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73-432: Sojitz was formed in 2004 by the merger of Nissho Iwai Corporation ( 日商岩井株式会社 , Nisshō Iwai Kabushiki-gaisha ) and Nichimen Corporation ( ニチメン株式会社 , Nichimen Kabushiki-gaisha ) . The name "Sojitz" is derived from the names of Nissho Iwai and Nichimen, both of which include the character " 日 " (sun). "Sojitz", literally meaning "twin suns", implies a merger of equals between the two companies. The corporate logo

146-689: A monopoly ", and the Hart–Scott–Rodino Act requires notifying the U.S. Department of Justice 's Antitrust Division and the Federal Trade Commission about any merger or acquisition over a certain size. An acquisition/takeover is the purchase of one business or company by another company or other business entity. Specific acquisition targets can be identified through myriad avenues, including market research, trade expos, sent up from internal business units, or supply chain analysis. Such purchase may be of 100%, or nearly 100%, of

219-405: A business retain just a handful of key players that would have otherwise left. Organizations should move rapidly to re-recruit key managers. It's much easier to succeed with a team of quality players that one selects deliberately rather than try to win a game with those who randomly show up to play. Mergers and acquisitions often create brand problems, beginning with what to call the company after

292-569: A business, which accrues to both categories of stakeholders, is called the Enterprise Value (EV), whereas the value which accrues just to shareholders is the Equity Value (also called market capitalization for publicly listed companies). Enterprise Value reflects a capital structure neutral valuation and is frequently a preferred way to compare value as it is not affected by a company's, or management's, strategic decision to fund

365-473: A function of their acquisition activity. Therefore, additional motives for merger and acquisition that may not add shareholder value include: The M&A process itself is a multifaceted which depends upon the type of merging companies. The M&A process results in the restructuring of a business's purpose, corporate governance and brand identity. An arm's length merger is a merger: ″The two elements are complementary and not substitutes. The first element

438-654: A holding company level in 2003 and consolidated their operating units in 2004, adopting the Sojitz name at that time. The merged holding company, Sojitz Holdings , combined with the merged operating company, Sojitz Corporation , in 2005. Today, the Sojitz Group consists of approximately 440 subsidiaries and affiliates located in Japan and throughout the world, and it is developing its wide-ranging general trading company operations in roughly 50 countries and regions across

511-433: A larger and/or longer-established company and retain the name of the latter for the post-acquisition combined entity. This is known as a reverse takeover . Another type of acquisition is the reverse merger , a form of transaction that enables a private company to be publicly listed in a relatively short time frame. A reverse merger is a type of merger where a privately held company, typically one with promising prospects and

584-579: A legal and financial point of view, both mergers and acquisitions generally result in the consolidation of assets and liabilities under one entity, and the distinction between the two is not always clear. Most countries require mergers and acquisitions to comply with antitrust or competition law . In the United States , for example, the Clayton Act outlaws any merger or acquisition that may "substantially lessen competition" or "tend to create

657-426: A merger or acquisition transaction can range from political to tactical. Ego can drive choice just as well as rational factors such as brand value and costs involved with changing brands. Beyond the bigger issue of what to call the company after the transaction comes the ongoing detailed choices about what divisional, product and service brands to keep. The detailed decisions about the brand portfolio are covered under

730-436: A merger, a tender offer or a hostile takeover. As an aspect of strategic management , M&A can allow enterprises to grow or downsize , and change the nature of their business or competitive position. Technically, a merger is the legal consolidation of two business entities into one, whereas an acquisition occurs when one entity takes ownership of another entity's share capital , equity interests or assets . From

803-444: A need for financing, acquires a publicly listed shell company that has few assets and no significant business operations. The combined evidence suggests that the shareholders of acquired firms realize significant positive "abnormal returns," while shareholders of the acquiring company are most likely to experience a negative wealth effect. Most studies indicate that M&A transactions have a positive net effect, with investors in both

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876-611: A role in the merger and the combined firm became the trading arm of the Sanwa Group keiretsu . Nissho Iwai was involved in a corruption scandal in 1979 after it passed on a 500 million yen bribe from McDonnell Douglas to the director general of the Japan Defense Agency in an attempt to influence the sale of F-4 Phantom aircraft to the Japan Air Self-Defense Force . In the wake of

949-758: A section of the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor between Delhi and Mumbai in India. The Sojitz Aerospace Company also acts as Sojitz's primary arm for defense related business. Sojitz has also invested in Hyundai Nishat, the Pakistani arm of Hyundai Motors in partnership with Nishat Group . Sojitz owns oil and natural gas concessions in the North Sea , Gulf of Mexico , Qatar , Gabon , Egypt and Brazil . It owns

