96-817: The Secretary of State for the Southern Department was a position in the cabinet of the government of the Kingdom of Great Britain up to 1782, when the Southern Department became the Home Office . Before 1782, the responsibilities of the two British Secretaries of State for the Northern and the Southern departments were divided not based on the principles of modern ministerial divisions, but geographically. The Secretary of State for
192-556: A council of ministers , or the similar council of state . Some German-speaking areas use the term " senate " (such as the Senate of Berlin ) for their cabinet, rather than the more common meaning of a legislative upper house. However, a great many countries simply call their top executive body the cabinet, including Israel , the United States , Venezuela , and Singapore , among others. The supranational European Union uses
288-466: A cabinet varies: in some countries, it is a collegiate decision-making body with collective responsibility , while in others it may function either as a purely advisory body or an assisting institution to a decision-making head of state or head of government . In some countries, particularly those that use a parliamentary system (e.g., the United Kingdom ), the cabinet collectively decides
384-405: A ceremonial figurehead, or something between these two extremes. The functions exercised by a president vary according to the form of government . In parliamentary republics , they are usually, but not always, limited to those of the head of state and are thus largely ceremonial. In presidential and selected parliamentary (e.g. Botswana and South Africa ) republics the role of the president
480-483: A considerable period after the particular cabinet disbands, depending on provisions of a nation's freedom of information legislation. In theory the prime minister or premier is first among equals . However, the prime minister is ultimately the person from whom the head of state will take advice (by constitutional convention) on the exercise of executive power , which may include the powers to declare war, use nuclear weapons, and appoint cabinet members. This results in
576-468: A country is, the smaller is its cabinet. A council of advisers of a head of state has been a common feature of government throughout history and around the world. In Ancient Egypt , priests assisted the pharaohs in administrative duties. In Sparta , the Gerousia , or council of elders, normally sat with the two kings to deliberate on law or to judge cases. The Maurya Empire under the emperor Ashoka
672-619: A different convention: the European Commission refers to its executive cabinet as a " college ", with its top public officials referred to as " commissioners ", whereas a " European Commission cabinet " is the personal office of a European Commissioner. The term comes from the Italian gabinetto , which originated from the Latin capanna , which was used in the sixteenth century to denote a closet or small room. From it originated in
768-575: A few governments, as in the case of Mexico , the Philippines , the UK, and the U.S., the title of " secretary " is also used for some cabinet members ("Secretary of Education", or "Secretary of State for X" in the UK or the Netherlands ). In many countries (e.g. Germany, Luxembourg , France , Spain , etc.), a secretary (of State) is a cabinet member with an inferior rank to a minister. In Finland ,
864-531: A parlement is referred to as Madame la Présidente de Tourvel ("Madam President of Tourvel"). The fictional name Tourvel refers not to the parlement in which the magistrate sits, but rather, in imitation of an aristocratic title, to his private estate. This influenced parliamentary usage in France. When the Second French Republic was established in 1848, "Monsieur le Président" became the title of
960-512: A person holding the title of president or presiding over certain other governmental bodies. "Mr. President" has subsequently been used by governments to refer to their heads of state. It is the conventional translation of non- English titles such as Monsieur le Président for the president of the French Republic . It also has a long history of usage as the title of the presiding officers of legislative and judicial bodies. The speaker of
1056-418: A presidential system, the cabinet in a parliamentary system must not only be confirmed, but enjoy the continuing confidence of the parliament: a parliament can pass a motion of no confidence to remove a government or individual ministers. Often, but not necessarily, these votes are taken across party lines. In some countries (e.g. the U.S.) attorneys general also sit in the cabinet, while in many others this
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#17327719157331152-468: A presidential system. The legislature may also remove a cabinet member through a usually difficult impeachment process. In the cabinet, members do not serve to influence legislative policy to the degree found in a Westminster system; however, each member wields significant influence in matters relating to their executive department . Since the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt , the President of
