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134-489: As part of the Soviet policy of rationalization of the country, all cities were built to a general development plan . Each was divided into districts, with allotments based on the city's geography. Projects would be designed for whole districts, visibly transforming a city's architectural image. The interaction of the state with the architects would prove to be one of the features of this time. The same building could be declared

268-488: A formalist blasphemy and then receive the greatest praise the next year, as happened to Ivan Zholtovsky and his Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya in 1949–50. Authentic styles like Zholtovsky's Renaissance Revival , Ivan Fomin 's St. Petersburg Neoclassical architecture and Art Deco adaptation by Alexey Dushkin and Vladimir Shchuko coexisted with imitations and eclecticism that became characteristic of that era. The Vysotki or Stalinskie Vysotki ( Сталинские высотки ) are

402-426: A 20-kilometre (12 mi) long circle which enables passenger travel between these diameters, and the new Moscow Central Circle (line 14) and even newer Bolshaya Koltsevaya line (line 11) form a 54-kilometre (34 mi) and 57-kilometre (35 mi) long circles respectively that serve a similar purpose on middle periphery. Most stations and lines are underground, but some lines have at-grade and elevated sections;

536-640: A National Prize in architecture was introduced and it was won by a team of architects representing architectural schools of Moscow and Minsk, (M.Parusnikov, G.Badanov, I.Barsch, S.Botkovsky, A.Voinov, V.Korol, S.Musinsky, G.Sisoev, N.Trachtenberg, and N.Shpigelman) for the design and construction of the Nezaleznosci Avenue ensemble. The most famous Stalinist architectural ensembles in Minsk are also on Lenina Street, Kamsamolskaya Street, Kamunistychnaya Street, Pryvakzalnaya Square and others. Central Kiev

670-432: A complete departure from prewar atheism. To see this altar, a rider had to pass a long row of plaster banners, bronze candlesticks and assorted military imagery. Park Kultury featured true Gothic chandeliers, another departure. Metrostroy operated its own marble and carpentry factories, producing 150 solid, whole block marble columns for this short section. The second section of Ring line was a tribute to "Heroic Labor" (with

804-419: A drywall inside; from a quality of life consideration, these are true — and the last — Stalinist buildings. Urban planning Urban planning , also known as town planning , city planning , regional planning , or rural planning in specific contexts, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and

938-465: A framework for urban planning decision-making. Another debate within the urban planning field is about who is included and excluded in the urban planning decision-making process. Most urban planning processes use a top-down approach which fails to include the residents of the places where urban planners and city officials are working. Sherry Arnstein 's "ladder of citizen participation" is often used by many urban planners and city governments to determine

1072-576: A group of skyscrapers in Moscow designed in the Stalinist style. Their English-language nickname is the " Seven Sisters ". They were built officially from 1947 to 1953 (some work extended years past official completion dates) in an elaborate combination of Russian Baroque and Gothic styles and the technology used in building American skyscrapers. The seven skyscrapers are the Hotel Ukraina ,

1206-548: A part of the Filyovskaya Line . The stations, too, were supplied with tight gates and life-sustenance systems to function as proper nuclear shelters. In the further development of the Metro the term "stages" was not used any more, although sometimes the stations opened in 1957–1959 are referred to as the "fifth stage". During the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s, the architectural extravagance of new Metro stations

1340-499: A sign of priority. It also demonstrates class stratification of eligible tenants of this time. Three Moscow buildings received awards: A change from Stalinist architecture to standard prefabricated concrete is usually associated with Khrushchev's reign and particularly the November 1955 decree On liquidation of excesses... (November 1955). Indeed, Khrushchev was involved in a cost-reduction campaign, but it began in 1948, while Stalin

1474-435: A similar look due to the extensive use of same-sized white or off-white ceramic tiles with hard-to-feel differences. Walls with cheap ceramic tiles were susceptible to train-related vibration: some tiles would eventually fall off and break. It was not always possible to replace the missing tiles with the ones of the exact color and tone, which eventually led to variegated parts of the walls. The contrasting style gap between

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1608-470: A standardized logo of the network as part of a broader rebranding of the Moscow Transport. The Moscow Metro, a state-owned enterprise , is 449 km (279 mi) long and consists of 15 lines and 263 stations organized in a spoke-hub distribution paradigm , with the majority of rail lines running radially from the centre of Moscow to the outlying areas. The Koltsevaya Line (line 5) forms

1742-532: A technique which the Metrostroi factory had only just mastered. The Taganskaia Metro Station on the Ring Line was designed in...quite another style by the architects K.S. Ryzhkov and A. Medvedev... Their subject matter dealt with images of war and victory...The overall effect was one of ceremony ... In the platform halls the blue ceramic bodies of the chandeliers played a more modest role, but still emphasised

1876-516: A time when the country was in ruins. The toll of this project on real urban needs can be judged from these numbers: Similar skyscrapers were built in Warsaw , Bucharest , and Riga ; the tower in Kiev was completed without crown and steeple. The upward surge of the high-rises, publicised since 1947, was recreated by numerous smaller buildings across the country. Eight to twelve-story high towers marked

2010-478: A top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). In comparison, New York City Subway trains averaged a slower 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) and had a top speed of 45 miles per hour (72 km/h). While the celebration was an expression of popular joy it was also an effective propaganda display, legitimizing the Metro and declaring it a success. The initial line connected Sokolniki to Okhotny Ryad then branching to Park Kultury and Smolenskaya . The latter branch

2144-1287: A variety of strategies that created politicized discussions without much practical result; State intervention was imminent. Stalin's personal architectural preferences and the extent of his own influence remains, for the most part, a matter of deduction, conjecture and anecdotal evidence. The facts, or their representation in public Soviet documents, largely concerns the Palace of Soviets contest of 1931–33: The architects invited to direct these workshops included traditionalists Ivan Zholtovsky, Alexey Shchusev, Ivan Fomin, Boris Iofan, Vladimir Schuko as well as practising constructivists: Ilya Golosov , Panteleimon Golosov , Nikolai Kolli , Konstantin Melnikov , Victor Vesnin , Moisei Ginzburg and Nikolai Ladovsky . This began an important trend that lasted until 1955. Stalin chose Iofan for one project, but retained all competing architects in his employ. The first years of Stalinist architecture are characterized by individual buildings, or, at most, single-block development projects. Rebuilding vast spaces of Moscow proved much more difficult than razing historical districts. The three most important Moscow buildings of this time are on