1022-434: A situation where one company splits into two, generating a second company which may or may not become separately listed on a stock exchange. As per knowledge-based views, firms can generate greater values through the retention of knowledge-based resources which they generate and integrate. Extracting technological benefits during and after acquisition is an ever-challenging issue because of organizational differences. Based on

1095-550: A special committee of independent directors; and 2) conditioned on an affirmative vote of a majority of the minority stockholders, the business judgment standard of review should presumptively apply, and any plaintiff ought to have to plead particularized facts that, if true, support an inference that, despite the facially fair process, the merger was tainted because of fiduciary wrongdoing.″ A Strategic merger usually refers to long-term strategic holding of target (Acquired) firm. This type of M&A process aims at creating synergies in

1168-468: A total value of US$ 2,164.4 bil. Some of the largest mergers of equals took place during the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s and in the year 2000: AOL and Time Warner (US$ 164 bil.), SmithKline Beecham and Glaxo Wellcome (US$ 75 bil.), Citicorp and Travelers Group (US$ 72 bil.). More recent examples this type of combinations are DuPont and Dow Chemical (US$ 62 bil.) and Praxair and Linde (US$ 35 bil.). An analysis of 1,600 companies across industries revealed

1241-456: Is friendly or hostile . Achieving acquisition success has proven to be very difficult, while various studies have shown that 50% of acquisitions were unsuccessful. "Serial acquirers" appear to be more successful with M&A than companies who make acquisitions only occasionally (see Douma & Schreuder, 2013, chapter 13). The new forms of buy out created since the crisis are based on serial type acquisitions known as an ECO Buyout which

1314-478: Is a co-community ownership buy out and the new generation buy outs of the MIBO (Management Involved or Management & Institution Buy Out) and MEIBO (Management & Employee Involved Buy Out). Whether a purchase is perceived as being "friendly" or "hostile" depends significantly on how the proposed acquisition is communicated to and perceived by the target company's board of directors, employees, and shareholders. It

1387-525: Is a stylized version of the first character in its Japanese name. Beginning around 1878, the Japanese government promoted the development of cotton spinning as an initial means of developing modern industry in Japan in the wake of the Meiji Restoration . Japan's native raw cotton supply proved inadequate to meet demand, and there was only one Japanese importer of raw cotton at the time, making

1460-426: Is a triangular merger, where the target company merges with a shell company wholly owned by the buyer, thus becoming a subsidiary of the buyer. In a "forward triangular merger ", the target company merges into the subsidiary, with the subsidiary as the surviving company of the merger; a "reverse triangular merger" is similar except that the subsidiary merges into the target company, with the target company surviving

1533-425: Is between two competitors in the same industry. A vertical merger occurs when two firms combine across the value chain, such as when a firm buys a former supplier (backward integration) or a former customer (forward integration). When there is no strategic relatedness between an acquiring firm and its target, this is called a conglomerate merger (Douma & Schreuder, 2013). The form of merger most often employed

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1606-399: Is combined into another entity by operation of the corporate law statute(s) of the jurisdiction of the merging entities. In a transaction structured as a merger or an equity purchase, the buyer acquires all of the assets and liabilities of the acquired entity. In a transaction structured as an asset purchase, the buyer and seller agree on which assets and liabilities the buyer will acquire from

1679-425: Is complete, the parties may proceed to draw up a definitive agreement, known as a "merger agreement", "share purchase agreement," or "asset purchase agreement" depending on the structure of the transaction. Such contracts are typically 80 to 100 pages long and focus on five key types of terms: Following the closing of a deal, adjustments may be made to some of the provisions outlined in the purchase agreement, such as

1752-426: Is important because the directors have the capability to act as effective and active bargaining agents, which disaggregated stockholders do not. But, because bargaining agents are not always effective or faithful, the second element is critical, because it gives the minority stockholders the opportunity to reject their agents' work. Therefore, when a merger with a controlling stockholder was: 1) negotiated and approved by

1825-412: Is normal for M&A deal communications to take place in a so-called "confidentiality bubble," wherein the flow of information is restricted pursuant to confidentiality agreements. In the case of a friendly transaction, the companies cooperate in negotiations; in the case of a hostile deal, the board and/or management of the target is unwilling to be bought or the target's board has no prior knowledge of