1248-417: A prestigious residence, often a lavish mansion or palace, sometimes more than one (e.g. summer and winter residences, or a country retreat) Customary symbols of office may include an official uniform, decorations, a presidential seal, coat of arms, flag and other visible accessories, as well as military honours such as gun salutes , ruffles and flourishes , and a presidential guard. A common presidential symbol
1344-569: A proposition suggested by the president of Chechnya Ramzan Kadyrov and later made law by the Parliament of Russia and President Dmitriy Medvedev in 2010. Despite this, however, presidents of Tatarstan resisted the move, before 2023, where it was switched to the Head or Rais , the latter of which could be translated from Tatar as "President" . The lord president of the Council is one of
1440-437: A secretary of state is a career official that serves the minister. While almost all countries have an institution that is recognisably a cabinet, the name of this institution varies. In many countries, (such as Ireland , Sweden , and Vietnam ) the term "government" refers to the body of executive ministers; the broader organs of state having another name. Others, such as Spain , Poland , and Cuba , refer to their cabinet as
1536-878: A supreme council of elite lords. In the Songhai Empire , the central government was composed of the top office holders of the imperial council. In the Oyo Empire , the Oyo Mesi , or royal council, were members of the aristocracy who constrained the power of the Alaafin , or king. During the Qing dynasty , the highest decision-making body was the Deliberative Council . In the United Kingdom and its colonies, cabinets began as smaller sub-groups of
1632-483: Is a title assumed by some dictators to try to ensure their authority or legitimacy is never questioned. Presidents like Alexandre Pétion , Rafael Carrera , Josip Broz Tito and François Duvalier died in office. Kim Il Sung was named Eternal President of the Republic after his death. Only a tiny minority of modern republics do not have a single head of state. Some examples of this are: The president of China
1728-454: Is allowed to serve only one term. In Brazil , the president is directly elected for a four-year term by popular vote. A candidate has to have more than 50% of the valid votes. If no candidates achieve a majority of the votes, there is a runoff election between the two candidates with most votes. Again, a candidate needs a majority of the vote to be elected. In Brazil, a president cannot be elected to more than two consecutive terms, but there
1824-577: Is as the title of a head of state in a republic . The first usage of the word president to denote the highest official in a government was during the Commonwealth of England . Thomas Hungerford , who became the first speaker of the English House of Commons in 1376, used the title, "Mr. Speaker", a precedent followed by subsequent speakers of the House of Commons. After the abolition of
1920-417: Is borrowed from British Parliamentary tradition, in which the presiding Speaker of the House of Commons is referred to as "Mr/Mrs. Speaker". Coincidentally, this usage resembles the older French custom of referring to the president of a parlement as " Monsieur/Madame le Président ", a form of address that in modern France applies to both the president of the Republic and to chief judges. In the United States,
2016-486: Is eligible for nomination to cabinet based on electoral outcomes. For instance in the Philippines, candidates who have lost in any election in the country may not be appointed to cabinet positions within one (1) year of that election. The candidate prime minister and/or the president selects the individual ministers to be proposed to the parliament, which may accept or reject the proposed cabinet composition. Unlike in
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#17327719157332112-704: Is known in Europe as a President of the Council (from the French Président du Conseil ), used 1871–1940 and 1944–1958 in the Third and Fourth French Republics . In the United States the president has always been both Head of State and Head of Government and has always had the title of President. Presidents in this system are either directly elected by popular vote or indirectly elected by an electoral college or some other democratically elected body. In
2208-465: Is more prominent, encompassing the functions of the head of government . In semi-presidential republics , the president has some discretionary powers like over foreign affairs, appointment of the head of government and defence, but they are not themselves head of government. A leader of a one-party state may also hold the position of president for ceremonial purposes or to maintain an official state position. The title " Mr. President " may apply to
2304-544: Is no limit on the number of terms a president can serve. Many South American , Central American , African and some Asian nations follow the presidential model. A second system is the semi-presidential system , also known as the French model. In this system, as in the parliamentary system, there are both a president and a prime minister; but unlike the parliamentary system, the president may have significant day-to-day power. For example, in France, when their party controls