2278-617: A walk through the exhibition recreated a tour of the huge country. The central pavilion by Vladimir Schuko was based slightly on the abortive 1932 Palace of Soviets draft by Zholtovsky. Unlike the "national" buildings, it hasn't survived (central gates and major pavilions were rebuilt during the early 1950s). The surviving 1939 pavilions are the last and only example of Stalin's monumental propaganda in their original setting. Such propaganda pieces were not built to last (like Shchusev's War Trophy Hangar in Gorky Park); some were demolished during

2412-538: Is an interdisciplinary field that includes civil engineering , architecture , human geography , politics , social science and design sciences . Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban design , public consultation , policy recommendations, implementation and management. It is closely related to the field of urban design and some urban planners provide designs for streets, parks, buildings and other urban areas. Urban planners work with

2546-634: Is announced by a male voice on inbound trains to the city center (on the Circle line , the clockwise trains), and by a female voice on outbound trains (anti-clockwise trains on the Circle line). The metro has a connection to the Moscow Monorail , a 4.7-kilometre (2.9 mi), six-station monorail line between Timiryazevskaya and VDNKh which opened in January 2008. Prior to the official opening,

2680-465: Is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian , Indus Valley , Minoan , and Egyptian civilizations in the third millennium BCE . Archaeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it. Beginning in

2814-646: Is the Geographic Information System (GIS) that is used to create a model of the existing planning and then to project future impacts on the society, economy and environment. Building codes and other regulations dovetail with urban planning by governing how cities are constructed and used from the individual level. Enforcement methodologies include governmental zoning , planning permissions , and building codes , as well as private easements and restrictive covenants . With recent advances in information and communication technologies and

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2948-416: Is the body of scientific concepts, definitions, behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of urban planning. There are eight procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today: the rational-comprehensive approach, the incremental approach, the transactive approach, the communicative approach, the advocacy approach, the equity approach,

3082-402: Is unnecessary, or even harmful, as it market efficiency allows for effective land use. A pluralist strain of political thinking argues in a similar vein that the government should not intrude in the political competition between different interest groups which decides how land is used. The traditional justification for urban planning has in response been that the planner does to the city what

3216-560: The Enlightenment period , several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities. During the Second French Empire , Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann , under the direction of Napoleon III , redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of

3350-501: The Filyovskaya Line , Butovskaya Line and the Central Circle Line are the three lines that are at grade or mostly at grade. The Moscow Metro uses 1,520 mm ( 4 ft  11 + 27 ⁄ 32  in ) Russian gauge , like other Russian railways, and an underrunning third rail with a supply of 825 Volts DC , except lines 13 and 14, the former being a monorail, and the latter being directly connected to

3484-539: The Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945, which would interrupt the process. During 1948–1952 construction was completed. Navigation was begun June 1, 1952. The canal and its facilities were predominantly built by prisoners, who were detained in several specially organized corrective labor camps . During 1952 the number of convicts employed by construction exceeded 100,000. The first stage of Moscow Metro (1931–1935) began as an ordinary city utility. There

3618-496: The Internet of Things , an increasing number of cities are adopting technologies such as crowdsorced mobile phone sensing and machine learning to collect data and extract useful information to help make informed urban planning decisions. An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the effectiveness of a community's land use and infrastructure. They formulate plans for

3752-813: The Kotelnicheskaya Embankment Building , the Kudrinskaya Square Building , the Leningradskaya Hotel , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia main building , the main building of Moscow State University , and the Red Gate Building . In terms of construction methods, most of the structures, underneath the wet stucco walls, are simple brick masonry . Exceptions were Andrei Burov's medium-sized concrete block panel houses (such as

3886-575: The New Economic Policy began, their publicity resulted in architectural commissions. Experience was not gained quickly, and many Constructivist buildings were justly criticized for irrational floor plans , cost overruns and low quality. For a brief time in the mid-1920s, the architectural profession operated in the old-fashioned manner, with private companies, international contests, competitive bidding and disputes in professional magazines. Foreign architects were welcomed, especially towards

4020-522: The Park Pobedy station, one of the world's deepest underground stations. It is the busiest metro system in Europe, the busiest in the world outside Asia, and is considered a tourist attraction in itself, thanks to its lavish interior decoration. The Moscow Metro is a world leader in the frequency of train traffic, as intervals during peak hours often do not exceed 90 seconds. In February 2023, Moscow

4154-528: The Soviet Union . As of September 2024 , the Moscow Metro had 297 stations and 519.4 km (322.7 mi) of route length, excluding light rail Monorail, making it the 8th-longest in the world , the longest in Europe and the longest outside China. It is also the only system with three circle lines. The system is mostly underground, with the deepest section 73 m (240 ft) underground at

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4288-503: The de-Stalinization of 1956. Post-war architecture, sometimes perceived as a uniform style, was fragmented into at least four vectors of development: Residential construction in post-war cities was segregated according to the ranks of tenants. No effort was made to conceal luxuries; sometimes they were evident, sometimes deliberately exaggerated (in contrast with Iofan's plain House on Embankment ). Country residencies of Stalin's officials

4422-519: The housing crisis in parts of the world. Moscow Metro [REDACTED] The Moscow Metro is a metro system serving the Russian capital of Moscow as well as the neighbouring cities of Krasnogorsk , Reutov , Lyubertsy and Kotelniki in Moscow Oblast . Opened in 1935 with one 11-kilometre (6.8 mi) line and 13 stations, it was the first underground railway system in

4556-412: The infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas , such as transportation , communications , and distribution networks , and their accessibility . Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements . The primary concern was the public welfare , which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation , protection and use of

4690-549: The water supply , identifying transportation patterns, recognizing food supply demands, allocating healthcare and social services, and analyzing the impact of land use. In order to predict how cities will develop and estimate the effects of their interventions, planners use various models. These models can be used to indicate relationships and patterns in demographic, geographic, and economic data. They might deal with short-term issues such as how people move through cities, or long-term issues such as land use and growth. One such model