1898-415: Is possible only when resources are exchanged and managed without affecting their independence. A corporate acquisition can be structured legally as either an "asset purchase" in which the seller sells business assets and liabilities to the buyer, an "equity purchase" in which the buyer purchases equity interests in a target company from one or more selling shareholders or a "merger" in which one legal entity

1971-464: Is provided by full-service investment banks- who often advise and handle the biggest deals in the world (called bulge bracket ) - and specialist M&A firms, who provide M&A only advisory, generally to mid-market, select industries and SBEs. Highly focused and specialized M&A advice investment banks are called boutique investment banks . The dominant rationale used to explain M&;A activity

2044-487: Is that acquiring firms seek improved financial performance or reduce risk. The following motives are considered to improve financial performance or reduce risk: Megadeals—deals of at least one $ 1 billion in size—tend to fall into four discrete categories: consolidation, capabilities extension, technology-driven market transformation, and going private. On average and across the most commonly studied variables, acquiring firms' financial performance does not positively change as

2117-534: The sogo shosha in the 1950s and a six percent share of Japanese foreign trade by 1958. Nichimen became closely affiliated with Osaka-based Sanwa Bank in 1955, which financed all of Nichimen's domestic business. Nichimen was not the main trading company for the Sanwa keiretsu as that position was already held by Iwai & Co. Nichimen Jitsugyo. By 1970, Nichimen was trading in steel, electronics, motor vehicles and fibers in addition to textiles. Nichimen served as

2190-1011: The Gregory coal mine and most of the Minerva Coal Mine in Australia and distributes nuclear fuel in Japan for Orano . Its operations in the chemicals sector include methanol production in Indonesia , barite mining in Mexico and industrial salt trading in various markets worldwide. In November 2010, it signed an agreement with the Australian rare earths mining company Lynas to import $ 350 million worth of rare earth minerals from Lynas' mine in Mount Weld , Australia. Its consumer business operations include trading in grains, feed, sugar, coffee, fish, wood and paper. It owns

2263-534: The Hudson's Bay Company merged with the rival North West Company . The Great Merger Movement was a predominantly U.S. business phenomenon that happened from 1895 to 1905. During this time, small firms with little market share consolidated with similar firms to form large, powerful institutions that dominated their markets, such as the Standard Oil Company , which at its height controlled nearly 90% of

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2336-920: The Kwantung Leased Territory and established offices in China, Korea, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom to supply local markets. In 1910, Nichimen opened a subsidiary in Fort Worth, Texas to enter the raw cotton trade in the United States. World War I strained cotton supply in Europe, boosting Nichimen's international business further. In the late 1910s the company expanded into South America and Africa, trading in cotton as well as wool, food products, and machinery. The Great Depression harmed Nichimen's cotton business, spurring

2409-859: The film and television adaptions of the Key visual novel Air , Best Student Council , Blade of the Phantom Master , Comic Party Revolution , Coyote Ragtime Show , Devil May Cry , the 2006 live-action horror film Ghost Train , Guyver: The Bioboosted Armor , Innocent Venus , Jing King of Bandits: 7th Heaven , Jinki: Extend , the 2006 anime remake of yet another Key visual novel, Kanon , Kurau: Phantom Memory , Le Chevalier D'Eon , Magikano , Moeyo Ken , Moonlight Mile , Nerima Daikon Brothers , Pani Poni Dash! , Project Blue Earth SOS , Pumpkin Scissors , Red Garden , Tokyo Majin , UFO Princess Valkyrie ,

2482-800: The Great Merger Movement were able to keep their dominance in their respective sectors through 1929, and in some cases today, due to growing technological advances of their products, patents , and brand recognition by their customers. There were also other companies that held the greatest market share in 1905 but at the same time did not have the competitive advantages of the companies like DuPont and General Electric . These companies such as International Paper and American Chicle saw their market share decrease significantly by 1929 as smaller competitors joined forces with each other and provided much more competition. The companies that merged were mass producers of homogeneous goods that could exploit

2555-401: The Great Merger Movement. Kansai Paint Kansai Paint Co., Ltd. ( 関西ペイント株式会社 , Kansai Peinto Kabushiki-gaisha ) is a Japanese , Osaka -based chemical company whose main products are automotive, industrial and decorative coatings. The company is one of the world's top ten paint manufacturers with manufacturing sites in over 43 countries across the world. Kansai Paint is

