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136-487: 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville  ·  Marx ·  Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto ·  Tönnies · Veblen ·  Simmel · Durkheim ·  Addams ·  Mead · Weber ·  Du Bois ·  Mannheim · Elias Social network analysis ( SNA ) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory . It characterizes networked structures in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within

272-413: A better sense of how the social world was organized: into many dense groups with “ weak ties ” between them. Granovetter's work provided the theoretical background for Malcolm Gladwell 's The Tipping Point . This line of research is still actively being pursued by Duncan Watts , Albert-László Barabási , Mark Newman , Jon Kleinberg and others. White's research on “ vacancy chains ” was assisted by

408-474: A couch, she was cared for by her mother until purchasing a house and hiring a nurse to aid her. She next moved downriver to Tynemouth where she regained her health. She stayed at Mrs Halliday's boarding-house, 57 Front Street, for nearly five years from 16 March 1840. The establishment is still open as a guest house today, now named the "Martineau Guest House" in her honor. The critic Diana Postlethwaite wrote of this period for Martineau: Being homebound

544-524: A course with the political scientist Karl Deutsch , who White credits with encouraging him to move toward the social sciences. After receiving his PhD in theoretical physics, he received a Fellowship from the Ford Foundation to begin his second doctorate in sociology at Princeton University . His dissertation advisor was Marion J. Levy . White also worked with Wilbert Moore , Fred Stephan , and Frank W. Notestein while at Princeton. His cohort

680-947: A dean and provost at University of Chicago ; Kathleen Carley at Carnegie Mellon University ; Ronald Breiger at the University of Arizona ; Barry Wellman at the University of Toronto and then the NetLab Network; Peter Bearman at Columbia University ; Bonnie Erickson (Toronto); Christopher Winship ( Harvard University ); Joel Levine ( Dartmouth College ), Nicholas Mullins ( Virginia Tech , deceased), Margaret Theeman (Boulder), Brian Sherman (retired, Atlanta), Nancy Howell (retired, Toronto); David R. Gibson ( University of Notre Dame ); Matthew Bothner ( University of Chicago ); Ann Mische ( University of Notre Dame ); and Kyriakos Kontopoulos ( Temple University ). White died at an assisted living facility in Tucson , on May 19, 2024, at

816-552: A deeper interest in the Bible. Up until her brother James, who was born when she was 3 years old, went off to college at the Manchester New College of York in 1821 ( Harris Manchester College, Oxford ), she did not write often. James and Harriet had a great relationship, so James had suggested that Harriet begin writing as a way to cope with their new separation. Martineau began losing her senses of taste and smell at

952-432: A given network. Homophily : The extent to which actors form ties with similar versus dissimilar others. Similarity can be defined by gender, race, age, occupation, educational achievement, status, values or any other salient characteristic. Homophily is also referred to as assortativity . Multiplexity: The number of content-forms contained in a tie. For example, two people who are friends and also work together would have

1088-645: A graduate of the Harvard Department of Social Relations, was a visiting professor at Harvard and attended some of White's lectures - network thinking heavily influenced Tilly's work. White remained at Harvard until 1986. In addition to a divorce from his wife, Cynthia, (with whom he published several works) and wanting a change, the sociology department at the University of Arizona offer him the position as department chair. He remained at Arizona for two years. In 1988, White joined Columbia University as

1224-419: A group of people who are unlikely to change their opinions of the other people in the group. Unbalanced graphs represent a group of people who are very likely to change their opinions of the people in their group. For example, a group of 3 people (A, B, and C) where A and B have a positive relationship, B and C have a positive relationship, but C and A have a negative relationship is an unbalanced cycle. This group

1360-467: A high risk of message distortion or delivery failure. Centrality : Centrality refers to a group of metrics that aim to quantify the "importance" or "influence" (in a variety of senses) of a particular node (or group) within a network. Examples of common methods of measuring "centrality" include betweenness centrality , closeness centrality , eigenvector centrality , alpha centrality , and degree centrality . Density : The proportion of direct ties in

1496-816: A historical plaque marks this house. In 1841 she published a series of four novels for children, The Playfellow , comprising The Settlers at Home , The Peasant and the Prince , Feats on the Fiord , and The Crofton Boys . In 1844 she published Life in the Sickroom: Essays by an Invalid, an autobiographical reflection on invalidism. She wrote Household Education (1848), the handbook on the "proper" way to raise and educate children. Lastly, she began working on her autobiography. Completed much later, it included some hundred pages on this period. Notable visitors included Richard Cobden and Thomas and Jane Carlyle. Life in

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1632-532: A letter, She was very agreeable and managed to talk on a most wonderful number of subjects, considering the limited time. I was astonished to find how little ugly she is, but as it appears to me, she is overwhelmed with her own projects, her own thoughts and own abilities. Erasmus palliated all this, by maintaining one ought not to look at her as a woman. Significantly, Martineau's earlier popularization of Thomas Malthus ' theories of population control may have helped convince Charles to read Malthus, which provided

1768-577: A long visit to the United States; she and her travelling companions spanning the nation from New York to Boston , and from Chicago through to Atlanta and elsewhere in Georgia . During this time, she visited a great many people, some little known, others as famous as James Madison , the former US president, at his home at Montpelier . She also met numerous abolitionists in Boston and studied

1904-615: A means of qualitatively assessing networks by varying the visual representation of their nodes and edges to reflect attributes of interest. Social network analysis has emerged as a key technique in modern sociology . It has also gained significant popularity in the following: anthropology , biology , demography , communication studies , economics , geography , history , information science , organizational studies , physics , political science , public health, social psychology , development studies , sociolinguistics , and computer science , education and distance education research, and

2040-496: A more accurate picture of collaborative learning experiences. A number of research studies have combined other types of analysis with SNA in the study of CSCL. This can be referred to as a multi-method approach or data triangulation , which will lead to an increase of evaluation reliability in CSCL studies. Harriet Martineau Harriet Martineau (12 June 1802 – 27 June 1876) was an English social theorist . She wrote from

2176-425: A multiplexity of 2. Multiplexity has been associated with relationship strength and can also comprise overlap of positive and negative network ties. Mutuality/Reciprocity: The extent to which two actors reciprocate each other's friendship or other interaction. Network Closure : A measure of the completeness of relational triads. An individual's assumption of network closure (i.e. that their friends are also friends)