4824-516: The 19th century grew at a tremendous rate. The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter of public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of the Victorian era , was starting to give way to a New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate

4958-594: The 4–5 story high ensembles of post-war regional centers. The Central Pavilion of the All-Russia Exhibition Centre , reopened in 1954, is 90 meters high, has a cathedral -like main hall, 35 meters high, 25 meters wide with Stalinist sculpture and murals. The urban architectural ensemble of Nezalezhnastci Avenue in Minsk is an example of the integrated approach in organizing a city's environment by harmoniously combining its architectural monuments,

5092-458: The 8th century BCE, Greek city states primarily used orthogonal (or grid-like) plans. Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), the ancient Greek architect and urban planner, is considered to be "the father of European urban planning", and the namesake of the "Hippodamian plan" (grid plan) of city layout. The ancient Romans also used orthogonal plans for their cities. City planning in the Roman world

5226-839: The Bolshaya Koltsevaya line, which became fully functional on 1 March 2023. Its new stations included Pechatniki, Nagatinsky Zaton and Klenovy Bulvar. The first plans for a metro system in Moscow date back to the Russian Empire but were postponed by World War I , the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War . In 1923, the Moscow City Council formed the Underground Railway Design Office at

5360-717: The Crimea, the Caucasus, the Urals, and the Soviet Far East Skilled engineers were scarce, and unskilled workers were instrumental to the realization of the metro. The Metrostroi (the organization responsible for the Metro's construction) conducted massive recruitment campaigns. It printed 15,000 copies of Udarnik metrostroia ( Metrostroi Shock Worker , its daily newspaper) and 700 other newsletters (some in different languages) to attract unskilled laborers. Kaganovich

5494-499: The Kaluzhskaia station ( Oktyabrskaya nowadays, not to be confused with contemporary "Kaluzhskaya" station on line 6). The work of Abram Damsky further publicized these ideas hoping people would associate the party with the idea of bright future. The Kaluzhskaya Station was designed by the architect [Leonid] Poliakov. Poliakov's decision to base his design on a reinterpretation of Russian classical architecture clearly influenced

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5628-761: The Lace building, 1939–41) and large buildings like the Seven Sisters , which necessitated the use of concrete. The masonry naturally dictated narrow windows, thus leaving a large wall area to be decorated. Fireproof terracotta finishes were introduced during the early 1950s, although this was rarely used outside of Moscow. Most of the roofing was traditional wooden trusses covered with metallic sheets. About 1948, construction technology improved – at least in Moscow – as faster and cheaper processes became available. Houses also became safer by eliminating wooden ceilings and partitions. The standardized buildings of 1948–1955 had

5762-496: The Metro at its debut, and its design was greeted with pride; street celebrations included parades, plays and concerts. The Bolshoi Theatre presented a choral performance by 2,200 Metro workers; 55,000 colored posters (lauding the Metro as the busiest and fastest in the world) and 25,000 copies of "Songs of the Joyous Metro Conquerors" were distributed. The Moscow Metro averaged 47 km/h (29 mph) and had

5896-430: The Metro stations almost finished at the time of the ban (such as VDNKh and Alexeyevskaya ) got their final decors simplified: VDNKh's arcs/portals, for example, got plain green paint to contrast with well-detailed decorations and pannos around them. A typical layout of the cheap shallow-dug metro station (which quickly became known as Sorokonozhka – "centipede", from early designs with 40 concrete columns in two rows)

6030-522: The Metro was awarded the Order of Lenin , it was officially renamed Moscow Order of Lenin L. M. Kaganovich Metro ( Московский ордена Ленина Метрополитен им. Л. М. Кагановича ) in 1947. When the metro was renamed in 1955, the Okhotny Ryad station was renamed as "Imeni Kaganovicha" in honor of Lazar Kaganovich. In 1957, the original Okhotny Ryad name of the station was reinstated. The first line of

6164-660: The Metro was named after him until 1955 ( Metropoliten im. L.M. Kaganovicha ) . The Moscow Metro construction engineers consulted with their counterparts from the London Underground , the world's oldest metro system, in 1936: British architect Charles Holden and administrator Frank Pick had been working on the station developments of the Piccadilly Line extension, and Soviet delegates to London were impressed by Holden's thoroughly modern redeployment of classical elements and use of high-quality materials for

6298-659: The Moscow Board of Urban Railways. It carried out preliminary studies, and by 1928 had developed a project for the first route from Sokolniki to the city centre. At the same time, an offer was made to the German company Siemens Bauunion to submit its own project for the same route. In June 1931, the decision to begin construction of the Moscow Metro was made by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of

6432-736: The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal , and the latter stages of the Moscow Metro. Before 1917, the Russian architectural scene was divided between Russky Modern (a local interpretation of Art Nouveau , stronger in Moscow), and Neoclassical Revival (stronger in Saint Petersburg ). The Neoclassical school produced mature architects like Alexey Shchusev , Ivan Zholtovsky , Ivan Fomin , Vladimir Shchuko and Alexander Tamanian ; by

6566-487: The Moscow Metro is considered to have reached its zenith in these stations. The Koltsevaya Line was first planned as a line running under the Garden Ring , a wide avenue encircling the borders of Moscow's city centre. The first part of the line – from Park Kultury to Kurskaya (1950) – follows this avenue. Plans were later changed and the northern part of the ring line runs 1–1.5 kilometres (0.62–0.93 mi) outside

6700-618: The Moscow Metro since 2 December 2014. Download coordinates as: Each line is identified by a name, an alphanumeric index (usually consisting of just a number, and sometimes a letter suffix), and a colour. The colour assigned to each line is its colloquial identifier, except for the nondescript greens and blues assigned to the Bolshaya Koltsevaya , the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya , and Butovskaya lines (lines 11, 10, and 12, respectively). The upcoming station

6834-404: The Moscow Metro was launched in 1935, complete with the first logo , the capital M paired with the text "МЕТРО". There is no accurate information about the author of the logo, so it is often attributed to the architects of the first stations – Samuil Kravets, Ivan Taranov and Nadezhda Bykova. At the opening in 1935, the M letter on the logo had no definite shape. In 2014, the Moscow Metro adopted

