the location of which is still disputed, it became independent from the Khazars in the late 9th century. It was Christianized by a Byzantine missionary soon after, in the early 10th century.
145-632: South Ossetia ( / ɒ ˈ s ɛ t i ə / o- SET -ee-ə , less common: / ɒ ˈ s iː ʃ ə / o- SEE -shə ), officially the Republic of South Ossetia or the State of Alania , is a partially recognised landlocked country in the South Caucasus . It has an officially stated population of just over 56,500 people (2022), who live in an area of 3,900 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi), with 33,000 living in
290-705: A Byzantine -led coalition during the reign of the Khazar king Benjamin . According to the anonymous author of the Schechter Letter , many Alans were during this period adherents of Judaism . In the late 9th century, Alania became independent from the Khazars. In the early 10th century, the Alans fell under the influence of the Byzantine Empire due to King Constantine III of Abkhazia 's activities in
435-419: A $ 500 million credit on condition that Belarus recognises the two regions as independent. In June 2009, President Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus said Moscow had made recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia a condition for Belarus to receive the last $ 500 million of a $ 2 billion loan, but added that Belarus’ position was not for sale. Russian officials have denied any such link. The dispute over
580-419: A bridge of friendship, but very serious relations." However, Belarus still did not recognize Abkhazia's independence. Georgia sent a protest note to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bosnian Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement, saying that Bosnia and Herzegovina has "good and friendly relations with Georgia based on mutual respect of territorial integrity and sovereignty". The ministry also noted that it
725-609: A confederation led by a certain Ajis. The climax of the invasion was the siege of Maghas, which began in November or December 1239 and lasted until February 1240. Aided by Alan auxiliaries, the fortress eventually fell and the population got massacred. Ajis himself was captured. Many Alans fled westwards until reaching Hungary probably still in 1239, where they became known as the Jassic people ( jászsok ) who preserved their language until
870-834: A confusion over what the government had intended to do which was just simply a letter stating that there might be an intention to establish relations with Abkhazia. But at this point in time, there's no action on that and there's no decision". On 20 May 2013, the Georgian president Saakashvili said at an Asian summit Vanuatu "changed their mind" and does not recognise Abkhazia, which Vanuatu's new Prime Minister Moana Carcasses Kalosil confirmed. On 12 July 2013 Georgia and Vanuatu signed an agreement on establishing diplomatic and consular relations, which stated that "the Republic of Vanuatu recognises territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognised borders, including its regions –
1015-824: A contemporary Greek seal where he styled himself by the Byzantine title exousiokrator . Alania is not mentioned in East Slavic chronicles, but archaeology indicates that the Alans maintained trade contacts with the Rus' principality of Tmutarakan . There is a stone grave cross, with a Cyrillic inscription from 1041, standing on the bank of the Bolshoi Yegorlyk River in present-day Stavropol Krai , immediately north of Alania. Two Russian crosses, datable to ca. 1200, were discovered by archaeologists in Arkhyz ,
1160-729: A part of Georgia." On 28 August, the Georgian Parliament passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia " Russian-occupied territories " and instructed the government to annul all previous treaties on Russian peacekeeping. The following day the government announced that it was severing diplomatic ties with Russia, with the Georgian Embassy in Moscow and the Russian Embassy in Tbilisi to close as
1305-593: A referendum on this matter has been raised multiple times in domestic politics, but none has taken place. The Ossetians are believed to originate from the Alans , a nomadic Iranian tribe. In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania , emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains. Around 1239–1277 Alania fell to the Mongol and later to the Timur 's armies, who massacred much of
1450-489: A result. Georgia recalled its Ambassador from Russia and ordered all Russian diplomats to leave Georgia, saying that only consular relations would be maintained. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs commented on this decision, saying that some 600,000 to 1 million Georgians in Russia would be left to the "mercy of fate". Later, Georgia also severed diplomatic relations with Nicaragua. Georgia moved to economically isolate
1595-490: A symmetrical approach between them and Abkhazia. In 2021, an OSCE expert estimated that Belarus might be one of the next countries to recognise Abkhazia. In November 2021, South Ossetian president Anatoly Bibilov said that he expects a diplomatic recognition from Belarus soon. In 2022, Alexander Lukashenko visited Abkhazia for the first time and met with the Abkhaz president Bzhania and proclaimed "We want to build not just
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#17327728406771740-643: A unilateral ceasefire and called for peace talks. However, escalating assaults against Georgian villages (located in the South Ossetian conflict zone) were soon matched with gunfire from Georgian troops, who then proceeded to move in the direction of the capital of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia ( Tskhinvali ) on the night of 8 August, reaching its center in the morning of 8 August. One Georgian diplomat told Russian newspaper Kommersant on 8 August that by taking control of Tskhinvali, Tbilisi wanted to demonstrate that Georgia would not tolerate
1885-491: A vocal member of the South Ossetian opposition to Anatoly Bibilov had been tortured to death by the South Ossetian Police resulting in months of protests and sacking of several government ministers. President Anatoly Bibilov announced on 26 March 2022 that South Ossetian troops had been sent to assist Russia in its invasion of Ukraine . Bibilov announced on 30 March 2022 that South Ossetia would initiate
2030-400: A war with these regions. It envisions engagement of people of these two regions through education as well as social, economic and business projects, instead of isolation. It is officially illegal under Georgian law to enter South Ossetia or Abkhazia through Russia, without permission from Georgia; it is possible to travel through Georgian territory to Abkhazia, though as Georgia cannot assure
2175-435: A wide range of economic, social, and humanitarian issues. The states would also jointly counter organised crime, international terrorism, and drug trafficking, documents to this effect were signed for 10 years with an option to extend the deal automatically. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili considered Russia's move as an attempt to alter the borders of Europe by force. Below are some excerpts from his statement: This
2320-945: Is Mount Khalatsa at 3,938 m (12,920 ft) above sea level. Out of the roughly 2,000 glaciers that exist in the Greater Caucasus, approximately 30% are located within Georgia . The 10 glaciers of the Liakhvi River basin and a handful of the Rioni River basin are located in South Ossetia. Most of South Ossetia is in the Kura Basin with the northwestern part of it in the Black Sea basin. The Likhi and Racha ridges act as divide separating these two basins . Major rivers in South Ossetia include
2465-628: Is cognate with the name of Iran ( Ērān ), which stems from the Old Persian *Aryānām ('of the Aryans') . In other sources, they're mentioned as “Ās”. In Russian chronicles and Hungarian sources they're called “Yas”. The Caucasian Alans occupied part of the Caucasian plain and the foothills of the main mountain chain from the headwaters of the Kuban river and its tributary, Zelenchuk in
2610-479: Is North Ossetia .... Here they are newcomers." When the Georgian parliament declared a state of emergency in the territory of South Ossetian AO on 12 December 1990, troops from both Georgian and Soviet interior ministries were sent to the region. After the Georgian National Guard was formed in early 1991, Georgian troops entered Tskhinvali on 5 January 1991. The 1991–1992 South Ossetia War