2312-418: A network relative to the total number possible. Distance: The minimum number of ties required to connect two particular actors, as popularized by Stanley Milgram 's small world experiment and the idea of 'six degrees of separation'. Structural holes: The absence of ties between two parts of a network. Finding and exploiting a structural hole can give an entrepreneur a competitive advantage. This concept

2448-582: A network, and the relatively small role played by an instructor in an asynchronous learning network. Although many studies have demonstrated the value of social network analysis within the computer-supported collaborative learning field, researchers have suggested that SNA by itself is not enough for achieving a full understanding of CSCL. The complexity of the interaction processes and the myriad sources of data make it difficult for SNA to provide an in-depth analysis of CSCL. Researchers indicate that SNA needs to be complemented with other methods of analysis to form

2584-540: A number of graduate students, including Michael Schwartz and Ivan Chase . The outcome of this was the book Chains of Opportunity . The book described a model of social mobility where the roles and the people that filled them were independent. The idea of a person being partially created by their position in patterns of relationships has become a recurring theme in his work. This provided a quantitative analysis of social roles, allowing scientists new ways to measure society that were not based on statistical aggregates. During

2720-464: A positive relationship (friendship, alliance, dating) and a negative edge between two nodes denotes a negative relationship (hatred, anger). Signed social network graphs can be used to predict the future evolution of the graph. In signed social networks , there is the concept of "balanced" and "unbalanced" cycles. A balanced cycle is defined as a cycle where the product of all the signs are positive. According to balance theory , balanced graphs represent

2856-596: A priori definitions of group membership. At Columbia, White trained a new cohort of researchers who pushed network analysis beyond methodological rigor to theoretical extension and the incorporation of previously neglected concepts, namely, culture and language. Many of his students and mentees have had a strong impact in sociology. Other former students include Michael Schwartz and Ivan Chase, both professors at Stony Brook; Joel Levine, who founded Dartmouth College 's Math/Social Science program; Edward Laumann who pioneered survey-based egocentric network research and became

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2992-731: A professor of sociology and was the director of the Paul F. Lazarsfeld Center for the Social Sciences . This was at the early stages of what is perhaps the second major revolution in network analysis, the so-called " New York School of relational sociology ." This invisible college included Columbia as well as the New School for Social Research and New York University. While the Harvard Revolution involved substantial advances in methods for measuring and modeling social structure,

3128-559: A sewing needle" as well as the (hidden) pen. In the Martineau family, Harriet's mother Elizabeth made sure all her children received a proper education. With the Martineaus being Unitarian, both the boys and girls in the family were expected to receive a conventional education. In order to abide by this well-rounded education, Harriet was taught at home by several of her elder siblings in the beginning of her education journey. Harriet

3264-646: A sociological, holistic , religious and feminine angle, translated works by Auguste Comte , and, rare for a woman writer at the time, earned enough to support herself. The young Princess Victoria enjoyed her work and invited her to her 1838 coronation . Martineau advised "a focus on all [society's] aspects, including key political, religious, and social institutions". She applied thorough analysis to women's status under men. The novelist Margaret Oliphant called her "a born lecturer and politician... less distinctively affected by her sex than perhaps any other, male or female, of her generation." Her lifelong commitment to

3400-489: A structural theory of social action that emphasizes control, agency, narrative, and identity; (5) a theory of artistic production; (6) a theory of economic production markets leading to the elaboration of a network ecology for market identities and new ways of accounting for profits, prices, and market shares; and (7) a theory of language use that emphasizes switching between social, cultural, and idiomatic domains within networks of discourse. His most explicit theoretical statement

3536-411: A tool to understand behavior between individuals or organizations through their linkages on social media websites such as Twitter and Facebook . One of the most current methods of the application of SNA is to the study of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). When applied to CSCL, SNA is used to help understand how learners collaborate in terms of amount, frequency, and length, as well as

3672-986: A variety of topics. Martineau's frequent publication in the Repository acquainted her with editor Rev. William Johnson Fox (not William Darwin Fox, see disambiguation). First coming to London around 1830, Martineau joined Fox's social circle of prominent thinkers, which also introduced her to Erasmus Alvey Darwin , older brother to Charles Darwin. In November 1832, Martineau moved to London. Among her acquaintances were: Henry Hallam , Harriet Taylor , Alexander Maconochie , Henry Hart Milman , Thomas Malthus , Monckton Milnes , Sydney Smith , John Stuart Mill , Edward Bulwer-Lytton , Elizabeth Barrett Browning , Sarah Austin , and Charles Lyell , as well as Jane Welsh Carlyle and Thomas Carlyle . She met Florence Nightingale , Charlotte Brontë , George Eliot and Charles Dickens later on in her literary career. Until 1834, Martineau

3808-430: A way to account for grammar in a way that does not ignore meaning as does much of standard linguistic theory. He had a long-standing interest in organizations, and before he retired, he worked on how strategy fits into the overall models of social construction he has developed. In addition to his own publications, White is widely credited with training many influential generations of network analysts in sociology. Including

3944-417: A wide range of applications and disciplines. Some common network analysis applications include data aggregation and mining , network propagation modeling, network modeling and sampling, user attribute and behavior analysis, community-maintained resource support, location-based interaction analysis, social sharing and filtering, recommender systems development, and link prediction and entity resolution. In

4080-439: A woman was suggesting such a position in the power dynamic, critics suggested that, as she was an invalid, her mind must also be sick and the work was not to be taken seriously. British and Foreign Medical Review dismissed Martineau's piece on the same basis as the critics: an ill person cannot write a healthy work. They thought it was unheard of for a woman to suggest being in a position of control, especially in sickness. Instead,

4216-413: A writer and her father's business failure, which she describes as "one of the best things that ever happened to us". She described how she could then "truly live instead of vegetate". Her reflection emphasizes her experience with financial responsibility in her life while she writes "[her] fusion of literary and economic narratives". Harriet's first commissioned book, Illustrations of Political Economy ,

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4352-491: A young age. She was deaf and having to use an ear trumpet at the young age of 12. However, it was said that Harriet did not actually utilize the ear trumpet until her late twenties as she was trying to avoid harassment from others by doing so. It was the beginning of many health problems in her life. With such an early onset of illness, and the passing of her father, requiring her to make a living for herself, she became an avid writer. In 1821, she began to write anonymously for