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6968-716: The Moskva River through a deep tunnel) and Kurskaya – Partizanskaya (four stations) were inaugurated in 1943 and 1944 respectively. War motifs replaced socialist visions in the architectural design of these stations. During the Siege of Moscow in the fall and winter of 1941, Metro stations were used as air-raid shelters; the Council of Ministers moved its offices to the Mayakovskaya platforms, where Stalin made public speeches on several occasions. The Chistiye Prudy station

7102-774: The Multiple Nuclei Model among others. Participatory planning is an urban planning approach that involves the entire community in the planning process. Participatory planning in the United States emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Technical aspects of urban planning involve the application of scientific, technical processes, considerations and features that are involved in planning for land use , urban design , natural resources , transportation , and infrastructure . Urban planning includes techniques such as: predicting population growth , zoning , geographic mapping and analysis, analyzing park space, surveying

7236-493: The Nezalezhnastci Avenue ensemble is a good example. The layout provided for the main features of the town-planning ensemble – the length of the buildings facades, their silhouettes, the main divisions, and the general architectural pattern. The integrated building plan was based on the accommodation of innovative ideas with classical architecture. The survived pre-war buildings and park zones were incorporated into

7370-561: The Peschanaya Square development (a territory north from the 1948 Posokhin-Lagutenko block). Using the 'flow methode' of moving crews through a sequence of buildings in different completion stages and a moderate application of prefabricated concrete on otherwise traditional masonry, builders managed to complete typical 7-storey buildings in five to six months. Instead of wet stucco (which caused at least two months of delay), these buildings are finished with open brickwork outside and

7504-565: The Republic and the union to develop a new project for a complete reconstruction of the central city. Stalin Prize for the year 1949, announced in March 1950, showed a clear and present division of Stalinist architecture – extravagant, expensive buildings are still praised, but so are attempts to make Stalinist style affordable. The 1949 prize was given exclusively for completed apartment buildings,

7638-537: The Sadovoye Koltso, thus providing service for seven (out of nine) rail terminals. The next part of the Koltsevaya Line opened in 1952 (Kurskaya– Belorusskaya ), and in 1954 the ring line was completed. When the Metro opened in 1935, it immediately became the centrepiece of the transportation system (as opposed to horse-carried barrows still widely used in 1930s Moscow). It also became the prototype,

7772-466: The Soviet Union . In January 1932 the plan for the first lines was approved, and on 21 March 1933 the Soviet government approved a plan for 10 lines with a total route length of 80 km (50 mi). The first lines were built using the Moscow general plan designed by Lazar Kaganovich , along with his project managers (notably Ivan M. Kuznetsov and, later, Isaac Y. Segal) in the 1930s–1950s, and

7906-712: The Ukrainian and Siberian coalfields and construction workers from the iron and steel mills of Magnitogorsk, the Dniepr hydroelectric power station, and the Turkestan-Siberian railway... materials used in the construction of the metro included iron from Siberian Kuznetsk, timber from northern Russia, cement from the Volga region and the northern Caucasus, bitumen from Baku, and marble and granite from quarries in Karelia,

8040-418: The United States. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicted in 2018 that around 2.5 billion more people occupy urban areas by 2050 according to population elements of global migration. New planning theories have adopted non-traditional concepts such as Blue Zones and Innovation Districts to incorporate geographic areas within the city that allow for novel business development and

8174-564: The architectural ensemble. At present buildings which form the Nezalezhnastci Avenue ensemble are inscribed on the State List of Historical and Cultural Values of the Republic of Belarus . The architectural ensemble itself, with its buildings and structures, the layout and the landscape is protected by the state and inscribed on the List as a complex of historical and cultural values. In 1968

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8308-486: The architecture was based on that of the most popular stations in existence (Krasniye Vorota, Okhotnyi Ryad and Kropotkinskaya); while following the popular art-deco style, it was merged with socialist themes. The first deep-level column station Mayakovskaya was built at the same time. Building work on the third stage was delayed (but not interrupted) during World War II , and two Metro sections were put into service; Teatralnaya – Avtozavodskaya (three stations, crossing

8442-441: The arrival of the first train, but all stations simultaneously close their entrances at 01:00 for maintenance, and so do transfer corridors. The minimum interval between trains is 90 seconds during the morning and evening rush hours. As of 2017, the system had an average daily ridership of 6.99 million passengers. Peak daily ridership of 9.71 million was recorded on 26 December 2014. Free Wi-Fi has been available on all lines of

8576-399: The canal is 128 km. It was constructed from the year 1932 to the year 1937 by gulag prisoners during the early-to-mid Stalin era. During the late 1930s, the construction industry was experienced enough to build large, multi-block urban redevelopments – although all of these were in Moscow. The three most important Moscow projects were: In 1936, the annual Agricultural Exhibition

8710-544: The circular ticket hall of Piccadilly Circus , and so engaged Pick and Holden as advisors to Moscow's metro system. Partly because of this connection, the design of Gants Hill tube station , which was completed in 1947, is reminiscent of a Moscow Metro station. Indeed, Holden's homage to Moscow has been described as a gesture of gratitude for the USSR's helpful role in The Second World War . Soviet workers did

8844-579: The city's physical layout. Engineers for the Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Company (Metrovick) were given a show trial and deported in 1933, ending the role of British business in the USSR. The first line was opened to the public on 15 May 1935 at 07:00 am. It was 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) long and included 13 stations. The day was celebrated as a technological and ideological victory for socialism (and, by extension, Stalinism ). An estimated 285,000 people rode

8978-530: The cognate fields of civil engineering, landscape architecture , architecture, and public administration to achieve strategic, policy and sustainability goals. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields though today, urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline of urban planning is the broader category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning , zoning , economic development , environmental planning , and transportation planning . Creating

9112-492: The coming of the Renaissance many new cities were enlarged with newly planned extensions. From the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which theoretical questions around planning the main lines, ensuring plans meet the needs of the given population and so forth are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted. During

9246-403: The completion of the Moscow Metro; without industrialization, the Soviet Union would not have had the raw materials necessary for the project. For example, steel was a main component of many subway stations. Before industrialization, it would have been impossible for the Soviet Union to produce enough steel to incorporate it into the metro's design; in addition, a steel shortage would have limited