2400-563: Is not considered to be head of state. Since 1998, however, presidential officeholders in Laos often occupy their position as General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party concurrently, and thus exercise political power via that role. In accordance with the current Laotian Constitution (rev. in 2015) , the president may not serve more than 2 consecutive terms, and elections are to take place every 5 years. The President of Laos
2496-475: Is strictly prohibited, as the attorneys general are considered to be part of the judicial branch of government. Instead, there is a Minister of Justice , separate from the attorney general. Furthermore, in Sweden, Finland, and Estonia , the cabinet includes a Chancellor of Justice , a civil servant that acts as the legal counsel to the cabinet. In multi-party systems , the formation of a government may require
2592-523: Is the commander-in-chief of the Lao People's Armed Forces . They also possess the authority (with the consent of the national assembly) to appoint the prime minister and vice president , as well as other roles. The current President of Laos, elected in March 2021, is Thongloun Sisoulith . As the country's head of state, in most countries the president is entitled to certain perquisites, and may have
2688-677: Is the head of state of the People's Republic of China . Under the country's constitution , the presidency is a largely ceremonial office with limited power. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party , the top leader in the single-party system . Between 1982 and 2019, the Chinese constitution stipulated that
2784-483: Is the presidential sash worn most often by presidents in Latin America and Africa as a symbol of the continuity of the office. United Nations member countries in columns, other entities at the beginning: Some countries with parliamentary systems use a term meaning/translating as "president" (in some languages indistinguishable from chairman) for the head of parliamentary government, often as President of
2880-749: Is the case in many states: Idi Amin in Uganda , Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire , Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines , Suharto in Indonesia , and Saddam Hussein in Iraq are some examples. Other presidents in authoritarian states have wielded only symbolic or no power such as Craveiro Lopes in Portugal and Joaquín Balaguer under the "Trujillo Era" of the Dominican Republic . President for Life
2976-709: The ASSRs , used to enjoy more privileges than the ordinary krais and oblasts of the RSFSR (such as greater representation in the Soviet of Nationalities ). Thus, the ASSRs and their eventual successors would have more in common with nation-states than with ordinary administrative divisions, at least in spirit, and would choose titles accordingly. Over the course of the 2010s the presidents of Russian republics would progressively change their title to that of Head ( Russian : глава ),
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3072-600: The Dutch Republic , Scandinavia , Poland , Russia , and the Holy Roman Empire . Domestic responsibilities in England and Wales were shared between the two Secretaries. After the union with Scotland in 1707, the two secretaries also took responsibility for Scotland when there was no Secretary of State for Scotland in office. Until 1706, the practice was generally for the senior official to lead
3168-531: The English Privy Council . The term comes from the name for a relatively small and private room used as a study or retreat. Phrases such as "cabinet counsel", meaning advice given in private to the monarch, occur from the late 16th century, and, given the non-standardised spelling of the day, it is often hard to distinguish whether "council" or "counsel" is meant. The Oxford English Dictionary credits Francis Bacon in his Essays (1605) with
3264-586: The Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom who presides over meetings of British Privy Council ; the Cabinet headed by the prime minister is technically a committee of the Council, and all decisions of the Cabinet are formally approved through Orders in Council . Although the lord president is a member of the Cabinet, the position is largely a ceremonial one and is traditionally given to either
3360-526: The King 's nominees. The Parlements were abolished by the French Revolution . In modern France the chief judge of a court is known as its president ( président de la cour ). By the 18th century, the president of a French parlement was addressed as "Monsieur le Président". In Pierre Choderlos de Laclos 's 1782 novel Les Liaisons dangereuses ("Dangerous Liaisons"), the wife of a magistrate in
3456-487: The Massachusetts Provincial Congress ), but these were presiding officers in the older sense, with no executive authority. It has been suggested that the executive use of the term was borrowed from early American colleges and universities, which were usually headed by a president . British universities were headed by an official called the " Chancellor " (typically a ceremonial position) while