4488-569: Is Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (1992), although several of the major components of his theory of the mutual shaping of networks, institutions, and agency are also readily apparent in Careers and Creativity: Social Forces in the Arts (1993), written for a less-specialized audience. More generally, White and his students sparked interest in looking at society as networks rather than as aggregates of individuals. This view

4624-667: Is a leader without followers; the term describes a relationship one has with others. Without the relationships, there would be no leader. Likewise, an organization can be viewed as patterns of relationships. It would not “exist” if people did not honor and maintain specific relationships. White avoids giving attributes to things that emerge from patterns of relationships, something that goes against our natural instincts and requires some thought to process. Identity and Control has seven chapters. The first six are about social formations that control us and how our own judgment organizes our experience in ways that limit our actions. The final chapter

4760-434: Is a major part of the process of becoming feminine. In this interior setting she (Martineau) is taught the home arts of working, serving, and cleaning, as well as the rehearsals for the role of mothering. She sees her mother... doing these things. They define femininity for her. Her illness caused her to literally enact the social constraints of women during this time. Martineau wrote a number of books during her illness, and

4896-734: Is about “getting action” and how change is possible. One of the ways is by “proxy,” empowering others. Harrison White also developed a perspective on market structure and competition in his 2002 book, Markets from Networks , based on the idea that markets are embedded in social networks . His approach is related to economic concepts such as uncertainty (as defined by Frank Knight ), monopolistic competition ( Edward Chamberlin ), or signalling ( Spence ). This sociological perspective on markets has influenced both sociologists (see Joel M. Podolny ) and economists (see Olivier Favereau ). White's later work discussed linguistics. In Identity and Control he emphasized “switching” between network domains as

5032-419: Is called transitivity. Transitivity is an outcome of the individual or situational trait of Need for Cognitive Closure . Propinquity : The tendency for actors to have more ties with geographically close others. Bridge : An individual whose weak ties fill a structural hole , providing the only link between two individuals or clusters. It also includes the shortest route when a longer one is unfeasible due to

5168-501: Is carried out considering the network of words co-occurring in a text. In these networks, nodes are words and links among them are weighted based on their frequency of co-occurrence (within a specific maximum range). Social network analysis has also been applied to understanding online behavior by individuals, organizations, and between websites. Hyperlink analysis can be used to analyze the connections between websites or webpages to examine how information flows as individuals navigate

5304-425: Is collected. Social Networking Potential (SNP) is a numeric coefficient , derived through algorithms to represent both the size of an individual's social network and their ability to influence that network. SNP coefficients were first defined and used by Bob Gerstley in 2002. A closely related term is Alpha User , defined as a person with a high SNP. SNP coefficients have two primary functions: By calculating

5440-442: Is confined by an unjustifiable restriction of... education... As women have none of the objects in life for which an enlarged education is considered requisite, the education is not given... The choice is to either be 'ill-educated, passive, and subservient, or well-educated, vigorous, and free only upon sufferance. The publication of Martineau's Illustrations of Political Economy found public success. So much success that, "by 1834,

5576-489: Is directly tied to every other individual, ' social circles ' if there is less stringency of direct contact, which is imprecise, or as structurally cohesive blocks if precision is wanted. Clustering coefficient : A measure of the likelihood that two associates of a node are associates. A higher clustering coefficient indicates a greater 'cliquishness'. Cohesion: The degree to which actors are connected directly to each other by cohesive bonds . Structural cohesion refers to

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5712-533: Is now commonly available as a consumer tool (see the list of SNA software ). Social network analysis has its theoretical roots in the work of early sociologists such as Georg Simmel and Émile Durkheim , who wrote about the importance of studying patterns of relationships that connect social actors. Social scientists have used the concept of " social networks " since early in the 20th century to connote complex sets of relationships between members of social systems at all scales, from interpersonal to international. In

5848-535: Is part of her doctrine. I much doubt whether it will be equality in practice. The Darwins shared Martineau's Unitarian background and Whig politics, but their father Robert was concerned that, as a potential daughter-in-law, she was too extreme in her politics. Charles noted that his father was upset by a piece in the Westminster Review calling for the radicals to break with the Whigs and give working men

5984-513: Is provided by his former student and collaborator, Ronald Breiger : White addresses problems of social structure that cut across the range of the social sciences. Most notably, he has contributed (1) theories of role structures encompassing classificatory kinship systems of native Australian peoples and institutions of the contemporary West; (2) models based on equivalences of actors across networks of multiple types of social relation; (3) theorization of social mobility in systems of organizations; (4)

6120-598: Is so very plain; otherwise I should be frightened: She is a wonderful woman. Martineau wrote Deerbrook (1838), a three-volume novel published after her American books. She portrayed a failed love affair between a physician and his sister-in-law. It was considered her most successful novel. She also wrote The Hour and the Man: An Historical Romance (1841), a three-volume novel about the Haitian slave leader Toussaint L'Ouverture , who contributed to

6256-435: Is still controversial. In sociology and organizational science, it is difficult to measure cause and effect in a systematic way. Because of that, it is common to use sampling techniques to discover some sort of average in a population. For instance, we are told almost daily how the average European or American feels about a topic. It allows social scientists and pundits to make inferences about cause and say “people are angry at

6392-514: Is very likely to morph into a balanced cycle, such as one where B only has a good relationship with A, and both A and B have a negative relationship with C. By using the concept of balanced and unbalanced cycles, the evolution of signed social network graphs can be predicted. Especially when using social network analysis as a tool for facilitating change, different approaches of participatory network mapping have proven useful. Here participants / interviewers provide network data by actually mapping out

6528-537: The Monthly Repository , a Unitarian periodical. Her first contribution was "Female Writers of Practical Divinity," and in 1823 she published Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns . The year 1823 was the same year that Harriet's brother James introduced her to one of his friends from school, John Hugh Worthington. The two were engaged, however never married as Worthington fell ill and died. Martineau later reveals in her autobiography that she

6664-566: The Graduate School of Industrial Administration , Carnegie Institute of Technology (later Carnegie-Mellon University ), where he stayed for a couple of years, between 1957 and 1959. In an interview, he claimed to have fought with the dean, Leyland Bock , to have the word "sociology" included in his title. It was also during his time at the Stanford Center for Advanced Study that White met his first wife, Cynthia A. Johnson, who