2755-693: Is a violation of international law". After the 2014 Ukrainian revolution , the new Ukrainian government toughened its stance towards Abkhazia and South Ossetia (like Transnistria). In 2018, Ukrainian ships forcefully intercepted Abkhaz ships in the Black Sea. To help the conflict resolution in the Caucasus, the Cultural Affairs Officer at the U.S. Embassy in Tbilisi started an exchange program for Abkhaz university employees in 2018. The professors from Abkhazian State University visited
2900-450: Is relatively low and rainfall across South Ossetia averages 500 to 800 mm (19.7 to 31.5 in) per year, but Alpine and highland regions have distinct microclimates . At higher elevations, precipitation is sometimes twice as heavy as in the eastern plains of Georgia. Alpine conditions begin at about 2,100 m (6,890 ft), and above 3,600 m (11,811 ft) snow and ice are present year-round. The Russian troops who patrol
3045-412: Is the first attempt on European territory ... since Hitler's regime and Stalin's Soviet Union where a large state is trying unilaterally, with the use of force, to completely crush a neighbouring country and openly annex its territory. This is inconceivable lawlessness and insolence ... Russia has done unthinkable damage to its place in the international community. The question of the re-establishment of
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#17327728406773190-654: Is warmer there than in the Northern Caucasus. Climatic zones in South Ossetia are determined by distance from the Black Sea and by altitude. The plains of eastern Georgia are shielded from the influence of the Black Sea by mountains that provide a more continental climate . The foothills and mountainous areas (including the Greater Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters, with snow cover often exceeding two meters in many regions. The penetration of humid air masses from
3335-488: The 1991–1992 South Ossetia War with Russian involvement on the Ossetian side. After the war, the conflict remained frozen throughout 1990s and saw two major escalations in 2000s: in 2004 and in 2008 . The latter conflict led to the full-scale Russo-Georgian War of August 2008, during which Ossetian and Russian forces gained full de facto control of the territory of the former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. Since
3480-711: The Bolsheviks granted this autonomy to the Ossetians in exchange for their ( Bolshevik ) loyalty in fighting the Democratic Republic of Georgia and favouring local separatists, since this area had never been a separate entity prior to the Russian invasion. The drawing of administrative boundaries of the South Ossetian AO was quite a complicated process. Many Georgian villages were included within
3625-680: The Caucasus at the juncture of Asia and Europe. It occupies the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountain range and its foothills which are part of the Iberia Plain , a geographic plateau that is roughly in the center of South Ossetia. The Likhi Range shapes the western geographic boundary of South Ossetia, although the northwestern corner of South Ossetia is located west of the range. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms
3770-622: The Caucasus . Most countries recognise them as part of Georgia, while Russia , Venezuela , Nicaragua , Nauru , and Syria regard them as independent. Russia's initial recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia occurred in the aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. The government of Georgia considers the republics to be Russian-occupied territories . Abkhazia and South Ossetia were once recognised by up to seven UN member states , until Tuvalu withdrew its recognition of both in 2014, and Vanuatu clarified
3915-636: The Circassians and Vainakhs . The kingdom eventually declined from the 12th century and had largely ceased to function as a political entity by the early 13th century. In 1239/1240 the Mongols invaded , stormed and destroyed the capital, Maghas, in the process. The name Alania derives from the Old Iranian stem * Aryāna- , a derivative form of the Indo-Iranian stem * arya - (' Aryan '). It
4060-587: The European Council due to the violation of Georgia's territorial integrity. The EU's diplomatic response to the news was delayed by disagreements between eastern European states, the UK wanting a harsher response and Germany, France and other states' desire not to isolate Russia. Former US envoy Richard Holbrooke said the conflict could encourage separatist movements in other former Soviet states along Russia's western border. Several days later, Nicaragua became
4205-559: The European Union –sponsored Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia stated that, while preceded by months of mutual provocations, "open hostilities began with a large-scale Georgian military operation against the town of Tskhinvali and the surrounding areas, launched in the night of 7 to 8 August 2008." In 2016, a referendum on integration with Russia was proposed during an election campaign, but
4350-571: The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in September 1990. Towards the end of 1990, the situation for ethnic Georgians in the region worsened sharply. There were reports of multiple cases of lootings and beatings committed both by Georgian and Ossetian forces and paramilitaries. The Georgian government responded by abolishing South Ossetia's autonomy and dispatching its troops to the region. The escalating crisis led to
4495-635: The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic lived outside the South Ossetian AO. Tensions in the region began to rise amid rising nationalism among both Georgians and Ossetians in 1989. Before this, the two communities of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast of the Georgian SSR had been living in peace with each other except for the 1918–1920 events . Both ethnicities had a normal degree of interaction and there were many Georgian-Ossetian intermarriages. The dispute surrounding
South Ossetia - Misplaced Pages Continue
4640-570: The Greater and Little Liakhvi, Ksani , Medzhuda, Tlidon, Canal Saltanis, Ptsa River and host of other tributaries. South Ossetia's climate is affected by subtropical influences from the East and Mediterranean influences from the West. The Greater Caucasus range moderates the local climate by serving as a barrier against cold air from the north, which results in the fact that, even at great heights, it
4785-483: The Mongol invasions of the 13th century, while one South Ossetian de facto foreign minister in the 1990s said that the Ossetians first appeared in the area only in the early 17th century. Since it was created after the Russian invasion of 1921, South Ossetia was regarded as artificial creation by Georgians during the Soviet era. The South Ossetian Popular Front ( Ademon Nykhas ) was created in 1988. On 10 November 1989,
4930-559: The Roki Tunnel before the Georgian military action. Russia accused Georgia of "aggression against South Ossetia", and launched a large-scale land, air, and sea invasion of Georgia with the pretext of a " peace enforcement operation" on 8 August 2008. Russian airstrikes against targets within Georgia were also launched. Abkhaz forces opened a second front on 9 August by attacking the Kodori Gorge , held by Georgia. Tskhinvali
5075-645: The Russian revolution , the area of modern South Ossetia became part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia . In 1918, conflict began between the landless Ossetian peasants living in Shida Kartli (Interior Georgia), who were influenced by Bolshevism and demanded ownership of the lands they worked, and the Menshevik government backed ethnic Georgian aristocrats, who were legal owners. Although
5220-826: The Sarmatians . They were split by the invasion of the Huns into two parts, the European and the Caucasian. The Caucasian Alans occupied part of the North Caucasian plain and the foothills of the main mountain chain from the headwaters of the Kuban River in the west to the Darial Gorge in the east. Alania was an important buffer state during the Byzantine-Arab Wars and Khazar-Arab Wars of
5365-709: The conquest of the Southern Song and Dali . They became known as asud in Mongolian or asu in Mandarin and were part of the privileged semu class, foreigners from western and central Asia who were employed in the administration and the higher echelons of the military. When Kubilai Khan , who had a daughter with an Alan woman himself, founded the Yuan Dynasty in 1271 he also established an influential Alan guard unit of 3.000 men that until 1309