3552-481: The United States , the president is indirectly elected by the Electoral College made up of electors chosen by voters in the presidential election. In most states of the United States, each elector is committed to voting for a specified candidate determined by the popular vote in each state, so that the people, in voting for each elector, are in effect voting for the candidate. However, for various reasons
3648-561: The Westminster variant of a parliamentary system and the presidential system, the cabinet "advises" the head of state: the difference is that, in a parliamentary system, the monarch , viceroy , or ceremonial president will almost always follow this advice, whereas, in a presidential system, a president who is also head of government and political leader may depart from the cabinet's advice if they do not agree with it. In practice, in nearly all parliamentary democracies that do not follow
3744-409: The executive branch . Their members are known as ministers and secretaries and they are often appointed by either heads of state or government. Cabinets are typically the body responsible for the day-to-day management of the government and response to sudden events, whereas the legislative and judicial branches work in a measured pace, in sessions according to lengthy procedures. The function of
3840-438: The parliamentary republic is a system with an executive president in which the president is the head of state and the government but unlike a presidential system , is elected by and accountable to a parliament, and referred to as president. Countries using this system include Botswana , Nauru and South Africa . In dictatorships , the title of president is frequently taken by self-appointed or military-backed leaders. Such
3936-587: The politburo , such as the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . This is an organ of the communist party and not a state organ, but due to one-party rule, the state and its cabinet (e.g. Government of the Soviet Union ) are in practice subordinate to the politburo. Technically, a politburo is overseen and its members selected by the central committee , but in practice it was often
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4032-675: The president of Austria ) or de jure no significant executive power (such as the president of Ireland ), and the executive powers rests with the prime minister who automatically assumes the post as head of a majority party or coalition, but takes oath of office administered by the president. However, the president is head of the civil service, commander in chief of the armed forces and in some cases can dissolve parliament. Countries using this system include Austria , Armenia , Albania , Bangladesh , Czech Republic , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Iceland , India , Ireland , Israel , Italy , Malta , Pakistan , and Singapore . A variation of
4128-585: The "great danger" of an executive with insufficient dignity. Adams' efforts were met with widespread derision; Thomas Jefferson called them "the most superlatively ridiculous thing I ever heard of", while Benjamin Franklin considered it "absolutely mad". Washington consented to the demands of James Madison and the United States House of Representatives that the title be altered to "Mr. President". Nonetheless, later "The Honorable" became
4224-466: The 1600s the English word cabinet or cabinett which was used to denote a small room, particularly in the houses of nobility or royalty. Around this time the use of cabinet associated with small councils arose both in England and other locations such as France and Italy. For example, Francis Bacon used the term Cabanet Counselles in 1607. In presidential systems such as the United States, members of
4320-545: The Constitution". Vice President John Adams , in his role as President of the United States Senate , organized a congressional committee . There Adams agitated for the adoption of the style of Highness (as well as the title of Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties ) for the president. Adams and Lee were among the most outspoken proponents of an exalted presidential title. Others favored
4416-462: The French model. In Finland, although the 2000 constitution moved towards a ceremonial presidency, the system is still formally semi-presidential, with the president of Finland retaining e.g. foreign policy and appointment powers. The parliamentary republic , is a parliamentary system in which the presidency is largely ceremonial with either de facto or no significant executive authority (such as
4512-545: The Government, President of the Council of Ministers or President of the Executive Council . However, such an official is explicitly not the president of the country . These officials are called "president" using an older sense of the word, to denote the fact that the official heads the cabinet . A separate head of state generally exists in their country who instead serves as the president or monarch of
4608-654: The House of Commons of Canada is addressed as président de la Chambre des communes in French and as Mr. Speaker in English. The title president is derived from the Latin prae- "before" + sedere "to sit". The word "presidents" is also used in the King James Bible at Daniel 6:2 to translate the Aramaic term סָרְכִ֣ין (sā·rə·ḵîn) , a word of likely Persian origin, meaning "officials", "commissioners", "overseers" or "chiefs". As such, it originally designated