6800-613: The Gurney family of Earlham Hall , Norfolk . Harriet's father, Thomas, owned the leasehold of the Gurney's home, Gurney Court, Harriet's birth place. The family's wealth remained intact until around 1825–26 when the stock market and banking system collapsed. As previously mentioned Harriet and her mother's relationship was quite hostile early on. It was a traditional gesture for mothers to hire wet nurses for their children, especially if they could not nurse their child by themselves. However

6936-533: The Lake District , where she designed herself and oversaw the construction of the house called The Knoll, Ambleside (made a Grade II Listed Building in 1974 ), where she spent the greater part of her later life. Although she was single and had no children she believed that: "No true woman, married or single, can be happy without some sort of domestic life; – without having somebody's happiness dependent on her: and my own ideal of an innocent and happy life

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7072-549: The Review recommended that patients follow "unconditional submission" to the advice of doctors. They disagreed with the idea that Martineau might hold any sort of "authority to Britain's invalids". Expecting to remain an invalid for the rest of her life, Martineau delighted in the new freedom of views using her telescope . Across the Tyne was the sandy beach "where there are frequent wrecks — too interesting to an invalid... and above

7208-467: The September 11 attacks . Large textual corpora can be turned into networks and then analysed with the method of social network analysis. In these networks, the nodes are Social Actors, and the links are Actions. The extraction of these networks can be automated by using parsers. The resulting networks, which can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by using tools from network theory to identify

7344-720: The abolitionist movement has seen Martineau's celebrity and achievements studied world-wide, particularly at American institutions of higher education such as Northwestern University . When unveiling a statue of Martineau in December 1883 at the Old South Meeting House in Boston , Wendell Phillips referred to her as the "greatest American abolitionist". Martineau's statue was gifted to Wellesley College in 1886. Born in Norwich , England, Harriet Martineau

7480-542: The voyage of the Beagle , Charles Darwin went to London to stay with his brother Erasmus . He found him spending his days "driving out Miss Martineau", who had returned from her trip to the United States. Charles wrote to his sister: Our only protection from so admirable a sister-in-law is in her working him too hard." He commented, "She already takes him to task about his idleness — She is going some day to explain to him her notions about marriage — Perfect equality of rights

7616-491: The "attributes and attitudes" approach of Parsonsian sociology, and came to be the leader of what has been variously known as the “Harvard Revolution," the "Harvard breakthrough," or the "Harvard renaissance" in social networks. He worked closely with small group researchers George C. Homans and Robert F. Bales , which was largely compatible with his prior work in organizational research and his efforts to formalize network analysis. Overlapping White's early years, Charles Tilly ,

7752-584: The 1930s Jacob Moreno and Helen Jennings introduced basic analytical methods. In 1954, John Arundel Barnes started using the term systematically to denote patterns of ties, encompassing concepts traditionally used by the public and those used by social scientists: bounded groups (e.g., tribes, families) and social categories (e.g., gender, ethnicity). Starting in the 1970s, scholars such as Ronald Burt , Kathleen Carley , Mark Granovetter , David Krackhardt , Edward Laumann , Anatol Rapoport , Barry Wellman , Douglas R. White , and Harrison White expanded

7888-494: The 1960s went on to be a formidable cohort of network analytically inclined sociologists. His first graduate student at Harvard was Edward Laumann who went onto develop one of the most widely used methods of studying personal networks known as ego-network surveys (developed with one of Laumann's students at the University of Chicago, Ronald Burt ). Several of them went on to contribute to the "Toronto school" of structural analysis. Barry Wellman , for instance, contributed heavily to

8024-406: The 1970s, White work with his student's Scott Boorman , Ronald Breiger , and François Lorrain on a series of articles that introduce a procedure called " blockmodeling " and the concept of "structural equivalence." The key idea behind these articles was identifying a "position" or "role" through similarities in individuals' social structure, rather than characteristics intrinsic to the individuals or

8160-617: The Center for Advanced Study, White began learning anthropology and became fascinated with kinship. During his stay at the University of Chicago White was able to finish An Anatomy of Kinship , published in 1963 within the Prentice-Hall series in Mathematical Analysis of Social Behavior, with James Coleman and James March as chief editors. The book received significant attention from many mathematical sociologists of

8296-652: The New York School involved the merging of cultural sociology with network-structural sociology, two traditions which had previously been antagonistic. White stood at the heart of this, and his magnum opus Identity and Control was a testament to this new relational sociology. In 1992, White received the named position of Giddings Professor of Sociology and was the chair of the department of sociology for various years until his retirement. He resided in Tucson, Arizona. A good summary of White's sociological contributions

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8432-523: The R package SIENA (Simulation Investigation for Empirical Network Analyses), developed by Tom Snijders and colleagues. Longitudinal social network analysis became mainstream after the publication of a special issue of the Journal of Research on Adolescence in 2013, edited by René Veenstra and containing 15 empirical papers. Social network analysis is also used in intelligence, counter-intelligence and law enforcement activities. This technique allows

8568-715: The SNP of respondents and by targeting High SNP respondents, the strength and relevance of quantitative marketing research used to drive viral marketing strategies is enhanced. Variables used to calculate an individual's SNP include but are not limited to: participation in Social Networking activities, group memberships, leadership roles, recognition, publication/editing/contributing to non-electronic media, publication/editing/contributing to electronic media (websites, blogs), and frequency of past distribution of information within their network. The acronym "SNP" and some of

8704-464: The Sickroom is considered to be one of Martineau's finest works. It upset evangelical readers, as they "thought it dangerous in 'its supposition of self-reliance'". This series of essays embraced traditional womanhood. Martineau dedicated it to Elizabeth Barrett , as it was "an outpouring of feeling to an idealized female alter ego, both professional writer and professional invalid- and utterly unlike

8840-1063: The Small Group Laboratory at MIT while White was completing his first PhD in physics also at MIT. While continuing his studies at Princeton, White also spent a year as a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences , Stanford University , California where he met Harold Guetzkow . Guetzkow was a faculty member at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, known for his application of simulations to social behavior and long-time collaborator with many other pioneers in organization studies, including Herbert A. Simon , James March , and Richard Cyert . Upon meeting Simon through his mutual acquaintance with Guetzkow, White received an invitation to move from California to Pittsburgh to work as an assistant professor of Industrial Administration and Sociology at