5510-506: The "Republic of South Ossetia". Abkhazia declared its independence after its war with Georgia in 1992–1993. Its Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1994. The 2008 South Ossetia war was fought in August 2008 between Georgia on one side and South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Russia on the other, resulting in a combined South Ossetian, Abkhaz and Russian victory and the expulsion of the Georgian military from both territories. After hearing
5655-735: The 1120s King David the Builder of Georgia visited the Darial to reconcile the Alans with the Kipchaks, who thereupon were allowed to pass through Alania to the Georgian soil . David's son, Demetre I , also journeyed, c. 1153, to Alania accompanied by the Arab historian Ibn al-Azraq . The alliance culminated in 1187, when the Alanian prince David Soslan married Queen Tamar of Georgia , a half-Alanian herself, with their descendants ruling Georgia until
5800-567: The 11th century, under the rule of King Durgulel , it profited from controlling a vital trade route through the Darial Pass . It maintained close relations not only with the Byzantine Empire but also the Kingdom of Georgia , as well as the small Dagestani kingdom of Sarir ; the first two also employed Alan mercenaries, who were infamous horsemen. It was responsible for spreading Orthodox Christianity among neighbouring pagan peoples such as
5945-639: The 16th century. After the invasion the Mongols installed two local vassal princes, called, according to the Yuan chronicle , Arslan and Hanghusi, to rule on their behalf. Both joined the Mongol army, but were killed in combat soon afterwards. With the departure of the army in 1240 Mongol influence quickly weakened, especially in the highlands. Appreciating their skill as horsemen, the Mongols deported thousands of Alans to Mongolia in their need of fresh warriors for
South Ossetia - Misplaced Pages Continue
6090-522: The 19th century. The medieval Alanian princesses also married Byzantine and Russian Rurikid rulers more than once. For instance, Maria the Ossetian , who founded the Convent of Princesses in Vladimir , was the wife of Vsevolod the Big Nest and grandmother of Alexander Nevsky . By the early 13th century the kingdom of Alania had factually disintegrated into a large number of autonomous clans and villages ruled by infighting chiefs leading several dozen to several hundred retainers. This state of anarchy
6235-460: The 2004 parliamentary and presidential elections, he promised to restore the territorial integrity of Georgia. During one of his early speeches, Saakashvili addressed the separatist regions, saying, "[N]either Georgia nor its president will put up with disintegration of Georgia. Therefore, we offer immediate negotiations to our Abkhazian and Ossetian friends. We are ready to discuss every model of statehood by taking into consideration their interests for
6380-414: The 2008 war, Georgia and a significant part of the international community have regarded South Ossetia as occupied by the Russian military . South Ossetia relies heavily on military, political, and financial aid from Russia. Since 2008, the South Ossetian government has expressed their intention of joining the Russian Federation ; if successful, this would end its proclaimed independence. The prospect of
6525-411: The 8th century. Theophanes the Confessor left a detailed account of Leo the Isaurian 's mission to Alania in the early 8th century. Leo was instructed by Emperor Justinian II to bribe the Alan leader Itaxes into severing his "ancient friendship" with the Kingdom of Abkhazia , which had allied itself with Caliph Al-Walid I . He crossed the mountain passes and concluded an alliance with the Alans, but
6670-466: The Abkhaz Ambassador in Venezuela met with the Ambassador of the SADR in the same country. 25 February 2022 (from Abkhazia) and 9 March 2022 (reciprocal recognition from DPR) 9 March 2022 (Abkhazia) On 22 February 2022, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a statement welcoming the recognition of independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics by Russian President Vladimir Putin . On 25 February 2022 President Aslan Bzhania announced
6815-405: The Abkhazian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, while Vanuatu initially remained silent on the issue. Confusion arose about the actual status of the recognition after a change of Vanuatuan government in June 2011 when officials denied and others reconfirmed the recognition. Russian newspaper Kommersant claimed to have laid their hands on a facsimile of a signed agreement between both countries. However,
6960-410: The Alan kings frequently allied with the Byzantines and various Georgian rulers for protection against encroachments by northern steppe peoples such as the Pechenegs and Kipchaks . John Skylitzes reports that Alda of Alania , after the death of her husband, "George of Abasgia" (i.e., George I of Georgia ), received Anakopia as a maritime fief from Emperor Romanus III . This happened in 1033,
7105-412: The Alanian population. The survivors among the Alans retreated into the mountains of the central Caucasus and gradually started migration to the south, across the Caucasus Mountains into the Kingdom of Georgia . In the 17th century, by pressure of Kabardian princes, Ossetians started a second wave of migration from the North Caucasus to the Kingdom of Kartli . Ossetian peasants, who were migrating to
7250-548: The Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali Region/South Ossetia." Abkhazia's Foreign Minister Viacheslav Chirikba responded by claiming that Vanuatu had not officially withdrawn its recognition of Abkhazia. On 30 March 2015, Vanuatu Foreign Minister Sato Kilman met with Chirikba in Moscow, the two officials expressing their desire to strengthen bilateral relations. The following day, Kilman declared in an interview with RIA Novosti that "nothing had changed" in respect to Vanuatu's 2011 recognition of Abkhazia, but that
7395-501: The Black Sea to the west of South Ossetia is often blocked by the Likhi mountain range. The wettest periods of the year in South Ossetia generally occur during spring and autumn while the winter and summer months tend to be the driest. Elevation plays an important role in South Ossetia where climatic conditions above 1,500 m (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in any lower-lying areas. The regions that lie above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) frequently experience frost even during
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#17327728406777540-443: The Byzantines, exousiokrator . Notably, the Byzantines never referred to other foreign rulers by this title, using arkhon or exousiastes instead. In the last years of the Soviet Union , as nationalist movements swept throughout the Caucasus, many intellectuals in the North Ossetian ASSR called for the revival of the name "Alania". A leading Ossetian philologist T. A. Guriev was the main advocate of this idea, insisting that
7685-420: The Carcasses government had merely decided to pursue diplomatic relations with Georgia rather than Abkhazia, that he didn't consider diplomatic relations with Abkhazia and Georgia to be incompatible, and that he hoped diplomatic relations with Abkhazia would soon be formalised. In June 2015, Kilman was sacked as Foreign Minister, partly as a result of this meeting, with Prime Minister Joe Natuman again clarifying
7830-483: The EU has rewarded the Belarusian President Lukashenko for not recognising the republics by suspending the travel ban for top Belarusian officials that had been imposed in 2004. Karel Schwarzenberg has stated publicly, that if Belarus recognises Abkhazia and South Ossetia, it can forget about the Eastern Partnership. "If they would recognize South Ossetia and Abkhazia it would create a very, very difficult situation for Belarus," Schwarzenberg has said. Sweden, co-author of
7975-495: The Eastern Partnership program, rejected Lavrov's position as "completely unacceptable". The EU's position on Georgia is not 'blackmail' but "is about upholding the principles of the EU and international law, which Russia should also be respecting", stated Swedish foreign minister Carl Bildt According to Eurasianet .org, which cites Russian media reports, Belarus is under Kremlin pressure to recognise South Ossetia and Abkhazia. There have been suppositions Russia has offered Belarus