4704-848: The Southern Department was responsible for Ireland , the Channel Islands , France , Spain , Portugal , the Old Swiss Confederacy , the states of Italy , and the Ottoman Empire . He was also responsible for the American colonies until 1768, when the charge was given to the Secretary of State for the Colonies . The Secretary of State for the Northern Department was responsible for relations with
4800-479: The Southern Department, and the junior the Northern Department, with the Northern Secretary being transferred to the Southern Department when a vacancy arose at the latter. During the reigns of George I and George II , however, the Northern Department began to be seen as the more important, since its responsibilities included the monarchs' ancestral home of Hanover . During the reign of George III ,
4896-405: The United States did not specify the manner of address for the president. When George Washington was sworn in as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789, however, the administering of the oath of office ended with the proclamation: "Long live George Washington, President of the United States ." No title other than the name of the office of the executive was officially used at
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#17327719157334992-540: The United States has acted most often through his own executive office or the National Security Council rather than through the cabinet as was the case in earlier administrations. Although the term "Secretary" is usually used to name the most senior official of a government department, some departments have different titles to name such officials. For instance, the Department of Justice uses
5088-401: The United States , a cabinet under a presidential system of government is part of the executive branch. In addition to administering their respective segments of the executive branch, cabinet members are responsible for advising the head of government on areas within their purview. They are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the head of government and are therefore strongly subordinate to
5184-580: The United States of America, the correct way to address a letter is to use "The Honorable John Doe" and the correct salutation is "Mr. Doe". Once the United States adopted the title of "president" for its republican head of state, many other nations followed suit. Haiti became the first presidential republic in the Caribbean when Henri Christophe assumed the title in 1807. Almost all the Pan-American nations that became independent from Spain in
5280-736: The Westminster system, and in three countries that do ( Japan , Ireland , and Israel ), very often the cabinet does not "advise" the head of state as they play only a ceremonial role. Instead, it is usually the head of government (usually called " prime minister ") who holds all means of power in their hands (e.g. in Germany , Sweden , etc.) and to whom the cabinet reports. In both presidential and parliamentary systems, cabinet officials administer executive branches, government agencies, or departments. Cabinets are also important originators for legislation. Cabinets and ministers are usually in charge of
5376-439: The cabinet are chosen by the president, and may also have to be confirmed by one or both of the houses of the legislature (in the case of the U.S., it is the Senate that confirms members with a simple majority vote). Depending on the country, cabinet members must, must not, or may be members of parliament. The following are examples of this variance: Some countries that adopt a presidential system also place restrictions on who
5472-432: The cabinet or junior ministers, must publicly support the policy of the government, regardless of any private reservations. Although, in theory, all cabinet decisions are taken collectively by the cabinet, in practice many decisions are delegated to the various sub-committees of the cabinet, which report to the full cabinet on their findings and recommendations. As these recommendations have already been agreed upon by those in
5568-420: The cabinet who hold affected ministerial portfolios, the recommendations are usually agreed to by the full cabinet with little further discussion. The cabinet may also provide ideas on/if new laws were established, and what they include. Cabinet deliberations are secret and documents dealt with in cabinet are confidential. Most of the documentation associated with cabinet deliberations will only be publicly released
5664-401: The chief administrator held the title of " Vice-Chancellor ". But America's first institutions of higher learning (such as Harvard University and Yale University ) did not resemble a full-sized university so much as one of its constituent colleges. A number of colleges at Cambridge University featured an official called the "president". The head, for instance, of Magdalene College, Cambridge
5760-402: The coalition or members of parliament can still vote against the government, and the cabinet can break up from internal disagreement or be dismissed by a motion of no confidence. The size of cabinets varies, although most contain around ten to twenty ministers. Researchers have found an inverse correlation between a country's level of development and cabinet size: on average, the more developed