8976-531: The University of Chicago to found a new department of social relations at Johns Hopkins University, this left a vacancy open for a mathematical sociologist like White. He moved to Chicago to start working as an associate professor at the Department of Sociology. At that time, highly influential sociologists, such as Peter Blau , Mayer Zald , Elihu Katz , Everett Hughes , Erving Goffman were there. As Princeton only required one year in residence, and White took

9112-647: The age of 15, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), receiving his undergraduate degree at 20 years of age; five years later, in 1955, he received a doctorate in theoretical physics , also from MIT with John C. Slater as his advisor. His dissertation was titled A quantum-mechanical calculation of inter-atomic force constants in copper. This was published in the Physical Review as "Atomic Force Constants of Copper from Feynman's Theorem" (1958). While at MIT he also took

9248-482: The air comes in through my open upper sash brisk, but sun-warmed. The robins twitter and hop in my flower-boxes... And at night, what a heaven! What an expanse of stars above, appearing more steadfast, the more the Northern Lights dart and quiver! During her illness, she for a second time declined a pension on the civil list , fearing to compromise her political independence. After publication of her letter on

9384-476: The analysis is on the "connections" made among the participants – how they interact and communicate – as opposed to how each participant behaved on his or her own. There are several key terms associated with social network analysis research in computer-supported collaborative learning such as: density , centrality , indegree , outdegree , and sociogram . In-degree and out-degree variables are related to centrality. Researchers employ social network analysis in

9520-404: The analysts to map covert organizations such as an espionage ring, an organized crime family or a street gang. The National Security Agency (NSA) uses its electronic surveillance programs to generate the data needed to perform this type of analysis on terrorist cells and other networks deemed relevant to national security. The NSA looks up to three nodes deep during this network analysis. After

9656-462: The breakthrough ideas for his nascent theory of evolution. In April 1838, Charles wrote to his older sister Susan that Erasmus has been with her noon, morning, and night: — if her character was not as secure, as a mountain in the polar regions she certainly would lose it. — Lyell called there the other day & there was a beautiful rose on the table, & she coolly showed it to him & said 'Erasmus Darwin' gave me that. — How fortunate it is, she

9792-593: The characteristics of their author's style. Tory paternalists reacted by calling her a Malthusian "who deprecates charity and provision for the poor", while Radicals opposed her to the same degree. Whig high society fêted her. In May 1834 Charles Darwin , on his expedition to the Galapagos Islands , received a letter from his sisters saying that Martineau was "now a great Lion in London, much patronized by Ld. Brougham who has set her to write stories on

9928-484: The context of social marketing intelligence was Communities Dominate Brands by Ahonen & Moore in 2005. In 2012, Nicola Greco ( UCL ) presents at TEDx the Social Networking Potential as a parallelism to the potential energy that users generate and companies should use, stating that "SNP is the new asset that every company should aim to have". Social network analysis is used extensively in

10064-431: The cross fertilization of network analysis and community studies, later contributing to the earliest studies of online communities. Another of White's earliest students at Harvard was Nancy Lee (now Nancy Howell) who used social network analysis in her groundbreaking study of how women seeking an abortion found willing doctors before Roe v. Wade. She found that women found doctors through links of friends and acquaintances and

10200-498: The current administration because the economy is doing poorly.” This kind of generalization certainly makes sense, but it does not tell us anything about an individual. This leads to the idea of an idealized individual, something that is the bedrock of modern economics. Most modern economic theories look at social formations, like organizations, as products of individuals all acting in their own best interest. While this has proved to be useful in some cases, it does not account well for

10336-552: The data is done through displaying nodes and ties in various layouts, and attributing colors, size and other advanced properties to nodes. Visual representations of networks may be a powerful method for conveying complex information, but care should be taken in interpreting node and graph properties from visual displays alone, as they may misrepresent structural properties better captured through quantitative analyses. Signed graphs can be used to illustrate good and bad relationships between humans. A positive edge between two nodes denotes

10472-479: The development of his widely cited 1973 article, "The Strength of Weak Ties", Granovetter credits White's lectures and specifically White's description of sociometric work by Anatol Rapaport and William Horrath that gave him the idea. This, tied with earlier work by Stanley Milgram (who was also in the Harvard Department of Social Relations 1963–1967, though not one of White's students), gave scientists

10608-513: The direct influence of one mind on another mind. Mesmerism was designed to make invisible forces augment the mental powers of the mesmeric object." Martineau eventually published an account of her case in 16 Letters on Mesmerism , which caused much discussion. Her work led to friction with "the natural prejudices of a surgeon and a surgeon's wife" (i.e., her brother-in-law, Thomas Michael Greenhow and her sister, Elizabeth Martineau Greenhow ). In 1845, Martineau left Tynemouth for Ambleside in

10744-980: The early work in the 1960s and 1970s during the Harvard Revolution, as well as the 1980s and 1990s at Columbia during the New York School of relational sociology. White's student and teaching assistant, Michael Schwartz , took notes in the spring of 1965, known as Notes on the Constituents of Social Structure , of White's undergraduate Introduction to Social Relations c ourse ( Soc Rel 10 ). These notes were circulated among network analysis students and aficionados, until finally published in 2008 in Socio logica . As popular social science blog Orgtheory.net explains, "in contemporary American sociology, there are no set of student-taken notes that have had as much underground influence as those from Harrison White’s introductory Soc Rel 10 seminar at Harvard." The first generation of Harvard graduate students that trained with White during

10880-576: The emergence of new data available about online social networks as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks. Computational SNA has been extensively used in research on study-abroad second language acquisition. Even in the study of literature, network analysis has been applied by Anheier, Gerhards and Romo, Wouter De Nooy, and Burgert Senekal. Indeed, social network analysis has found applications in various academic disciplines as well as practical contexts such as countering money laundering and terrorism . Size: The number of network members in

11016-458: The emerging schools for the education of girls. Her support of abolitionism , then widely unpopular across the U.S., caused controversy, which her publication, soon after her return, of Society in America (1837) and How to Observe Morals and Manners (1838), only fueled. In Society in America , Martineau angrily criticized the state of women's education. She wrote: The intellect of women