8120-523: The First Party Secretary of the oblast from his position. The Georgian Supreme Council adopted a law barring regional parties in summer 1990. The South Ossetian regional council interpreted this as a move against Ademon Nykhas and subsequently passed a "declaration of national sovereignty", proclaiming the South Ossetian Soviet Democratic Republic within the Soviet Union on 20 September 1990. Ossetians boycotted subsequent Georgian parliamentary elections and held their own contest in December. In October 1990,
8265-410: The Gate in order to ravage the forts in Alania. In 758, as Ibn al-Faqih reports, the Gate was held by another Arab general, Yazid ibn Usayd . As a result of their united stand against the successive waves of invaders from the south, the Alans of the Caucasus fell under the overlordship of the Khazar Khaganate . They remained staunch allies of the Khazars in the 9th century, supporting them against
8410-410: The Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Zalkaliani commented "We are grateful that the Republic of Vanuatu is consistent in pursuing the non-recognition policy of the so-called independence of Georgia's occupied regions, in full compliance with fundamental norms and principles of international law". The following day Regenvanu visited the conflict line and a Memorandum of Co-operation was signed between
8555-447: The Georgian capital in ruins. On 6 January, Gamsakhurdia and several of his supporters fled the city for exile. Afterwards, the Georgian military council , an interim government, was formed by a triumvirate of Jaba Ioseliani , Tengiz Kitovani and Tengiz Sigua , and, in March 1992, they invited Eduard Shevardnadze , a former Soviet minister, to come to Georgia to assume control of the Georgian State Council. An independence referendum
8700-403: The Kipchaks. Afterwards, they pushed further west, crushing a Rus alliance at the Kalka river in 1223 . The second Mongol invasion of Alania began in 1239 under Möngke and Güyük . While some Alanian fortresses, in particular Maghas, resisted the Mongols it seems that many local noblemen actually collaborated with the invaders to gain an advantage over their rivals. Those who resisted formed
8845-459: The North Caucasus did not have its own political entity before 1924, when the North Ossetian Autonomous Oblast was created. Although the Ossetians had their own language ( Ossetian ), Russian and Georgian were administrative/state languages. Under the rule of Georgia's government during Soviet times, Ossetians enjoyed minority cultural autonomy, including speaking the Ossetian language and teaching it in schools. In 1989, two-thirds of Ossetians in
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#17327728406778990-417: The North Caucasus. He sent an army into Alan territory and, with the Byzantine patriarch Nicholas Mystikos , converted the Alans to Christianity . The conversion is documented in the letters of Patriarch Nicholas Mysticus to the local archbishop, Peter, who was appointed here through King George II of Abkhazia 's efforts. Richard Foltz has suggested that only certain elite Alan families were Christianized,
9135-485: The North Ossetian Prigorodnyi District . In 1944, many South Ossetians were resettled in areas of North Ossetia from which the Ingush had been expelled by Stalin in 1944. In the 1990s the new wave of South Ossetians migrating to the former Ingush territory fuelled conflict between Ossetians and Ingush. On 29 April 1991, the western part of South Ossetia was affected by an earthquake , which killed more than 200 and left tens of thousands homeless. In late 1991, dissent
9280-432: The Ossetians were initially discontented with the economic policies of the central government, the tension soon transformed into ethnic conflict. The first Ossetian rebellion began in February 1918, when three Georgian princes were killed and their land was seized by the Ossetians. The central government of Tiflis retaliated by sending the National Guard to the area. However, the Georgian unit retreated after they had engaged
9425-424: The Ossetians. Ossetian rebels then proceeded to occupy the town of Tskhinvali and began attacking the ethnic Georgian civilian population. During uprisings in 1919 and 1920, the Ossetians were covertly supported by Soviet Russia , but even so, were defeated. According to allegations made by Ossetian sources, the crushing of the 1920 uprising caused the death of 5,000 Ossetians, while ensuing hunger and epidemics were
9570-411: The Russian Federation. It also considered the peacekeeping force (consisting in equal parts of South Ossetians, North Ossetians, Russians and Georgians) to be non-neutral and demanded its replacement. Various proposals were launched by the Georgian side to internationalise the peacekeeping in South Ossetia. According to U.S. senator Richard Lugar , the United States supported Georgia's call in 2006 for
9715-415: The Russian government's position." Medvedev also signed into law federal bills ratifying friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance pacts between his government and those of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The laws stipulated the obligations of each state to provide assistance to each other if either of them comes under attack, joint protection of Abkhazia and South Ossetia's borders, as well as cooperation on
9860-431: The Russian recognition, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru, Vanuatu and Tuvalu soon followed suit and recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states. However, in 2013 and 2014, Vanuatu and Tuvalu have scrapped their recognition. Russia has invested a significant money in diplomatic strategy to promote recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and display its soft power. However, Russia seems to have stopped investing in
10005-679: The Russian-comprised peacekeeping force operating under CIS mandate. Tensions between Georgia and Russia began escalating in April 2008. A bomb explosion on 1 August 2008 targeted a car transporting Georgian peacekeepers. South Ossetians were responsible for instigating this incident, which marked the opening of hostilities and injured five Georgian servicemen. In response, several South Ossetian militiamen were hit. South Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages on 1 August. These artillery attacks caused Georgian servicemen to return fire periodically from 1 August. At around 19:00 on 7 August 2008, Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced
10150-490: The South Ossetian AO despite numerous protests by the Georgian population. While the city of Tskhinvali did not have a majority Ossetian population, it was made the capital of the South Ossetian AO. In addition to parts of Gori uezd and Dusheti uezd of Tiflis Governorate , parts of Racha uezd of Kutaisi Governorate (western Georgia) were also included within the South Ossetian AO. All these territories historically had been indigenous Georgian lands. Historical Ossetia in
10295-399: The South Ossetian regional council asked the Georgian Supreme Council to upgrade the region to the status of an " autonomous republic ". The decision to transform the South Ossetian AO into the South Ossetian ASSR by the South Ossetian authorities escalated the conflict. On 11 November, this decision was revoked by the Georgian parliament, the Supreme Soviet . The Georgian authorities removed
10440-523: The Soviet leadership was encouraging South Ossetian separatism in order to force Georgia not to leave the Soviet Union. Georgia declared its independence in April 1991. As a result of the war, about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians fled the territory and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians fled South Ossetia to other parts of Georgia. Many refugees went to
10585-715: The Tartars"). Classic Alania finally came to an end in the late 14th century, when the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane invaded. Crushing the Golden Horde at the Battle of the Terek River in 1395, he subsequently attacked several Alan chiefs, resulting in months of massacres and enslavement that are still remembered in a popular Ossetian folk song called "the mother of Zadalesk". The invasion of Tamerlane resulted in