5856-402: The country. Thus, such officials are really premiers , and to avoid confusion are often described simply as 'prime minister' when being mentioned internationally. There are several examples for this kind of presidency: President can also be the title of the chief executive at a lower administrative level, such as the parish presidents of the parishes of the U.S. state of Louisiana ,
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#17327719157335952-404: The early 1810s and 1820s chose a US-style president as their chief executive. The first European president was the president of the Italian Republic of 1802 , a client state of revolutionary France, in the person of Napoleon Bonaparte . The first African president was the president of Liberia (1848), while the first Asian president was the president of the Republic of China (1912). In
6048-521: The equivalent of the mayor . The Office of the President (Mayor) is also found in Germany and Switzerland. Governors of ethnic republics in the Russian Federation used to have the title of President, occasionally alongside other, secondary titles such as Chairman of the Government (also used by Prime Minister of Russia ). This likely reflects the origin of Russian republics as homelands for various ethnic groups: while all federal subjects of Russia are currently de jure equal , their predecessors,
6144-469: The first recorded use of "cabinet" by itself for such a body comes from 1644, and is again hostile and associates the term with dubious foreign practices. The process has repeated itself in recent times, as leaders have felt the need to have a Kitchen Cabinet or "sofa government". Under the Westminster system, members of the cabinet are Ministers of the Crown who are collectively responsible for all government policy. All ministers, whether senior and in
6240-425: The first use of "Cabinet council", where it is described as a foreign habit, of which he disapproves: "For which inconveniences, the doctrine of Italy, and practice of France, in some kings' times, hath introduced cabinet counsels; a remedy worse than the disease". Charles I began a formal "Cabinet Council" from his accession in 1625, as his Privy Council, or "private council", was evidently not private enough, and
6336-453: The government's direction, especially in regard to legislation passed by the parliament . In countries with a presidential system , such as the United States , the cabinet does not function as a collective legislative influence; rather, their primary role is as an official advisory council to the head of government. In this way, the president obtains opinions and advice relating to forthcoming decisions. Legally, under both types of system,
6432-491: The gown"), with considerable judicial as well as administrative authority. The name referred to his primary role of presiding over trials and other hearings. In the 17th and 18th centuries, seats in the Parlements , including presidencies, became effectively hereditary, since the holder of the office could ensure that it would pass to an heir by paying the crown a special tax known as the paulette . The post of "first president" ( premier président ), however, could be held by only
6528-401: The inauguration. The question of a presidential title was being debated in Congress at the time, however, having become official legislative business with Richard Henry Lee 's motion of April 23, 1789. Lee's motion asked Congress to consider "what titles it will be proper to annex to the offices of President and Vice President of the United States – if any other than those given in
6624-399: The majority of seats in the National Assembly , the president can operate closely with the parliament and prime minister , and work towards a common agenda. When the National Assembly is controlled by their opponents, however, the president can find themselves marginalized with the opposition party prime minister exercising most of the power. Though the prime minister remains an appointee of
6720-418: The monarchy the English Council of State , whose members were elected by the House of Commons, became the executive government of the Commonwealth. The Council of State was the successor of the Privy Council , which had previously been headed by the lord president ; its successor the Council of State was also headed by a lord president, the first of which was John Bradshaw . However, the lord president alone
6816-457: The numbers of electors in favour of each candidate are unlikely to be proportional to the popular vote. Thus, in five close United States elections ( 1824 , 1876 , 1888 , 2000 , and 2016 ), the candidate with the most popular votes still lost the election. In Mexico , the president is directly elected for a six-year term by popular vote. The candidate who wins the most votes is elected president even without an absolute majority. The president
6912-531: The officer who presides over or "sits before" a gathering and ensures that debate is conducted according to the rules of order ( see also chairman and speaker ), but today it most commonly refers to an executive official in any social organization. Early examples are from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (from 1464) and the founding president of the Royal Society William Brouncker in 1660. This usage survives today in