11152-400: The first algorithms developed to quantify an individual's social networking potential were described in the white paper "Advertising Research is Changing" (Gerstley, 2003) See Viral Marketing . The first book to discuss the commercial use of Alpha Users among mobile telecoms audiences was 3G Marketing by Ahonen, Kasper and Melkko in 2004. The first book to discuss Alpha Users more generally in

11288-561: The free-market ideas of Adam Smith and others throughout the British Empire . Martineau then agreed to compose a series of similar monthly stories over a period of two years, the work being hastened by having her brother James also work on the series with her. The subsequent works offered fictional tutorials on a range of political economists such as James Mill , Bentham and Ricardo , the latter especially forming her view of rent law. Martineau relied on Malthus to form her view of

11424-426: The idea of domestic realism . Martineau's ideas in the novel were inspired by the works of David Hartley . This novel in particular was different from her other works as her development was evident. Her development included both her improvement of fictional writing, but also showed mastery of the theories she wrote about. In the early 19th century, most social institutions and norms were strongly shaped by gender, or

11560-500: The initial mapping of the social network is complete, analysis is performed to determine the structure of the network and determine, for example, the leaders within the network. This allows military or law enforcement assets to launch capture-or-kill decapitation attacks on the high-value targets in leadership positions to disrupt the functioning of the network. The NSA has been performing social network analysis on call detail records (CDRs), also known as metadata , since shortly after

11696-540: The island nation's gaining independence in 1804. In 1839, during a visit to Continental Europe , Martineau was diagnosed with a uterine tumor. She several times visited her brother-in-law, Thomas Michael Greenhow , who was a celebrated doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne , to try to alleviate her symptoms. On the last occasion she stayed for six months in the Greenhow family house at 28 Eldon Square. Immobile and confined to

11832-411: The key actors, the key communities or parties, and general properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall network, or centrality of certain nodes. This automates the approach introduced by Quantitative Narrative Analysis, whereby subject-verb-object triplets are identified with pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-object. In other approaches, textual analysis

11968-434: The knowledge that is required for the structures to sustain themselves. White and his students (and his students' students) have been developing models that incorporate the patterns of relationships into descriptions of social formations. This line of work includes: economic sociology, network sociology and structuralist sociology. White's most comprehensive work is Identity and Control . The first edition came out in 1992 and

12104-400: The minimum number of members who, if removed from a group, would disconnect the group. Visual representation of social networks is important to understand the network data and convey the result of the analysis. Numerous methods of visualization for data produced by social network analysis have been presented. Many of the analytic software have modules for network visualization. Exploration of

12240-610: The money to build a house of her own rather than pay for something she did not love. The next place Martineau was brought to look at was the land of a minister at Ambleside called the Knoll. She ended up getting a great deal for the original plot of land and a bonus plot. The next task she took on was actually planning the layout of the house, which found very enjoyable. When the actual act of constructing came around, she and her contractor were on very good terms and understood each other's expectations, in terms of payment and time commitments. It

12376-486: The monthly sales . . . had reached 10,000 in a decade in which a sale of 2,000 or 3,000 copies of a work of fiction was considered highly successful." Her article "The Martyr Age of the United States" (1839), in the Westminster Review , introduced English readers to the struggles of the abolitionists in America several years after Britain had abolished slavery . In October 1836, soon after returning from

12512-406: The network (with pen and paper or digitally) during the data collection session. An example of a pen-and-paper network mapping approach, which also includes the collection of some actor attributes (perceived influence and goals of actors) is the * Net-map toolbox . One benefit of this approach is that it allows researchers to collect qualitative data and ask clarifying questions while the network data

12648-620: The network) and the ties , edges , or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Examples of social structures commonly visualized through social network analysis include social media networks , meme spread, information circulation, friendship and acquaintance networks , business networks, knowledge networks, difficult working relationships, collaboration graphs , kinship , disease transmission , and sexual relationships . These networks are often visualized through sociograms in which nodes are represented as points and ties are represented as lines. These visualizations provide

12784-403: The opportunity to take positions at Johns Hopkins, Stanford, and Carnegie while still working on his dissertation, it was at Chicago that White credits as being his "real socialization in a way, into sociology." It was here that White advised his first two graduate students Joel H. Levine and Morris Friedell , both who went on to make contributions to social network analysis in sociology. While at

12920-641: The organization. In May 1960 he submitted as his doctoral dissertation, titled Research and Development as a Pattern in Industrial Management: A Case Study in Institutionalisation and Uncertainty, earning a PhD in sociology from Princeton University . His first publication based on his dissertation was ''Management conflict and sociometric structure'' in the American Journal of Sociology . In 1959 James Coleman left

13056-415: The perception of what was appropriate for men versus for women. Writing was no exception; non-fiction works about social, economic and political issues were dominated by men, while limited areas, such as romance fiction, and topics dealing with domesticity were considered to be appropriate for women authors. Despite these gendered expectations in the literary world, Martineau strongly expressed her opinions on

13192-409: The poor Laws " and recommending Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated in pamphlet -sized parts. They added that their brother Erasmus "knows her & is a very great admirer & every body reads her little books & if you have a dull hour you can, and then throw them overboard, that they may not take up your precious room". In 1834–36, after completing the economic series, Harriet Martineau paid

13328-470: The private sector, businesses use social network analysis to support activities such as customer interaction and analysis, information system development analysis, marketing, and business intelligence needs (see social media analytics ). Some public sector uses include development of leader engagement strategies, analysis of individual and group engagement and media use , and community-based problem solving . Large numbers of researchers worldwide examine

13464-648: The profession of sociology and whose cumulative work has contributed in important ways to the advancement of the discipline." Before his retirement to live in Tucson, Arizona , White was interested in sociolinguistics and business strategy as well as sociology. White was born on March 21, 1930, in Washington, D.C. He had three siblings and his father was a doctor in the US Navy. Although moving around to different Naval bases throughout his adolescence, he considered himself Southern, and Nashville, TN to be his home. At

13600-424: The quality, topic, and strategies of communication. Additionally, SNA can focus on specific aspects of the network connection, or the entire network as a whole. It uses graphical representations, written representations, and data representations to help examine the connections within a CSCL network. When applying SNA to a CSCL environment the interactions of the participants are treated as a social network. The focus of