9380-426: The concept of the lamps, some of which I planned in collaboration with the architect himself. The shape of the lamps was a torch – the torch of victory, as Polyakov put it... The artistic quality and stylistic unity of all the lamps throughout the station's interior made them perhaps the most successful element of the architectural composition. All were made of cast aluminum decorated in a black and gold anodized coating,

9514-453: The consequences of the industrial age , by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. The following century would therefore be globally dominated by a central planning approach to urban planning, not representing an increment in the overall quality of the urban realm. At the beginning of the 20th century, urban planning began to be recognized as a separate profession. The Town and Country Planning Association

9648-418: The country. This was still an experiment, not backed by industrial capacity or fast-track project schedules. Posokhin also devised various pseudo-Stalinist configurations of the same building blocks, with decorative excesses ; these were not implemented. Concrete frames became common for industrial construction, but too expensive for mass housing. It is not known for sure which Party leader personally initiated

9782-451: The deep-dug Shabolovskaya (1980), have the near-tunnel walls decorated with metal sheets, not tiles. Tyoply Stan features a theme related to the name and the location of the station ("Tyoply Stan" used to literally mean warm area ): its walls are covered in brick-colored ribbed panes, which look like radiators ). Downtown area got such stations as Borovitskaya (1986), with uncovered red bricks and gray, concrete-like colors accompanying

9916-472: The degree of inclusivity or exclusivity of their urban planning. One main source of engagement between city officials and residents are city council meetings that are open to the residents and that welcome public comments. Additionally, in US there are some federal requirements for citizen participation in government-funded infrastructure projects. Participatory urban planning has been criticized for contributing to

10050-570: The design was useful for demonstrating the extra structural strength of the underground works (as in Metro doubling as bunkers , bomb shelters). The chief lighting engineer was Abram Damsky, a graduate of the Higher State Art-Technical Institute in Moscow. By 1930 he was a chief designer in Moscow's Elektrosvet Factory, and during World War II was sent to the Metrostroi (Metro Construction) Factory as head of

10184-553: The development and management of urban and suburban areas. They typically analyze land use compatibility as well as economic, environmental, and social trends. In developing any plan for a community (whether commercial, residential, agricultural, natural or recreational), urban planners must consider a wide array of issues including sustainability , existing and potential pollution , transport including potential congestion , crime , land values, economic development, social equity, zoning codes, and other legislation. The importance of

10318-653: The drive to reduce costs. The need was imminent. What is known is that in January 1951, Khrushchev – then City of Moscow party boss – hosted a professional conference on construction problems. The conference decreed a transition to plant-made, large-sized concrete parts, building new plants for prefabricated concrete and other materials, and replacement of wet masonry technology with fast assembly of prefabricated elements. The industry still had to decide – should they use big, story-high panels, or smaller ones, or maybe two-story panels, as Lagutenko tried in Kuzminki ? Basic technology

10452-721: The efficient transportation of goods, resources, people, and waste; the distribution of basic necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development; improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that actively contributes to reduction in CO 2 emissions as well as protecting heritage structures and built environments. Since most urban planning teams consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments, recent debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning processes. Urban planning

10586-502: The end of this period, when the Great Depression reduced their jobs at home. Among these were Ernst May , Albert Kahn , Le Corbusier , Bruno Taut and Mart Stam . The difference between traditionalists and constructivists was not well defined. Zholtovsky and Shchusev hired modernists as junior partners for their projects, and at the same time incorporated constructivist novelties in their own designs. In 1930 Gosproektstroi

10720-400: The engineer or architect does to the home, that is, make it more amenable to the needs and preferences of its inhabitants. The widely adopted consensus-building model of planning, which seeks to accommodate different preferences within the community has been criticized for being based upon, rather than challenging, the power structures of the community. Instead, agonism has been proposed as

10854-420: The environment, as well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities. Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people, maintaining sustainability standards. Similarly, in the early 21st century, Jane Jacobs 's writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize

10988-411: The exception of Shchusev's Komsomolskaya , set up as a retelling of Stalin's speech of November 7, 1941). On April 4, 1953, the public learn that a 1935 stretch from Alexandrovsky Sad , then Kalininskaya , to Kievskaya is closed for good and replaced with a brand-new, deep-alignment line. No official explanation of this expensive change exists; all speculations concern a bomb shelter function. One of

11122-485: The experimental Industrial Construction Bureau, with an objective to study and design the low-cost technology suitable for fast mass construction. Lagutenko emphasized large prefabricated concrete panes. He joined architects Mikhail Posokhin and Ashot Mndoyants, and in 1948 this team built their first concrete frame-and-panel building near present-day Polezhaevskaya metro station. Four identical buildings followed nearby; similar buildings were built during 1949–1952 across

11256-589: The first post-war metro line (a 6.4 km section of the Ring Line ). These stations were dedicated to "Victory". No more Comintern (the Comintern metro station was renamed Kalininskaya in December 1946), no more World revolution , but a statement of victorious, nationalist Stalinism. Oktyabrskaya station by Leonid Polyakov was built like a Classicist temple, with a shiny white-blue altar behind iron gates –

11390-456: The general layout of the former Sovietskaya Street began in 1944, soon after the liberation of Minsk from the Nazi troops. The main architects from Moscow and Minsk were involved with the project. In 1947, as a result of the competition, the project which had been developed with the supervision of the academician of architecture M. Parusnikov, was selected for the implementation. The project plan of

11524-448: The ideas of modernism in urban planning led to higher crime rates and social problems. In the second half of the 20th century, urban planners gradually shifted their focus to individualism and diversity in urban centers. Urban planners studying the effects of increasing congestion in urban areas began to address the externalities, the negative impacts caused by induced demand from larger highway systems in western countries such as in

11658-481: The interests of residents, businesses and communities effectively influenced urban planners to take into broader consideration of resident experiences and needs while planning. Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work, and play in a given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas . Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning

11792-534: The labour and the art work, but the main engineering designs, routes, and construction plans were handled by specialists recruited from London Underground. The British called for tunnelling instead of the " cut-and-cover " technique, the use of escalators instead of lifts, the routes and the design of the rolling stock. The paranoia of the NKVD was evident when the secret police arrested numerous British engineers for espionage because they gained an in-depth knowledge of