7008-519: The other way around: powerful members of the politburo would ensure their support in the central committee through patronage. In China, political power has been further centralised into the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . President (government title) President is a common title for the head of state in most republics . Depending on the country, a president could be head of government ,
7104-498: The overall direction of the government has usually been done as a matter of preference by the prime minister – either because they are unpopular with their backbenchers , or because they believe that the cabinet should collectively decide things. A shadow cabinet consists of the leading members, or frontbenchers , of an opposition party , who generally hold critic portfolios "shadowing" cabinet ministers, questioning their decisions and proposing policy alternatives. In some countries,
7200-404: The preparation of proposed legislation in the ministries before it is passed to the parliament . Thus, often the majority of new legislation actually originates from the cabinet and its ministries. In most governments, members of the cabinet are given the title of "minister", and each holds a different portfolio of government duties ("Minister of Foreign Affairs", "Minister of Health", etc.). In
7296-493: The president as they can be replaced at any time. Normally, since they are appointed by the president, they are members of the same political party, but the executive is free to select anyone, including opposition party members, subject to the advice and consent of the Senate. Normally, the legislature or a segment thereof must confirm the appointment of a cabinet member; this is but one of the many checks and balances built into
7392-561: The president could not serve more than two consecutive terms. During the Mao era , as well as since March 2018, there were no term limits attached to this office. Under President Xi Jinping , the term limits of the presidency were abolished, but its powers and ceremonial role remained unchanged. In Laos , which is a one-party state similar to that of China, the president is elected by the Laotian National Assembly , and
7488-418: The president is also the commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces, though this varies significantly around the world. In almost all states with a presidential system of government, the president exercises the functions of head of state and head of government , i.e. the president directs the executive branch of government. When a president is not only head of state, but also head of government, this
7584-562: The president of the French Republic. The modern usage of the term president to designate a single person who is the head of state of a republic can be traced directly to the United States Constitution of 1787, which created the office of President of the United States . Previous American governments had included "presidents" (such as the president of the Continental Congress or the president of
7680-619: The president, the president must obey the rules of parliament, and select a leader from the house's majority holding party. Thus, sometimes the president and prime minister can be allies, sometimes rivals; the latter situation is known in France as cohabitation . Variants of the French semi-presidential system, developed at the beginning of the Fifth Republic by Charles de Gaulle , are used in France , Portugal , Romania , Sri Lanka and several post-colonial countries which have emulated
7776-415: The presiding member of city council for villages in the U.S. state of Illinois , or the municipal presidents of Mexico 's municipalities . Perhaps the best known sub-national presidents are the borough presidents of the five boroughs of New York City . In Poland, the president of the city ( Polish : Prezydent miasta ) is the executive authority of the municipality elected in direct elections,
7872-441: The same process by which they are appointed, i.e. in many nations, periodic popular elections. The powers vested in such presidents vary considerably. Some presidencies, such as that of Ireland , are largely ceremonial, whereas other systems vest the president with substantive powers such as the appointment and dismissal of prime ministers or cabinets , the power to declare war , and powers of veto on legislation. In many nations
7968-411: The shadow ministers are referred to as spokespersons. The Westminster cabinet system is the foundation of cabinets as they are known at the federal and provincial (or state) jurisdictions of Australia , Canada , India , Pakistan , South Africa , and other Commonwealth countries whose parliamentary model is closely based on that of the United Kingdom. Under the doctrine of separation of powers in
8064-428: The situation where the cabinet is de facto appointed by and serves at the pleasure of the prime minister. Thus, the cabinet is often strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a cabinet reshuffle for "underperforming". This position in relation to the executive power means that, in practice, any spreading of responsibility for