2628-541: The Japanese rights to several consumer brands such as Eastpak and McGregor. In June 2006, Sojitz acquired a 20% stake in American anime distributor ADV Films . This was done as a means of acquiring more titles in the Japanese market. From this point on, virtually all titles that ADV acquired were under Sojitz's ownership. However, in January 2008, ADV mysteriously removed a large number of titles from their website. All

2701-450: The acquiring company's stock, issued to the shareholders of the acquired company at a given ratio proportional to the valuation of the latter. They receive stock in the company that is purchasing the smaller subsidiary. There are some elements to think about when choosing the form of payment. When submitting an offer, the acquiring firm should consider other potential bidders and think strategically. The form of payment might be decisive for

2774-512: The acquisition so the team can focus on projects for their new employer). In recent years, these types of acquisitions have become common in the technology industry, where major web companies such as Facebook , Twitter , and Yahoo! have frequently used talent acquisitions to add expertise in particular areas to their workforces. Merger of equals is often a combination of companies of a similar size. Since 1990, there have been more than 625 M&A transactions announced as mergers of equals with

2847-514: The assets and liabilities that pertain solely to the unit being sold, determining whether the unit relies on services from other parts of the seller's organization, transferring employees, moving permits and licenses, and safeguarding against potential competition from the seller in the same business sector after the transaction is completed. From an economic point of view, business combinations can also be classified as horizontal, vertical and conglomerate mergers (or acquisitions). A horizontal merger

2920-581: The assets or ownership equity of the acquired entity. A consolidation/amalgamation occurs when two companies combine to form a new enterprise altogether, and neither of the previous companies remains independently owned. Acquisitions are divided into "private" and "public" acquisitions, depending on whether the acquiree or merging company (also termed a target ) is or is not listed on a public stock market . Some public companies rely on acquisitions as an important value creation strategy. An additional dimension or categorization consists of whether an acquisition

2993-446: The business either through debt, equity, or a portion of both. Five common ways to "triangulate" the enterprise value of a business are: Professionals who value businesses generally do not use just one method, but a combination. Valuations implied using these methodologies can prove different to a company's current trading valuation. For public companies, the market based enterprise value and equity value can be calculated by referring to

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3066-482: The buyer and target companies seeing positive returns. This suggests that M&A creates economic value, likely by transferring assets to more efficient management teams who can better utilize them. (See Douma & Schreuder, 2013, chapter 13). There are also a variety of structures used in securing control over the assets of a company, which have different tax and regulatory implications: The terms " demerger ", " spin-off " and "spin-out" are sometimes used to indicate

3139-469: The buyer. Hence, the analysis should be done from the acquiring firm's point of view. Synergy-creating investments are started by the choice of the acquirer, and therefore they are not obligatory, making them essentially real options . To include this real options aspect into analysis of acquisition targets is one interesting issue that has been studied lately. See also contingent value rights . Mergers are generally differentiated from acquisitions partly by

3212-462: The company's current account), liquidity ratios might decrease. On the other hand, in a pure stock for stock transaction (financed from the issuance of new shares), the company might show lower profitability ratios (e.g. ROA). However, economic dilution must prevail towards accounting dilution when making the choice. The form of payment and financing options are tightly linked. If the buyer pays cash, there are three main financing options: M&A advice

3285-437: The company's diversification beyond cotton to trade in silk, rayon and other materials. During World War II , Nichimen was tapped by the Japanese military to manage production of flour, matches and starch. The company changed its name to Nichimen Enterprise (Nichimen Jitsugyo) in 1943 to reflect its more diverse business. The largest zaibatsu trading companies were dismantled after the war, giving Nichimen an early lead among

3358-469: The company's share price and components on its balance sheet. The valuation methods described above represent ways to determine value of a company independently from how the market currently, or historically, has determined value based on the price of its outstanding securities. Most often value is expressed in a Letter of Opinion of Value (LOV) when the business is being valued informally. Formal valuation reports generally get more detailed and expensive as

3431-420: The content analysis of seven interviews, the authors concluded the following components for their grounded model of acquisition: An increase in acquisitions in the global business environment requires enterprises to evaluate the key stake holders of acquisitions very carefully before implementation. It is imperative for the acquirer to understand this relationship and apply it to its advantage. Employee retention

3504-430: The control of the buyer modified. If the issuance of shares is necessary, shareholders of the acquiring company might prevent such capital increase at the general meeting of shareholders. The risk is removed with a cash transaction. Then, the balance sheet of the buyer will be modified and the decision maker should take into account the effects on the reported financial results. For example, in a pure cash deal (financed from