10730-688: The UN Security Council, the United States was heavily critical of Russian support of the secessionist governments, accusing the government of violating Georgia's territorial integrity . In response, Vitaly Churkin , the Permanent Representative of Russia to the UN, attacked the U.S. claim to moral high ground by recalling its invasion of Iraq in 2003. Others accused the United States of hypocrisy, citing its support of
10875-645: The United States. They visited the Arizona State University , San Diego State University , Rutgers University , Virginia Tech , Pennsylvania State University , University of Maryland, College Park and the United States Department of Agriculture . On 10 December 1997, President of Chechnya Aslan Maskhadov appointed Ruslan Tuntaev as a "plenipotentiary representative of the Chechen republic-Ichkeria" to Abkhazia. The envoy
11020-546: The aforementioned appeals from both the Abkhazian and South Ossetian leadership, on 25 August 2008, the Federation Council and State Duma passed motions calling upon President Dmitry Medvedev to recognise the independence of both states and establish diplomatic relations . On 26 August 2008, President Medvedev signed decrees recognising the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as sovereign states. In
11165-684: The area as "the former autonomous district of South Ossetia", in reference to the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast disbanded in 1990. The Georgian government informally refers to the area as the Tskhinvali region and considers it a part of Georgia's Shida Kartli region. Lacking effective control over the territory, Georgia maintains an administrative body called the Provisional Administration of South Ossetia . The South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast, established by Soviet authorities in Moscow in 1922, declared independence from
11310-695: The area comprising modern North Ossetia , was among the first areas of the North Caucasus to come under Russian domination, starting in 1774. The capital, Vladikavkaz , was the first Russian military outpost in the region. By 1806, Ossetia was completely under Russian control. Ossetian migration to Georgian areas continued in the 19th and 20th centuries, when Georgia was part of the Russian Empire and Ossetian settlements emerged in Trialeti , Borjomi , Bakuriani and Kakheti as well. Following
11455-521: The borders of South Ossetia have reportedly been expanding the boundaries of the region through “encroaching occupation”, meaning they surreptitiously advance several feet at a time into Georgian-held territory. Following the 2008 South Ossetia war , Russia recognised South Ossetia as independent. This unilateral recognition by Russia was met by condemnation from Western Blocs, such as NATO , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and
11600-400: The bulk of the population continuing to follow their original pagan traditions. When Ibn Rustah visited Alania at some point between 903 and 913, its king was Christian by then. The Persian traveler came to Alania from Sarir , a Christian kingdom immediately to the east: You go to the left from the kingdom of Sarir and, after three days of journey through mountains and meadows, arrive in
11745-615: The capital city, Tskhinvali . As of 2024, only five members of the United Nations (UN) recognise South Ossetia as a sovereign state – Russia , Venezuela , Nicaragua , Nauru , and Syria . The Georgian government and all other UN member states regard South Ossetia as sovereign territory of Georgia . The political status of South Ossetia is a central issue of the Georgian–Ossetian conflict and Georgia–Russia relations . The Georgian constitution designates
11890-679: The causes of death of more than 13,000 people. The Soviet Georgian government, established after the Red Army invasion of Georgia in 1921, created an autonomous administrative unit for Transcaucasian Ossetians in April 1922 under pressure from Kavbiuro (the Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ), called the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast (AO). Some believe that
12035-489: The east. The Ossetes remained in a state of near-total isolation until 1774, when they requested protection from the Russian Empire , resulting in the foundation of Vladikavkaz in 1784 and the beginning of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus . The nomenclature used by the rulers of Alania is unknown. Where they are mentioned by historical records, they are variously called "lord", "prince", "king", "tsar", and by
12180-406: The election proceedings in motion on April 7, 2022. On May 13, the annexation referendum was scheduled to take place on July 17. Following Biblov's defeat in 2022 election , the new president, Alan Gagloev , suspended the referendum on May 30. Gagloyev announced in August 2022 that border crossings with Georgia would be open ten days a month. South Ossetia is a very mountainous region located in
12325-484: The end of 18th century, the ultimate sites of Ossetian settlement on the territory of modern South Ossetia were in Kudaro ( Jejora river estuary), Greater Liakhvi gorge, the gorge of Little Liakhvi , Ksani River gorge, Guda (Tetri Aragvi estuary) and Truso ( Terek estuary). The Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti , including the territory of modern South Ossetia, was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1801. Ossetia,
12470-606: The first time, in 2024, Armenia voted in favor of the Georgia resolution at the United Nations which would United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to reiterate the right of return of all displaced persons and refugees to Georgia's Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region/South Ossetia and support Georgia's territorial integrity. On 27 August 2008, Azerbaijani Foreign Ministry spokesman Khazar Ibrahim stated, "Azerbaijan's position remains unchanged. We recognise Georgia's territorial integrity". According to Peter Rutland,
12615-699: The flight of the Alans deep into the Caucasian mountains and the end of the Alans' presence in the steppes north of the Caucasus. The few who remained were eventually absorbed into the Circassian Kabardians and the Turkic Karachays and Balkars . The retreat into the mountains resulted in the ethnogenesis of a new people: the Ossetes, represented by the Digor in the west and the Iron in
12760-614: The following day. Russia recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August. In response to Russia's recognition, the Georgian government severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Russian forces left the buffer areas bordering Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October and the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia assumed authority over the buffer areas. Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are Russian-occupied Georgian territories . On 30 September 2009,
12905-421: The government's position that "Abkhazia is part of Georgia". However, the following week Kilman replaced Natuman as Prime Minister. On 14 March 2019 Vanuatu Foreign Minister Ralph Regenvanu met with his Georgian counterpart David Zalkaliani in Tbilisi. While both sides committed to deepen bilateral ties, Regenvanu "confirmed Vanuatu's support of Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity", according to
13050-671: The heartland of medieval Alania. The Alans and Georgians probably collaborated in the Christianization of the Vainakhs and Dvals in the 12th and 13th centuries, Georgian missionaries were active in Alania and the Alan contingents were frequently employed by the Georgian monarchs against their Muslim neighbors. The Alanian-Georgian alliance was cemented in the 1060s, when the Alans struck across Muslim Arran and sacked Ganja . In
13195-466: The independence of the Republic of South Ossetia on 29 May 1992. On 24 June 1992, Shevardnadze and the South Ossetian government signed the Sochi ceasefire agreement , brokered by Russia. The agreement included obligations to avoid the use of force, and Georgia pledged not to impose sanctions against South Ossetia. The Georgian government retained control over substantial portions of South Ossetia, including
13340-523: The intention to maintain dialogue with Abkhazia". In corroboration of that, Vanuatu maintained throughout the years its support for Georgia's annually submitted United Nations resolution regarding the return of internally displaced persons to Abkhazia, generally seen as an expression of support for the territorial integrity of Georgia. On 18 March 2013, Johnny Koanapo, Vanuatu Director-General of Foreign Affairs, stated that diplomatic relations had never been established with Abkhazia. He said that "There's been