11926-534: The last of these stations opened, marks the end of all late Stalinist construction. Stalin's 1946 idea of building many skyscrapers in Moscow resulted in a decree of January 1947 that started a six-year-long publicity campaign. By the time of official groundbreaking, September 1947, eight construction sites were identified (the Eighth Sister , in Zaryadye , would be cancelled). Eight design teams, directed by

12060-491: The lighting shop. Damsky recognized the importance of efficiency, as well as the potential for light as an expressive form. His team experimented with different materials (most often cast bronze, aluminum, sheet brass, steel, and milk glass) and methods to optimize the technology. Damsky's discourse on "Lamps and Architecture 1930–1950" describes in detail the epic chandeliers installed in the Taganskaya Station and

12194-578: The mainlines with 3000V DC overhead lines, as is typical. The average distance between stations is 1.7 kilometres (1.1 mi); the shortest (502 metres (1,647 ft) long) section is between Delovoy Tsentr and Mezhdunarodnaya , and the longest (6.62 kilometres (4.11 mi) long) is between Krylatskoye and Strogino . Long distances between stations have the positive effect of a high cruising speed of 41.7 kilometres per hour (25.9 mph). The Moscow Metro opens at 05:25 and closes at 01:00. The exact opening time varies at different stations according to

12328-418: The monorail had operated in "excursion mode" since 2004. Also, from 11 August 1969 to 26 October 2019, the Moscow Metro included Kakhovskaya line 3.3 km (2.1 mi) long with 3 stations, which closed for a long reconstruction. On 7 December 2021, Kakhovskaya is reopened after reconstruction as part of the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line . The renewed Varshavskaya and Kashirskaya stations reopened as part of

12462-413: The needs of mass construction. This inefficiency largely ended Stalinist architecture and resulted in mass construction methods which began while Stalin was still alive. Although Stalin rejected Constructivism , completion of constructivist buildings extended through the 1930s. Industrial construction, endorsed by Albert Kahn and later supervised by Viktor Vesnin , was influenced by modernist ideas. It

12596-836: The new generation of main architects (37 to 62 years old), produced numerous drafts; there was not any open contest or evaluation commission, which is an indicator of Stalin's personal management. All major architects were awarded Stalin prizes in April 1949 for preliminary drafts; corrections and amendments followed until very late completion stages. All the buildings had overengineered steel frames with concrete ceilings and masonry infill, based on concrete slab foundations (which sometimes required ingenious water retention technology). Skyscraper projects required new materials (especially ceramics) and technologies; solving these problems contributed to later housing and infrastructure development. However, it came at cost of slowing down regular construction, at

12730-498: The official name, it still stands. During the 1990s and 2000s, Lenin's name was excluded from the signage on newly built and reconstructed stations. In 2016, a Metro representative stated that Lenin's name would remain on station name plates as it aligns with the official name of the company, unchanged since the Soviet era. The first official name of the metro was L. M. Kaganovich Metro ( Метрополитен им. Л.М. Кагановича ) after Lazar Kaganovich (see History section). However, when

12864-445: The old city and "first-rate" streets, as well as single-family homebuilding. Low-cost development proceeded in remote areas, but most funds were diverted to new, expensive "ensemble" projects which valued façades and grandeur more than the needs of overcrowded cities. The Moscow Master Plan also included maintaining old city cores as administrative areas while building industry on city peripheries with green space and residences between

12998-413: The overall expressiveness of the lamp. Stalin's first five-year plan (1928–1932) facilitated rapid industrialization to build a socialist motherland. The plan was ambitious, seeking to reorient an agrarian society towards industrialism. It was Stalin's fanatical energy, large-scale planning, and resource distribution that kept up the pace of industrialization. The first five-year plan was instrumental in

13132-457: The planning structure, the landscape and the natural or man-made places of vegetation. The Ensemble was constructed during the fifteen years after World War II. Its length was 2900 metres, although now it stretches to the outskirts of the city totaling nearly 16 km (which makes it one of the longest in Europe). The width of the road including side-walks varies from 42 to 48 metres. The work on

13266-899: The plans requires a thorough understanding of penal codes and zonal codes of planning. Another important aspect of urban planning is that the range of urban planning projects include the large-scale master planning of empty sites or Greenfield projects as well as small-scale interventions and refurbishments of existing structures, buildings and public spaces. Pierre Charles L'Enfant in Washington, D.C., Daniel Burnham in Chicago, Lúcio Costa in Brasília and Georges-Eugene Haussmann in Paris planned cities from scratch, and Robert Moses and Le Corbusier refurbished and transformed cities and neighborhoods to meet their ideas of urban planning. There

13400-487: The power to mobilize; because the party was a single source of control, it could focus its resources. The most notable example of mobilization in the Soviet Union occurred during World War II . The country also mobilized in order to complete the Moscow Metro with unprecedented speed. One of the main motivation factors of the mobilization was to overtake the West and prove that a socialist metro could surpass capitalist designs. It

13534-576: The powerfully decorated stations of Moscow's center and the spartan-looking stations of the 1960s was eventually filled. In the mid-1970s the architectural extravagance was partially restored. However, the newer design of shallow "centipede" stations (now with 26 columns, more widely spaced) continued to dominate. For example, Kaluzhskaya "centipede" station from 1974 (adjacent to Novye Cheryomushki station) features non-flat tiles (with 3D effect utilized), and Medvedkovo from 1978 features complex decorations. 1971 station Kitay-Gorod ("Ploshchad Nogina" at

13668-476: The prioritization of infrastructure that would assist with improving the quality of life of citizens by extending their potential lifespan. Planning practices have incorporated policy changes to help address anthropogenic (human caused) climate change . London began to charge a congestion charge for cars trying to access already crowded places in the city. Cities nowadays stress the importance of public transit and cycling by adopting such policies. Planning theory

13802-682: The radical approach, and the humanist or phenomenological approach. Some other conceptual planning theories include Ebenezer Howard 's The Three Magnets theory that he envisioned for the future of British settlement, also his Garden Cities , the Concentric Model Zone also called the Burgess Model by sociologist Ernest Burgess , the Radburn Superblock that encourages pedestrian movement, the Sector Model and