3577-405: The efficiencies of large volume production. In addition, many of these mergers were capital-intensive. Due to high fixed costs, when demand fell, these newly merged companies had an incentive to maintain output and reduce prices. However more often than not mergers were "quick mergers". These "quick mergers" involved mergers of companies with unrelated technology and different management. As a result,

3650-468: The efficiency gains associated with mergers were not present. The new and bigger company would actually face higher costs than competitors because of these technological and managerial differences. Thus, the mergers were not done to see large efficiency gains, they were in fact done because that was the trend at the time. Companies which had specific fine products, like fine writing paper, earned their profits on high margin rather than volume and took no part in

3723-472: The first anime of Utawarerumono , Venus vs. Virus , The Wallflower , Welcome to the NHK , and Xenosaga . Merger Mergers and acquisitions ( M&A ) are business transactions in which the ownership of companies , business organizations , or their operating units are transferred to or consolidated with another company or business organization. This could happen through direct absorption,

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3796-484: The four largest sogo shosha competitors ( Mitsubishi Corporation , Mitsui & Co. , Itochu and Marubeni ). Iwai was poorly managed after the war and was on the brink of failure in the early 1960s, while Nissho was profitable and successfully expanding overseas. The Japanese government directed the merger of the two companies in 1968, forming the fifth largest trading company in Japan (falling back to sixth place in 1972 behind Sumitomo Corporation ). Sanwa Bank played

3869-473: The global oil refinery industry. It is estimated that more than 1,800 of these firms disappeared into consolidations, many of which acquired substantial shares of the markets in which they operated. The vehicle used were so-called trusts . In 1900 the value of firms acquired in mergers was 20% of GDP . In 1990 the value was only 3% and from 1998 to 2000 it was around 10–11% of GDP. Companies such as DuPont , U.S. Steel , and General Electric that merged during

3942-415: The globe. Sojitz (through its subsidiary Sojitz Aerospace Company ) is the largest seller of commercial aircraft in Japan, as it acts as a sales agent for both Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace . It distributes Mitsubishi Motors and Hyundai Motors automobiles in various countries, and also develops and operates power plants, industrial plants in various countries. In 2013 it received an order to develop

4015-549: The industry highly reliant on foreign merchants. To improve this situation, a group of spinning companies established Japan Cotton Trading Co., Ltd. ( 日本綿花株式会社 , Nippon Menka Kabushiki Kaisha ) in Osaka in 1892 under the leadership of Tsuneki Sano, a 38-year-old former government official. After the Russo-Japanese War , Nichimen expanded its business from importing. The company began cotton spinning operations in

4088-519: The joint venture partner for Nabisco when it began operations in Japan in the 1970s. Nichimen Co., Ltd. changed its name to Nichimen Corporation in 1982. Nichimen, like other sogo shosha , was hit hard by the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in the early 1990s, and subsequently made a strategic shift from the "soft" businesses of lumber, food, and chemicals trading to the "hard" businesses of machinery, steel, and construction. Nissho Iwai

4161-440: The long run by increased market share, broad customer base, and corporate strength of business. A strategic acquirer may also be willing to pay a premium offer to target firm in the outlook of the synergy value created after M&A process. The term "acqui-hire" is used to refer to acquisitions where the acquiring company seeks to obtain the target company's talent, rather than their products (which are often discontinued as part of

4234-440: The merger. Mergers, asset purchases and equity purchases are each taxed differently, and the most beneficial structure for tax purposes is highly situation-dependent. Under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code , a forward triangular merger is taxed as if the target company sold its assets to the shell company and then liquidated, them whereas a reverse triangular merger is taxed as if the target company's shareholders sold their stock in

4307-429: The most value from a business assessment, objectives should be clearly defined and the right resources should be chosen to conduct the assessment in the available timeframe. As synergy plays a large role in the valuation of acquisitions, it is paramount to get the value of synergies right; as briefly alluded to re DCF valuations. Synergies are different from the "sales price" valuation of the firm, as they will accrue to

4380-417: The offer. Hostile acquisitions can, and often do, ultimately become "friendly" as the acquirer secures endorsement of the transaction from the board of the acquiree company. This usually requires an improvement in the terms of the offer and/or through negotiation. "Acquisition" usually refers to a purchase of a smaller firm by a larger one. Sometimes, however, a smaller firm will acquire management control of

4453-446: The purchase price. These adjustments are subject to enforceability issues in certain situations. Alternatively, certain transactions use the 'locked box' approach, where the purchase price is fixed at signing and based on the seller's equity value at a pre-signing date and an interest charge. The assets of a business are pledged to two categories of stakeholders: equity owners and owners of the business' outstanding debt. The core value of