13485-456: The issue dragged on for months within Vanuatu's governing ranks, according to some related to domestic power politics and personal feuds. In 2012 Vanuatu's UN envoy maintained the country does not recognise Abkhazia, while a senior official of Vanuatu's Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed this by saying "the country has definitely not recognized Abkhazia", adding "the government had expressed
13630-417: The killing of Georgian citizens. According to Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer , the Ossetian provocation was aimed at triggering the Georgian response, which was needed as a pretext for premeditated Russian military invasion. According to Georgian intelligence, and several Russian media reports, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through
13775-417: The kingdom of Al-Lan. Their king is Christian at heart, but all his people are idolaters. Then you travel for ten days among rivers and woods before arriving at a fortress called the " Gate of the Alans ". It stands on the top of a mountain at the foot of which there is a road; high mountains surround it and a thousand men from among its inhabitants guard its walls day and night. After the downfall of Khazaria,
13920-418: The legal capacity to recognise any state diplomatically; their member states do so individually. However, depending on the intergovernmental organisation's rules of internal governance and the positions of their member states, they may express positive or negative opinions as to declarations of independence, or choose to offer or withhold membership to a newly declared state. Alania Reaching its peak in
14065-452: The legal process to become part of Russia . Russian politicians reacted positively and said Russian law would permit (parts of) foreign nations to join the federation. They highlighted the necessity to "express the will of the Ossetian people" through a referendum. Ossetian leader Bibilov said in a lengthy interview that he planned to hold two referendums, one on annexation by Russia, and the second vote on joining North Ossetia, for which he set
14210-508: The loan led to the June 2009 Milk War between Belarus and Russia. The government of Belarus has informed its citizens to abide by Georgian laws when travelling to the regions. The Foreign Ministry of Belarus stated that Belarusians should only use entrance points on the Georgian side. Belarusian lawmakers visited Abkhazia and South Ossetia in late 2009 to study the situation and decide to postpone decision to spring 2010. South Ossetia asked for
14355-822: The massive smuggling of goods for the Ergneti market through the Roki Tunnel , which was not under Georgian control, cost the country significant amounts of custom revenues. Georgia proposed to bring the Roki tunnel under joint control and monitoring, which was refused by the South Ossetian side. The antismuggling operation against the market resulted in a breakdown of South Ossetian trust in Georgia's intentions. A wave of violence erupted between Georgian peacekeepers and South Ossetian militiamen and freelance fighters from Russia. This included hostage taking of dozens of Georgian peacekeepers, shootouts and shelling of Georgian controlled villages, which left dozens dead and wounded. A ceasefire deal
14500-603: The mountainous areas of the South Caucasus , often settled in the lands of Georgian feudal lords. The Georgian King of the Kingdom of Kartli permitted Ossetians to immigrate. According to Russian ambassador to Georgia Mikhail Tatishchev , at the beginning of the 17th century there was already a small group of Ossetians living near the headwaters of the Great Liakhvi . In the 1770s there were more Ossetians living in Kartli than ever before. This period has been documented in
14645-570: The northern border of South Ossetia with Russia. There is only one main road through the mountain range from South Ossetia to Russia, the TransKAM highway through the Roki tunnel into North Ossetia , which was completed in 1986. The Transkam section located in South Ossetia is nominally part of the Georgian S10 highway even though Tbilisi effectively does not control that part. The Roki Tunnel
14790-563: The officials from South Africa, Jordan and El Salvador, and sent diplomatic notes to other countries, such as Egypt, France, Guatemala and Sri Lanka. This campaign reached its peak in 2017, but subsequently decreased and largely halted with the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic . Syria remains the only country which has recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia since 2009. 14 April 2010 (South Ossetia) In 2022, an Abkhaz Embassy in Nicaragua
14935-426: The parliamentary election in Georgia was won by Zviad Gamsakhurdia 's "Round Table" block. On 11 December 1990, Zviad Gamsakhurdia's government declared the Ossetian election illegitimate and abolished South Ossetia's autonomous status altogether. Gamsakhurdia rationalised the abolition of Ossetian autonomy by saying, "They [Ossetians] have no right to a state here in Georgia. They are a national minority. Their homeland
15080-660: The plight of his metropolis in a lengthy epistolary sermon written during the tenure of Patriarch Germanus II (1222–40). The French-Flemish monk and traveller William of Rubruck mentions Alans numerous times in the account of his 1253–1255 journey through Eurasia to the Great Khan , e.g. Alans living as Mongol subjects in Crimea , Old Astrakhan , the Khan's capital Karakoram , and also still as freemen in their Caucasian homeland ("the Alans or Aas, who are Christians and still fight
15225-522: The presence of the Ossetian people in the South Caucasus has been one of the causes of conflict. Although Georgian historiography believes that Ossetian mass migration to the South Caucasus (Georgia) began in the 17th century, Ossetians claim to have been residing in the area since the ancient times, which is not supported by available sources. Some Ossetian historians accept that the migration of Ossetian ancestors to modern South Ossetia began after
15370-461: The promotion of their future development." Since 2004, tensions began to rise as the Georgian authorities strengthened their efforts to bring the region back under their rule, after it succeeded in Adjara . Georgia sent police to close down the Ergneti black market, which was one of the region's chief sources of revenue, selling foodstuffs and fuel smuggled from Russia. The Georgian authorities claimed
15515-485: The recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia was "not currently on the agenda." This was confirmed by the Minister for Foreign Affairs Kostyantyn Gryshchenko on 14 May 2010: "An issue of territorial integrity and inviolability of frontiers is a matter of principle for us. Period". On 4 June 2010, Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych said, "I have never recognized Abkhazia, South Ossetia or Kosovo's independence. This
15660-631: The recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. On 10 March 2022 the LPR recognised Abkhazia's independence. Russia annexed the LPR on 30 September 2022. The annexation is internationally unrecognised . On 12 February 2010 it was announced that it is expected to establish diplomatic relations with Abkhazia. Artsakh had ceased to exist on 1 January 2024. On 31 March 2014 Georgia and Tuvalu signed an agreement on establishing diplomatic and consular relations. The agreement
15805-597: The recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. Russia annexed the DPR on 30 September 2022. The annexation is internationally unrecognised . On 22 February 2022, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a statement welcoming the recognition of independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics by Russian President Vladimir Putin . On 25 February 2022 President Aslan Bzhania announced
15950-521: The recognition project after 2014. One of the possible reasons might be worsening of the financial situation in Russia following the Russo-Ukrainian War and international sanctions on Russia . Abkhazia has started a new campaign to strengthen the relations with the foreign countries and present itself as an independent actor. Abkhaz officials have visited a number of countries, including China, Italy, Turkey and Israel. They have also met with