13736-424: The rocks, a spreading heath, where I watch troops of boys flying their kites; lovers and friends taking their breezy walks on Sundays..." She expressed a lyrical view of Tynemouth: When I look forth in the morning, the whole land may be sheeted with glittering snow, while the myrtle-green sea swells and tumbles... there is none of the deadness of winter in the landscape; no leafless trees, no locking up with ice; and

13872-492: The same time opposed female pedantics "with a sharp eye for feminine propriety and good manners. Her daughters could never be seen in public with a pen in their hand". Despite this conservative approach to raising girls, Harriet was not the only academically successful daughter in the family; her sister Rachel ran her own Unitarian academy with artist Hilary Bonham Carter as one of her students. Mrs. Martineau strictly enforced proper feminine behavior, pushing her daughter to "hold

14008-463: The second edition appeared in June 2008. In this book, White discusses the social world, including “persons,” as emerging from patterns of relationships. He argues that it is a default human heuristic to organize the world in terms of attributes, but that this can often be a mistake. For instance, there are countless books on leadership that look for the attributes that make a good leader. However, no one

14144-399: The social networks of children and adolescents. In questionnaires, they list all classmates, students in the same grade, or schoolmates, asking: "who are your best friends?". Students may sometimes nominate as many peers as they wish; other times, the number of nominations is limited. Social network researchers have investigated similarities in friendship networks. The similarity between friends

14280-440: The specific wet nurse that Harriet's mother had hired could not produce a sufficient amount of milk for an infant. This left Harriet starved for the first few weeks of her life, which is what Mrs. Martineau had attributed all of Harriet's future ailments to. Harriet's ideas on domesticity and the "natural faculty for housewifery", as described in her book Household Education (1848), stemmed from her lack of nurture growing up. It

14416-471: The strategies used to communicate within the group. Some authors also suggest that SNA provides a method of easily analyzing changes in participatory patterns of members over time. A number of research studies have applied SNA to CSCL across a variety of contexts. The findings include the correlation between a network's density and the teacher's presence, a greater regard for the recommendations of "central" participants, infrequency of cross-gender interaction in

14552-416: The study of computer-supported collaborative learning in part due to the unique capabilities it offers. This particular method allows the study of interaction patterns within a networked learning community and can help illustrate the extent of the participants' interactions with the other members of the group. The graphics created using SNA tools provide visualizations of the connections among participants and

14688-409: The subject, some of her friends raised a small annuity for her soon after. In 1844, Martineau underwent a course of mesmerism , returning to health after a few months. There was national interest in mesmerism at this time. Also known as "animal magnetism", it can be defined as a "loosely grouped set of practices in which one person influenced another through a variety of personal actions, or through

14824-461: The tendency of human population to exceed its means of subsistence. However, in stories such as "Weal and Woe in Garvelock", she promoted the idea of population control through what Malthus referred to as "voluntary checks" such as voluntary chastity and delayed marriages. One of Martineau's most popular works of fiction was Deerbrook (1839). The book drew much attention because it focused on

14960-427: The time, and contributed greatly to establish White as a model builder. In 1963, White left Chicago to be an associate professor of sociology at the Harvard Department of Social Relations —the same department founded by Talcott Parsons and still heavily influenced by the structural-functionalist paradigm of Parsons. As White previously only taught graduate courses at Carnegie and Chicago, his first undergraduate course

15096-504: The tradition of the English Dissenters . According to the writer Diana Postlethwaite, Harriet's relationship with her mother was strained and lacking affection, which contributed to views expressed in her later writing. Martineau claimed her mother abandoned her to a wet nurse . Harriet's childhood was rather different compared to any other ordinary child. Her family was financially comfortable and they were close friends with

15232-612: The traditional roles of feminine propriety to earn a living for her family. Along with her needlework, she began selling her articles to the Monthly Repository , earning accolades, including three essay prizes from the Unitarian Association . Her regular work with the Repository helped establish her as a reliable and popular freelance writer. In Martineau's Autobiography , she reflects on her success as

15368-477: The use of systematic social network analysis. Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced a further resurgence with work by sociologists, political scientists, economists, computer scientists, and physicists such as Duncan J. Watts , Albert-László Barabási , Peter Bearman , Nicholas A. Christakis , James H. Fowler , Mark Newman , Matthew Jackson , Jon Kleinberg , and others, developing and applying new models and methods, prompted in part by

15504-487: The vision and the tools. The most comprehensive documentation of his theories can be found in the book Identity and Control , first published in 1992. A major rewrite of the book appeared in June 2008. In 2011, White received the W.E.B. DuBois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award from the American Sociological Association , which honors "scholars who have shown outstanding commitment to

15640-424: The vote "before he knew it was not [Martineau's], and wasted a good deal of indignation, and even now can hardly believe it is not hers". In early December 1836 Charles Darwin called on Martineau and may have discussed the social and natural worlds she was writing about in her book Society in America , including the "grandeur and beauty" of the "process of world making" she had seen at Niagara Falls . He remarked in

15776-547: The web. The connections between organizations has been analyzed via hyperlink analysis to examine which organizations within an issue community. Another concept that has emerged from this connection between social network theory and the Internet is the concept of netocracy , where several authors have emerged studying the correlation between the extended use of online social networks, and changes in social power dynamics. Social network analysis has been applied to social media as

15912-401: The women in her own family". Written during a kind of public break from her mother, this book was Martineau's proclamation of independence. At the same time, Martineau turned the traditional patient–doctor relationship on its head by asserting control over her space even in sickness. The sickroom was her space. Life in the Sickroom explained how to regain control even in illness. Alarmed that

16048-412: The youngest of the eight, Ellen. The Martineau family was of French Huguenot ancestry and professed Unitarian views. Her uncles included the surgeon Philip Meadows Martineau (1752–1829), whom she had enjoyed visiting at his nearby estate, Bracondale Lodge , and businessman and benefactor Peter Finch Martineau . Martineau was closest to her brother James, who became a philosopher and clergyman in

16184-402: Was An Introduction to Social Relations (see Influence) at Harvard, which became infamous among network analysts. As he "thought existing textbooks were grotesquely unscientific," the syllabus of the class was noted for including few readings by sociologists, and comparatively more readings by anthropologists, social psychologists, and historians. White was also a vocal critic of what he called