13936-413: The relative rank and occupation of tenants is represented by ornaments, sometimes by memorial plaques. Note that these are all Moscow features. In smaller cities, the social elite usually comprised just one or two classes; St. Petersburg always had a supply of pre-revolutionary luxury space. The construction of the present Volga–Don Canal , designed by Sergey Zhuk's Hydroproject Institute, began prior to

14070-470: The same housing quality as the Stalinist classics and are classified as such by real estate agents, but are excluded from the scope of Stalinist architecture. Ideologically they belong to mass housing, an intermediate phase before Nikita Khrushchev 's standardized buildings known as Khrushchyovka . Stalinist architecture does not equate to everything built during Stalin's era. It relied on labor-intensive and time-consuming masonry, and could not be scaled to

14204-566: The same square, all built between 1931 and 1935, yet each draft evolved independently, with little thought given to overall ensemble (see prewar movie stills 1936 1938 1939 ). Each set its own vector of development for the next two decades. А separate type of development, known as "early Stalinism" or Postconstructivism , evolved from 1932 to 1938. It can be traced both to simplified Art Deco (through Schuko and Iofan), and to indigenous Constructivism, being converted slowly to Neoclassicism (Ilya Golosov, Vladimir Vladimirov). These buildings retain

14338-558: The simple rectangular shapes and large glass surfaces of Constructivism, but with ornate balconies , porticos and columns (usually rectangular and very lightweight). By 1938, it became disused. In July 1935 the State evaluated the results and finally issued a decree on the Moscow Master Plan. The Plan, among other things, included Stalin's urban development ideas: These rules effectively banned low-cost mass construction in

14472-627: The size of the subway system and its technological advancement. The Moscow Metro furthered the construction of a socialist Soviet Union because the project accorded with Stalin's second five-year plan . The Second Plan focused on urbanization and the development of social services. The Moscow Metro was necessary to cope with the influx of peasants who migrated to the city during the 1930s; Moscow's population had grown from 2.16 million in 1928 to 3.6 million in 1933. The Metro also bolstered Moscow's shaky infrastructure and its communal services, which hitherto were nearly nonexistent. The Communist Party had

14606-591: The stations, Arbatskaya (2) by Leonid Polyakov, became the longest station in the system, 250 meters instead of the standard 160, and probably the most extravagant. "To some extent, it is Moscow Petrine baroque, yet despite citations from historical legacy, this station is hyperbolic, ethereal and unreal". Stalinist canon was officially condemned when two more sections, to Luzhniki and VDNKh , were being built. These stations, completed in 1957 and 1958, were mostly stripped of excesses , but architecturally they still belong to Stalin's lineage. The date of May 1, 1958 when

14740-850: The time of the 1917 Revolution they were established professionals, with their own companies, schools and followers. These people would eventually become Stalinism's architectural elders and produce the best examples of the period. Another school that began after the Revolution is now known as Constructivism . Some of the Constructivists (like the Vesnin brothers ) were young professionals who had established themselves before 1917, while others had just completed their professional education (like Konstantin Melnikov ) or didn't have any. They associated themselves with groups of modern artists, compensating for lack of experience with public exposure. When

14874-495: The time) features cross-platform interchange (Line 6 and line 7). Although built without "centipede" design or cheap ceramic tiles, the station utilizes near- grayscale selection of colors. It is to note the "southbound" and "northbound" halls of the station have identical look. Babushkinskaya station from 1978 is a no-column station (similar to Biblioteka Imeni Lenina from 1935). 1983 Chertanovskaya station has resemblance to Kropotkinskaya (from 1935). Some stations, such as

15008-731: The two. The canal connects the Moskva River with the main transportation artery of European Russia , the Volga River . It is located in Moscow itself and in the Moscow Oblast . The canal connects to the Moskva River 191 kilometers from its estuary in Tushino (an area in the north-west of Moscow), and to the Volga River in the town of Dubna , just upstream of the dam of the Ivankovo Reservoir . Length of

15142-602: The urban planner is increasing in the 21st century, as modern society begins to face issues of increased population growth, climate change and unsustainable development. An urban planner could be considered a green collar professional. Some researchers suggest that urban planners, globally, work in different " planning cultures ", adapted to their cities and cultures. However, professionals have identified skills, abilities, and basic knowledge sets that are common to urban planners across regional and national boundaries. The school of neoclassical economics argues that planning

15276-559: The vision for future Soviet large-scale technologies. The artwork of the 13 original stations became nationally and internationally famous. For example, the Sverdlov Square subway station featured porcelain bas-reliefs depicting the daily life of the Soviet peoples, and the bas-reliefs at the Dynamo Stadium sports complex glorified sports and physical prowess on the powerful new " Homo Sovieticus " (Soviet man). The metro

15410-408: Was alive. A conversion to mass construction is evident in economy Stalinist buildings like Zholtovsky's Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya, 7. Based on masonry, they provided only a marginal gain; there had to be new technology. During 1948–1955, various architectural offices conducted an enormous feasibility study , devising and testing new technologies. In 1947, engineer Vitaly Lagutenko was appointed to direct

15544-597: Was also walled off, and the headquarters of the Air Defence established there. After the war ended in 1945, construction began on the fourth stage of the Metro, which included the Koltsevaya Line , a deep part of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya line from Ploshchad Revolyutsii to Kievskaya and a surface extension to Pervomaiskaya during the early 1950s. The decoration and design characteristic of

15678-642: Was closely involved in the recruitment campaign, targeting the Komsomol generation because of its strength and youth. The beginning of the Cold War led to the construction of a deep section of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line . The stations on this line were planned as shelters in the event of nuclear war. After finishing the line in 1953 the upper tracks between Ploshchad Revolyutsii and Kiyevskaya were closed, and later reopened in 1958 as

15812-453: Was decisively rejected on the orders of Nikita Khrushchev . He had a preference for a utilitarian "minimalism"-like approach to design, similar to Brutalism style . The idea behind the rejection was similar to one used to create Khrushchyovkas : cheap yet easily mass-produced buildings. Stations of his era, as well as most 1970s stations, were simple in design and style, with walls covered with identical square ceramic tiles. Even decorations at