16095-686: The regions, and asking central Moldova's government to recognise these states. Saudi Arabia does not recognizes Abkhazia or South Ossetia. In May 2012, during the visit to Georgia, Abdullah bin Zamil Al-Drees, a head of the delegation of Majlis al-Shura of Saudi Arabia, said that the kingdom's position was based on its foreign policy in support of the territorial integrity of countries. In October 2009, Ukrainian Ambassador to Russia Kostyantyn Gryshchenko said that "We must not recognize neither Kosovo nor Abkhazia, nor South Ossetia in no case". In March 2010, President Viktor Yanukovych said that
16240-674: The regions. A ban on economic activity in the regions without Georgian permission was issued, and anyone caught violating this ban by the Georgian authorities faced prosecution. The Georgian Navy blockaded the coast of Abkhazia, and has seized 23 cargo ships trying to bring supplies to Abkhazia, most notably fuel supplies. Abkhazia is dependent on fuel imports, and faced a serious shortage as a result. Russia began deploying boats from its own Black Sea Fleet on 21 September 2009, in response. In August 2009, Russia and South Ossetia accused Georgia of shelling Ossetian villages and kidnapping four South Ossetian citizens. Russia threatened to use force unless
16385-486: The safety inside the disputed territories, going to either Abkhazia or South Ossetia is not recommended by the Georgian government. It is not possible for foreigners to enter South Ossetia from Georgian controlled territory, as the South Ossetian de facto authorities do not facilitate nor allow this. The European Union, NATO , the OSCE , and the United States immediately voiced displeasure with Russia's decision. After
16530-484: The second country to recognise South Ossetia. Venezuela recognised South Ossetia on 10 September 2009, becoming the third UN member state to do so. The European Union , Council of Europe , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) and most UN member countries do not recognise South Ossetia as an independent state. The de facto republic governed by the secessionist government held a second independence referendum on 12 November 2006, after its first referendum in 1992
16675-455: The shelling stopped, and put its troops stationed in South Ossetia on high alert. In January 2010, Georgia adopted a strategy regarding the reintegration of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The strategy is called Involvement through Cooperation and it was presented to the international organisations as well as to Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The document says Georgia views peaceful methods as the only way for conflict solution and that there won't be
16820-399: The status of their recognitions. Vanuatu reconfirmed in 2019 it supports Georgian territorial integrity including the two disputed territories. Abkhazia and South Ossetia recognise each other, and also have some recognition from non-UN member states. South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia during the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War on 29 May 1992, with its Constitution referring to
16965-579: The summer months. The average temperature in South Ossetia in January is around +4 degrees Celsius, and the average temperature in July is around +20.3 degrees Celsius. The average yearly liquid precipitation in South Ossetia is around 598 millimetres. In general, summer temperatures average 20 °C (68 °F) to 24 °C (75.2 °F) across much of South Ossetia, and winter temperatures average 2 °C (35.6 °F) to 4 °C (39.2 °F). Humidity
17110-438: The territorial integrity of Georgia and the protection of its freedom – this is not an internal Georgian problem, or a question of Georgia and Russia. This is now a question of Russia and the rest of the civilised world. Georgia's future, is not only the future of Georgia, this is the future of the whole civilised world... Deputy Foreign Minister Giga Bokeria said, "This is an unconcealed annexation of these territories, which are
17255-563: The territorial integrity of Georgia within its international recognised borders, including its regions – Abkhazia's autonomous republic and Tskhinvali region. In April 2014, it was suggested that Russia was more embarrassed by Tuvalu's withdrawal of recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, than by international sanctions for Crimea, since this "decision could spell the end of a years-long diplomatic strategy that has cost Russia millions." On 23 May 2011 Vanuatu recognised Abkhazia's independence and established diplomatic relations, according to
17400-554: The town of Akhalgori . A Joined Peacekeeping force of Ossetians, Russians and Georgians was established. On 6 November 1992, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) set up a mission in Georgia to monitor the peacekeeping operation. From then until mid-2004, South Ossetia was generally peaceful. Following the 2003 Rose Revolution , Mikheil Saakashvili became the President of Georgia in 2004. Ahead of
17545-492: The travel diaries of Johann Anton Güldenstädt who visited Georgia in 1772. The Baltic German explorer called modern North Ossetia–Alania simply Ossetia, while he wrote that Kartli (the areas of modern-day South Ossetia) was populated by Georgians and the mountainous areas were populated by both Georgians and Ossetians. Güldenstädt also wrote that the northernmost border of Kartli is the Major Caucasus Ridge . By
17690-563: The two sides. While at the conflict line, Regenvanu said: "Vanuatu has always recognized the territorial integrity of Georgia. In 2011 we had a minister who expressed a different position. In my opinion, he was influenced by certain individuals and recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. His decision was not an official position of the state". In 2023, President Nikol Pashinyan stated that Armenia fully respects and acknowledges Georgia's territorial integrity and considers Abkhazia and South Ossetia as Georgian territories. For
17835-403: The violation of Serbian territorial integrity when it recognised the independence of Kosovo in 2008. The Russian government also welcomed Nicaragua's recognition of the two states, and called on other countries to "recognise reality" and follow Nicaragua's example. President Daniel Ortega announced that his government "recognises the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia and fully supports
17980-575: The war had ended. The war displaced 192,000 people, and while many were able to return to their homes after the war, a year later around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced. In an interview published in Kommersant , South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return. President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008. On 17 August, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev announced that Russian forces would begin to pull out of Georgia
18125-617: The west, to the Daryal gorge in the east. According to the 10th century historian al-Mas'udi , indicates that the Alan kingdom stretched from Daghestan to Abkhazia . According to Hudud al-'Alam , In the north, the Alans bordered on the Hungarians and the Bulgars. In the east they gave their name to the Daryal gorge , called “Gate of the Alans”. According to Al-masudi , The Alan ruler
18270-597: The withdrawal of Russian "peacekeepers" from the conflict zones. Later, EU South Caucasus envoy Peter Semneby said that "Russia's actions in the Georgia spy row have damaged its credibility as a neutral peacekeeper in the EU's Black Sea neighbourhood." Joe Biden (Chairman, U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee), Richard Lugar , and Mel Martínez sponsored a resolution in June 2008 accusing Russia of attempting to undermine Georgia's territorial integrity and called for replacing
18415-679: The year when the Alans and the Rus sacked the coast of Shirvan in modern-day Azerbaijan . The raids were possibly orchestrated by the Byzantine Empire and its Rus vassal in Tmutarakan , prince Mstislav , and might have been meant to intimidate the various Muslim emirates in the Caucasus in face of the planned Byzantine expansion in Armenia. The Rus raiders might have been arrivals from Scandinavia who entered Byzantium in 1030. The Alan king at that time seems to have been called Gabriel, known from