8160-478: The standard title of the President in formal address, and "His/Her Excellency" became the title of the President when addressed formally internationally. Historically, the title was reserved for the incumbent president only, and was not to be used for former presidents, holding that it was not proper to use the title as a courtesy title when addressing a former president. According to the official website of
8256-407: The style of Excellency . Adams and Richard Henry Lee both feared that cabals of powerful senators would unduly influence a weak executive, and saw an exalted title as a way of strengthening the presidency. On further consideration, Adams deemed even Highness insufficient and instead proposed that the executive, both the president and the vice president (i.e., himself), be styled Majesty to prevent
8352-405: The support of multiple parties. Thus, a coalition government is formed. Continued cooperation between the participating political parties is necessary for the cabinet to retain the confidence of the parliament. For this, a government platform is negotiated, in order for the participating parties to toe the line and support their cabinet. However, this is not always successful: constituent parties of
8448-546: The term "Attorney General" instead of "Justice Secretary", but the Attorney General is nonetheless a cabinet-level position. Following the federal government's model, state executive branches are also organised into executive departments headed by cabinet secretaries. The government of California calls these departments "agencies" or informally "superagencies", while the government of Kentucky styles them as "cabinets". Communist states can be ruled de facto by
8544-438: The title "Mr. President" is used in a number of formal instances as well: for example anyone presiding over the United States Senate is addressed as "Mr./Madam President", especially the vice president, who is the president of the Senate . Other uses of the title include presidents of state and local legislatures, however only the president of the United States uses the title outside of formal sessions. The 1787 Constitution of
8640-516: The title of such offices as " President of the Board of Trade " and " Lord President of the Council " in the United Kingdom , as well as "President of the Senate" in the United States (one of the roles constitutionally assigned to the vice president ). The officiating priest at certain Anglican religious services, too, is sometimes called the "president" in this sense. The most common modern usage
8736-399: The twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the powers of presidencies have varied from country to country. The spectrum of power has included presidents-for-life and hereditary presidencies to ceremonial heads of state . Presidents in the countries with a democratic or representative form of government are usually elected for a specified period of time and in some cases may be re-elected by
8832-465: The two departments were of approximately equal importance. In 1782, the two Secretaries of State were reformed as the Secretary of State for the Home Department and the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs . Cabinet (government) A cabinet in governing is a group of people with the constitutional or legal task to rule a country or state, or advise a head of state, usually from
8928-483: The variant of Electoral Highness or the lesser Excellency , the latter of which was vociferously opposed by Adams, who contended that it was far beneath the presidential dignity, as the executives of the states, some of which were also titled "President" (e.g. the president of Pennsylvania ), at that time often enjoyed the style of Excellency ; Adams said the president "would be leveled with colonial governors or with functionaries from German princedoms" if he were to use
9024-477: Was called the master and his second the president . The first president of Harvard, Henry Dunster , had been educated at Magdalene. Some have speculated that he borrowed the term out of a sense of humility, considering himself only a temporary place-holder. The presiding official of Yale College , originally a " rector " (after the usage of continental European universities), became "president" in 1745. A common style of address for presidents, "Mr/Mrs. President",
9120-401: Was not head of state, because that office was vested in the council as a whole. The speaker of the House of Commons of Canada , established in 1867, is also addressed as "Monsieur le Président" or "Madame la Présidente" in French. In pre-revolutionary France , the president of a Parlement evolved into a powerful magistrate , a member of the so-called noblesse de robe (" nobility of
9216-460: Was ruled by a royal council. In Kievan Rus' , the prince was obliged to accept the advice and receive the approval of the duma , or council, which was composed of boyars , or nobility. An inner circle of a few members of the duma formed a cabinet to attend and advise the prince constantly. The ruins of Chichen Itza and Mayapan in the Maya civilisation suggest that political authority was held by
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