15946-607: Was destroyed during World War II when the Red Army abandoned the city and employed remote explosives to detonate bombs, and deny it to German forces. After Kiev's liberation, the streets and squares of the city were cleared of the ruins. Symbolically (as commemoration of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the USSR) on 22 June 1944 the City Soviet organized a competition for architects from Kiev as well as other places from

16080-538: Was determined to realise the Moscow Metro, regardless of cost. Without Kaganovich's managerial ability, the Moscow Metro might have met the same fate as the Palace of the Soviets : failure. This was a comprehensive mobilization; the project drew resources and workers from the entire Soviet Union. In his article, archeologist Mike O'Mahoney describes the scope of the Metro mobilization: A specialist workforce had been drawn from many different regions, including miners from

16214-458: Was developed for all new stations, and the stations were built to look almost identical, differing from each other only in colours of the marble and ceramic tiles. Most stations were built with simpler, cheap technology; this resulted in utilitarian design being flawed in some ways. Some stations such as adjacent Rechnoi Vokzal and Vodny Stadion or sequiential Leninsky Prospect , Akadmicheskaya , Profsoyuznaya and Novye Cheryomushki would have

16348-536: Was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning. As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center. Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But in the following centuries with

16482-593: Was especially important to the Soviet Union that socialism succeed industrially, technologically, and artistically in the 1930s, since capitalism was at a low ebb during the Great Depression. The person in charge of Metro mobilization was Lazar Kaganovich . A prominent Party member, he assumed control of the project as chief overseer. Kaganovich was nicknamed the "Iron Commissar"; he shared Stalin's fanatical energy, dramatic oratory flare, and ability to keep workers building quickly with threats and punishment. He

16616-475: Was established as part of the Building Commission of Vesenkha with the help of Albert Kahn Inc. It employed 3,000 designers with a budget of 417 million  Rbls . Urban planning developed separately. Housing crises in big cities and the industrialization of remote areas required mass housing construction, development of new territories and reconstruction of old cities. Theorists devised

16750-682: Was extended westwards to a new station ( Kiyevskaya ) in March 1937, the first Metro line crossing the Moskva River over the Smolensky Metro Bridge . The second stage was completed before the war . In March 1938, the Arbatskaya branch was split and extended to the Kurskaya station (now the dark-blue Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line ). In September 1938, the Gorkovskaya Line opened between Sokol and Teatralnaya . Here

16884-636: Was founded in 1899 and the first academic course in Great Britain on urban planning was offered by the University of Liverpool in 1909. In the 1920s, the ideas of modernism and uniformity began to surface in urban planning, and lasted until the 1970s. In 1933, Le Corbusier presented the Radiant City, a city that grows up in the form of towers, as a solution to the problem of pollution and over-crowding. But many planners started to believe that

17018-528: Was much propaganda about building it, but the subway itself wasn't perceived as propaganda. "Unlike other projects, Moscow Metro was never named Stalin's metro ". Old architects avoided Metro commissions. Attitudes changed when the second stage work started in 1935. This time, the subway was a political statement and enjoyed much better funding. The second stage produced such different examples of Stalinist style as Mayakovskaya (1938), Elektrozavodskaya and Partizanskaya (1944). It required six years to complete

17152-640: Was not as important to Stalin's urban plans, so most industrial buildings (excluding megaprojects like the Moscow Canal ) are not part of the Stalinist category. Even the first stage of the Moscow Metro , completed during 1935, was not scrutinized by Stalin, and so included substantial constructivist influence. Thus, the scope of Stalinist architecture is generally limited to urban public and residential buildings of good and middle quality, excluding mass housing, and selected infrastructure projects like

17286-576: Was on the top level; so was the 1945 House of Lions by Ivan Zholtovsky (House of Lions was designed by Nikolai Gaigarov and M.M. Dzisko of Zholtovsky Workshop. Zholtovsky supervised and promoted the project), a luxurious downtown residence for Red Army Marshals . 1947 Marshals Apartments by Lev Rudnev , on the same block, has a less extravagant exterior package. There was a type of building for every rank of Stalin's hierarchy. High-class buildings can be identified easily by tell-tale details like spacing between windows, penthouses and bay windows . Sometimes,

17420-581: Was rejected. The Moscow Metro was one of the USSR's most ambitious architectural projects. The metro's artists and architects worked to design a structure that embodied svet (literally "light", figuratively "radiance" or "brilliance") and svetloe budushchee (a well-lit/radiant/bright future). With their reflective marble walls, high ceilings and grand chandeliers, many Moscow Metro stations have been likened to an "artificial underground sun". This palatial underground environment reminded Metro users their taxes were spent on materializing bright future ; also,

17554-516: Was relocated to an empty field north of Moscow. By August 1, 1939, more than 250 pavilions were built on 136 hectares (340 acres). A 1937 statue by Vera Mukhina , Worker and Kolkhoz Woman , atop the USSR pavilion of the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937) (Paris Expo of 1937), was rebuilt at the entrance gates. Pavilions were created in the national styles of Soviet republics and regions;

17688-479: Was set, feasibility studies continued. A year later, this line of action – establishing prefabricated concrete plants – was made a law by the XIX Party Congress, Stalin attending. Major public buildings and elite housing were not affected yet. A different type of experiment concerned the improvement of project management, switching from a single-building to a multi-block project scale. This was tested in

17822-689: Was the first in the world to reduce the intervals of metro trains to 80 seconds, but in practice trains are not likely to exceed the 90 seconds interval. The full legal name of the metro has been Moscow Order of Lenin and Order of the Red Banner of Labor V.I. Lenin Metro ( Московский ордена Ленина и ордена Трудового Красного Знамени метрополитен имени В.И. Ленина ) since 1955. This is usually shortened to V.I. Lenin Metro ( Метрополитен им. В.И. Ленина ). This shorter official name appears on many stations. Although there were proposals to remove Lenin from

17956-516: Was touted as the symbol of the new social order – a sort of Communist cathedral of engineering modernity. The Metro was also iconic for showcasing Socialist Realism in public art. The method was influenced by Nikolay Chernyshevsky , Lenin 's favorite 19th-century nihilist , who stated that "art is no useful unless it serves politics". This maxim sums up the reasons why the stations combined aesthetics, technology and ideology: any plan which did not incorporate all three areas cohesively

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