18560-578: Was a powerful and influential among the neighboring rulers, he can muster 30,000 horsemen. He also said "The Alan kingdom consisted of an uninterrupted series of settlements; when the cock crows (in one of them), the answer comes from the other parts of the kingdom, because the villages are intermingled and close together." According to Ḥodūd al-ʿālam , Alania is described as a vast country with 1,000 settlements. The population consisted of both Christians and Pagans , mountaineers and nomads. The Alans (Alani) originated as an Iranian -speaking subdivision of
18705-720: Was appointed with a mandate of handling "economic and cultural-humanitarian affairs", with nothing being stated about political relations. On 19 December 1997, Tuntaev was removed from his post by Maskhadov following Tuntaev's statement that the Chechen republic of Ichkeria "might recognize the Abkhazia's independence soon". Maskhadov's administration described this statement as an "illegal and uncoordinated action". Kazbek Khajiev, Maskhadov's press secretary, said that Chechnya would not endanger its friendly relations with Georgia to "promote somebody's ambitions". Under international law, intergovernmental organisations do not themselves possess
18850-413: Was characterised by general disregard for international humanitarian law by uncontrollable militias, with both sides reporting atrocities. The Soviet military facilitated a ceasefire as ordered by Mikhail Gorbachev in January 1991. In March and April 1991, Soviet interior troops were reported actively disarming militias on both sides, and deterring the inter-ethnic violence. Zviad Gamsakhurdia asserted that
18995-514: Was described by the Hungarian monk Julian , who in 1236 observed that "there are as many princes as villages, none of whom owes allegiance to another. The war there is incessant, leader against leader, village against village." The Mongols, led by the generals Jebe and Subutai , met the Alans for the first time in 1222 after passing through Shirvan and Daghestan. They were confronted by a Kipchak-Alan alliance, which they defeated by scheming with
19140-577: Was established. Until then, Abkhazia was represented in Nicaragua via its Ambassador in Caracas. On 29 September 2010 the SADR Minister for African Issues Mohamed Yeslem Beyssat said referring to South Ossetia: “Western Sahara de facto recognizes the independence of South Ossetia. Now we have to formalise relations de jure, including the establishment of diplomatic relations". The two states have had various formal and informal contacts. In 2019,
19285-457: Was held in South Ossetia on 19 January 1992, with voters being asked two questions: "Do you agree that South Ossetia should be an independent country?" and "Do you agree with the South Ossetian parliament's solution of 1 September 1991 on reunion with Russia?" Both proposals were approved, but the results were not recognised internationally. Nonetheless, the South Ossetian regional council subsequently passed an "act of state independence" and declared
19430-494: Was invaded by Umar II 's forces. A Khazar chieftain, Barjik , hastened to their succour and, in 722, the joint Alan-Khazar army inflicted a defeat on the Arab general Tabit al-Nahrani . The Khazars erected Skhimar and several other strongholds in Alania at this period. In 728 Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik , having penetrated the Gate of the Alans , devastated the country of the Alans. Eight years later, Marwan ibn Muhammad passed by
19575-454: Was mounting against Gamsakhurdia in Georgia due to his intolerance of critics and attempts to concentrate political power. On 22 December 1991, after a coup d'état , Gamsakhurdia and his supporters were besieged by the opposition, which was backed by the national guard, in several government buildings in Tbilisi . The ensuing heavy fighting resulted in over 200 casualties and left the center of
19720-485: Was not recognised by most governments as valid. According to the Tskhinvali election authorities, the referendum turned out a majority for independence from Georgia where 99% of South Ossetian voters supported independence and the turnout for the vote was 95%. The referendum was monitored by a team of 34 international observers from Germany, Austria, Poland, Sweden and other countries at 78 polling stations. However, it
19865-520: Was not recognised internationally by the UN, European Union, OSCE, NATO and the Russian Federation, given the lack of ethnic Georgian participation and the illegality of such a referendum without recognition from the Georgian government in Tbilisi . The European Union, OSCE and NATO condemned the referendum. International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Abkhazia and South Ossetia are separatist regions of Georgia in
20010-473: Was prevented from returning to Byzantium through Abasgia . Although the Abkhazians spared no expense to have him imprisoned, the Alans refused to convey the Byzantine envoy to his enemies. After several months of adventures in the Northern Caucasus, Leo extricated himself from the precarious situation and returned to Constantinople . After Leo assumed the imperial title, the land of his mountaineer allies
20155-476: Was put on hold indefinitely. A referendum on South Ossetia's official name was held on 9 April 2017; over three-quarters of those who voted supported amendments to the South Ossetian constitution which gave the names "Republic of South Ossetia" and "State of Alania" equal status under the law. South Ossetia was rocked by its most significant protests from 2020 to 2021 following the Murder of Inal Djabiev . Djabiev,
20300-456: Was reached on 13 August though it was repeatedly violated. The Georgian government protested against the allegedly increasing Russian economic and political presence in the region and against the uncontrolled military of the South Ossetian side. Georgian government officials have stated South Ossetian key security positions are occupied by (former) Russian security officials, while some political researchers speak of institutions being outsourced to
20445-538: Was said to number 30.000 men. Converted to Catholicism by a Franciscan missionary in 1299, they stayed loyal to the Yuan until the fall of the dynasty in 1368, when they escorted Toghon Temür to Mongolia. They continued to play a significant factor in Mongolian politics until a failed rebellion in 1510, although remaining, while now completely Mongolized, distinct clans to this day. Bishop Theodore of Alania described
20590-423: Was seized by the Russian military by 10 August. Russian forces occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi , Senaki , Poti , and Gori (the last one after the ceasefire agreement was negotiated). The Russian Black Sea Fleet blockaded the Georgian coast. A campaign of ethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia was conducted by South Ossetians, with Georgian villages around Tskhinvali being destroyed after
20735-494: Was signed by Tuvalu's Minister of Environmental Protection, Foreign Affairs, Labour and Trade, and Georgian Foreign Minister Maya Panjikidze during the visit of Tuvalu's governmental delegation to Georgia. The agreement stipulates that both sides agreed to develop relations on the grounds of the principles of sovereign equality, friendly relations and cooperation, territorial integrity, non-violation of borders and non-interference in homeland affairs. It emphasises that Tuvalu recognises
20880-642: Was unaware of the visit of Bibilov. However, President of President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik said that Bibilov was visiting "the Serb entity, not the Bosnian state". He also stated that "Georgia does not have a friendly attitude towards the RS [Republika Srpska], we know that, and neither do we have one towards it". Gagauzia , an autonomous region of Moldova, passed a resolution, recognising independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, backing Russia's actions in
21025-702: Was vital for the Russian military in the 2008 South Ossetia war because it is the only direct route through the Caucasus Mountains between Russia and South Ossetia. South Ossetia covers an area of about 3,900 km (1,506 sq mi), separated by the mountains from the more populous North Ossetia (which is a republic within Russia) and extending southwards almost to the Mtkvari river in Georgia. More than 89% of South Ossetia lies over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) above sea level , and its highest point
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