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4526-446: The rewards for M&A activity were greater for consumer products companies than the average company. For the period 2000–2010, consumer products companies turned in an average annual TSR of 7.4%, while the average for all companies was 4.8%. Given that the cost of replacing an executive can run over 100% of his or her annual salary, any investment of time and energy in re-recruitment will likely pay for itself many times over if it helps

4599-452: The scandal, one Nissho Iwai executive committed suicide by jumping from the company's headquarters building. The scandal was uncovered only three years after a similar scandal involving Lockheed and Marubeni conspiring to bribe Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka . In subsequent years, the company had a strong focus on liquefied natural gas and steel trading, as well as industrial project development. Nichimen and Nissho Iwai consolidated on

4672-631: The second Japanese member of the Baltic Exchange in London. Iwai & Company ( ja:岩井商店 ) was founded as a steel trading firm in 1901 and established a number of prominent group enterprises including Daicel , Nisshin Steel, Tokuyama Soda, Kansai Paint and Fuji Photo Film . It changed its name to Iwai Sangyo Company in 1943. Both Nissho and Iwai emerged as metals and machinery trading companies after World War II but were significantly smaller than

4745-448: The seller. Asset purchases are common in technology transactions in which the buyer is most interested in particular intellectual property but does not want to acquire liabilities or other contractual relationships. An asset purchase structure may also be used when the buyer wishes to buy a particular division or unit of a company that is not a separate legal entity. Divestitures present a variety of unique challenges, such as identifying

4818-442: The seller. With pure cash deals, there is no doubt on the real value of the bid (without considering an eventual earnout). The contingency of the share payment is indeed removed. Thus, a cash offer preempts competitors better than securities. Taxes are a second element to consider and should be evaluated with the counsel of competent tax and accounting advisers. Third, with a share deal the buyer's capital structure might be affected and

4891-414: The size of a company increases, but this is not always the case as the nature of the business and the industry it is operating in can influence the complexity of the valuation task. Objectively evaluating the historical and prospective performance of a business is a challenge faced by many. Generally, parties rely on independent third parties to conduct due diligence studies or business assessments. To yield

4964-490: The target company to the buyer. The documentation of an M&A transaction often begins with a letter of intent . The letter of intent generally does not bind the parties to commit to a transaction, but may bind the parties to confidentiality and exclusivity obligations so that the transaction can be considered through a due diligence process involving lawyers, accountants, tax advisors, and other professionals, as well as business people from both sides. After due diligence

5037-670: The titles removed were titles acquired since the Sojitz acquisition including Gurren Lagann , which had test disks sent out with dubbed episodes. As of May 2008, Gurren Lagann was licensed by Bandai Entertainment . ADV Films made booth appearances at the Anime Central 2008 convention, but they canceled their planned panel. In July 2008, Funimation announced the acquisition of thirty of these titles. The titles removed from ADV's website are as follows: 009-1 , 5 Centimeters per Second , Ah! My Goddess: Flights of Fancy , both

5110-658: The topic brand architecture . Most histories of M&A begin in the late 19th century United States. However, mergers coincide historically with the existence of companies. In 1708, for example, the East India Company merged with an erstwhile competitor to restore its monopoly over the Indian trade. In 1784, the Italian Monte dei Paschi and Monte Pio banks were united as the Monti Reuniti. In 1821,

5183-547: The transaction and going down into detail about what to do about overlapping and competing product brands. Decisions about what brand equity to write off are not inconsequential. And, given the ability for the right brand choices to drive preference and earn a price premium, the future success of a merger or acquisition depends on making wise brand choices. Brand decision-makers essentially can choose from four different approaches to dealing with naming issues, each with specific pros and cons: The factors influencing brand decisions in

5256-406: The way in which they are financed and partly by the relative size of the companies. Various methods of financing an M&A deal exist: Payment by cash. Such transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bidder's shareholders. Payment in the form of

5329-501: Was formed in 1968 by the merger of Nissho Company and Iwai Sangyo Company. Nissho Company was founded in Kobe in 1902 as Suzuki & Company ( ja:鈴木商店 ) under the leadership of Naokichi Kaneko( ja:金子直吉 ) when died this company's predecessor shop's founder, Iwajiro Suzuki( ja:鈴木岩治郎 )(1837–1894). Suzuki was originally a sugar trading firm but later diversified into flour, steel, tobacco, beer, insurance, shipping and shipbuilding; it became

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