16320-492: Was a fictional tutorial intended to help the general public understand the ideas of Adam Smith . Illustrations was published in February 1832 in an edition of just 1500 copies, since the publisher assumed it would not sell well. Yet it very quickly became highly successful, and would steadily out-sell the work of Charles Dickens . Illustrations was her first work to receive widespread acclaim, and its success served to spread

16456-607: Was a graduate of Radcliffe College , where she had majored in art history. The couple's joint work on the French Impressionists, Canvases and Careers (1965) and “Institutional Changes in the French Painting World” (1964), originally grew out of a seminar on art in 1957 at the Center for Advanced Study led by Robert Wilson. White originally hoped to use sociometry to map the social structure of French art to predict shifts, but he had an epiphany that it

16592-433: Was a house of my own among poor improvable neighbours, with young servants whom I might train and attach to myself: with pure air, a garden, leisure, solitude at command, and freedom to work in peace and quietness". She began house-hunting and the first house she looked at was not entirely perfect and did not have everything that she needed and was looking for. Her friend, who went with her to view it, said it would be worth

16728-418: Was developed by sociologist Ronald Burt , and is sometimes referred to as an alternate conception of social capital. Tie Strength: Defined by the linear combination of time, emotional intensity, intimacy and reciprocity (i.e. mutuality). Strong ties are associated with homophily, propinquity and transitivity, while weak ties are associated with bridges. Groups are identified as ' cliques ' if every individual

16864-688: Was established as far back as classical antiquity. Resemblance is an important basis for the survival of friendships. Similarity in characteristics, attitudes, or behaviors means that friends understand each other more quickly, have common interests to talk about, know better where they stand with each other, and have more trust in each other. As a result, such relationships are more stable and valuable. Moreover, looking more alike makes young people more confident and strengthens them in developing their identity. Similarity in behavior can result from two processes: selection and influence. These two processes can be distinguished using longitudinal social network analysis in

17000-534: Was found that affection shown toward Harriet by her mother was quite rare. In fact, there have been findings that suggested that Harriet had imagined angels coming to take her away, which was thought to symbolize her wishing to find a way to escape her mother's reign through suicide. Although their relationship was better in adulthood, Harriet saw her mother as the antithesis of the warm and nurturing qualities which she knew to be necessary for girls at an early age. Her mother urged all her children to be well read, but at

17136-493: Was four degrees separated from the doctor on average. White also trained later additions to the Toronto school, Harriet Friedmann ('77) and Bonnie Erickson ('73). One of White's most well-known graduate students was Mark Granovetter , who attended Harvard as a Ph.D. student from 1965 to 1970. Granovetter studied how people got jobs, discovered they were more likely to get them through acquaintances than through friends. Recounting

17272-454: Was in a strange sense relieved in the long run that marriage was not an option, as their relationship was filled with stress and disagreements. Martineau remained unmarried in her life. Her earliest novels were also published during these years, beginning with Principle and Practice in 1827 and Five Years of Youth: or, Sense and Sentiment in 1829. In 1829, the family's textile business failed. Martineau, then 27 years old, stepped out of

17408-434: Was more than a straightforward biological activity... [but rather also] a social event". For his dissertation, White carried out empirical research on a research and development department in a manufacturing firm, consisting of interviews and a 110-item questionnaire with managers. He specifically used sociometric questions, which he used to model the "social structure" of relationships between various departments and teams in

17544-507: Was not social structure but institutional structure which explained the shift. It was also during these years that White, still a graduate student in sociology, wrote and published his first social scientific work, "Sleep: A Sociological Interpretation" in Acta Sociologica in 1960, together with Vilhelm Aubert , a Norwegian sociologist. This work was a phenomenological examination of sleep which attempted to "demonstrate that sleep

17680-546: Was not until April 1846 that Martineau moved into her new house, which was later referred to as The Knoll at Ambleside in England. Harrison White Among social network researchers, White is widely respected. For instance, at the 1997 International Network of Social Network Analysis conference, the organizer held a special “White Tie” event, dedicated to White. Social network researcher Emmanuel Lazega refers to him as both “Copernicus and Galileo” because he invented both

17816-504: Was occupied with her brother James on the political economy series, as well as a supplemental series of Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated and Illustrations of Taxation which was intended to directly influence government policy. About the same time, she published four stories expressing support of the Whig Poor Law reforms. These tales (direct, lucid, written without any appearance of effort, and yet practically effective) display

17952-626: Was often dominated by the three biggest insecurities in her life: her hearing disability, her poor handwriting, and the look of her hair. The next step in Harriet Martineau's education came when she received an invitation from the all-girl boarding school that her Aunt and Uncle Kentish ran in Bristol. Besides the standardized course she took at the school, Harriet began her lifelong self-directed research here. She dived deep into topics on her own, such as Latin, Greek, Italian, and even took

18088-403: Was taught French by her mother, which was the predominant language spoken by her father. Thomas, her father, taught her Latin, and her brother Thomas taught Harriet maths and writing. Unfortunately for Harriet, being taught at home especially by all her siblings often led to lots of mockery. When she was nine years old Harriet transitioned to a small school run by a man named Mr. Perry. Mr. Perry

18224-483: Was the sixth of the eight children of Thomas, a textile manufacturer. He served as deacon of the Octagon Chapel, Norwich from 1797. Her mother, Elizabeth (née Rankin), was the daughter of a sugar refiner and grocer. Harriet's five older siblings included two sisters and three brothers. In age order their names were, Elizabeth, Thomas, Henry, Robert and Rachel Ann. Harriet's two younger siblings were James and

18360-559: Was very small, with only four or five other graduate students including David Matza , and Stanley Udy . At the same time, he took up a position as an operations analyst at the Operations Research Office , Johns Hopkins University from 1955 to 1956. During this period, he worked with Lee S. Christie on Queuing with Preemptive Priorities or with Breakdown , which was published in 1958. Christie previously worked alongside mathematical psychologist R. Duncan Luce in

18496-470: Was very special to Harriet, allegedly one of the first people in her life to provide her with a positive and non-judgmental learning environment. Later on in her life, Harriet claimed that Mr. Perry's school was the catalyst for her intellectual development and interest in education. As her education progressed she began to grow very fond of the following topics: Shakespeare, political economy, philosophy and history. Despite her love for all these topics, her mind

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