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147-515: Throughout history Sor Juana's significance to different communities has varied significantly, having been presented as a candidate for Catholic sainthood , a symbol of Mexican nationalism , freedom of speech , women's rights , sexual diversity , and others, making her a figure of great controversy and debate to this day. Juana was born in San Miguel Nepantla (presently Nepantla de Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz ) near Mexico City as

294-465: A patron saint of a particular cause, profession, or locale, or invoked as a protector against specific illnesses or disasters, sometimes by popular custom and sometimes by official declarations of the church. Saints are not believed to have power of their own, but only that granted by God. Relics of saints are respected, or venerated , similar to the veneration of holy images and icons . The practice in past centuries of venerating relics of saints with

441-488: A postulant , where she remained but a few months. Later, in 1669, she entered the monastery of the Hieronymite nuns , which had more relaxed rules, where she changed her name to Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, probably in reference to Sor Juana de la Cruz Vázquez Gutiérrez who was a Spanish nun whose intellectual accomplishments earned her one of the few dispensations for women to preach the gospel. Another potential namesake

588-623: A canonization process unique to each church. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, for example, has the requirement that at least 50 years must pass following a prospective saint's death before the Coptic Orthodox Church's pope can canonize the saint. In the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican movement, the title of Saint refers to a person who has been elevated by popular opinion as

735-768: A center of the Romantic era in Sweden and, arguably the most famed literary salon in Sweden. During the 1860s and 1870s, the Limnell Salon of the rich benefactor Fredrika Limnell in Stockholm came to be a famous center of the Swedish cultural elite, were especially writers gathered to make contact with wealthy benefactors, a role which was eventually taken over by the Curman Receptions of Calla Curman in

882-631: A distinctly feminist historiography. The salons, according to Carolyn Lougee, were distinguished by 'the very visible identification of women with salons', and the fact that they played a positive public role in French society. General texts on the Enlightenment, such as Daniel Roche's France in the Enlightenment tend to agree that women were dominant within the salons, but that their influence did not extend far outside of such venues. It was, however, Goodman's The Republic of Letters that ignited

1029-407: A la que buscáis, para pretendida, Thais, y en la posesión, Lucrecia. ¿Que humor puede ser más raro que el que, falto de consejo, él mismo empaña el espejo, y siente que no esté claro? Con el favor y el desdén Catholic saint In Christian belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness , likeness , or closeness to God . However,

1176-601: A letter, Respuesta a Sor Filotea de la Cruz ( Reply to Sister Philotea ), in which she defended women's right to formal education . She also advocated for women's right to serve as intellectual authorities, not only through the act of writing, but also through the publication of their writing. By putting women, specifically older women, in positions of authority, Sor Juana argued, women could educate other women. Resultingly, Sor Juana argued, this practice could also avoid potentially dangerous situations involving male teachers in intimate settings with young female students. In 1691, she

1323-510: A male student so that she could enter the university there, without success. Without the ability to obtain a formal education, Juana continued her studies privately. Her family's influential position had gained her the position of lady-in-waiting at the colonial viceroy 's court, where she came under the tutelage of the Vicereine Donna Eleonora del Carretto , a member of one of Italy's most prominent families, and wife of

1470-433: A matter of debate. These older texts tend to portray reasoned debates and egalitarian polite conversation. Dena Goodman claims that, rather than being leisure based or 'schools of civilité', salons were at 'the very heart of the philosophic community' and thus integral to the process of Enlightenment. In short, Goodman argues, the 17th and 18th century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, which came out of

1617-485: A moral model, but communion with God: there are countless examples of people who lived in great sin and became saints by humility and repentance, such as Mary of Egypt , Moses the Ethiopian , and Dysmas , the repentant thief who was crucified. Therefore, a more complete Eastern Orthodox definition of what a saint is, has to do with the way that saints, through their humility and their love of humankind, saved inside them

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1764-761: A more general way to refer to the state of special holiness that many religions attribute to certain people", referring to the Jewish ḥasīd or tzadik , the Islamic walī / fakir , the Hindu rishi , Sikh bhagat or guru , the Shintoist kami , the Taoist shengren , and the Buddhist arhat or bodhisattva also as saints. Depending on the religion, saints are recognized either by official ecclesiastical declaration, as in

1911-455: A pious and holy person. The saints are seen as models of holiness to be imitated, and as a "cloud of witnesses" that strengthen and encourage the believer during his or her spiritual journey ( Hebrews 12:1 ). The saints are seen as elder brothers and sisters in Christ. Official Anglican creeds recognize the existence of the saints in heaven. In high-church contexts, such as Anglo-Catholicism ,

2058-483: A real debate surrounding the role of women within the salons and the Enlightenment as a whole. According to Goodman: 'The salonnières were not social climbers but intelligent, self-educated, and educating women who adopted and implemented the values of the Enlightenment Republic of Letters and used them to reshape the salon to their own social intellectual, and educational needs'. Wealthy members of

2205-441: A saint is generally one to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated) a high level of holiness and sanctity . In this use, a saint is therefore not merely a believer , but one who has been transformed by virtue. In Catholicism , a saint is a special sign of God's activity. The veneration of saints is sometimes misunderstood to be worship, in which case it is derisively termed "hagiolatry". So far as invocation of

2352-571: A saint. The first stage in this process is an investigation of the candidate's life by an expert. After this, the official report on the candidate is submitted to the bishop of the pertinent diocese and more study is undertaken. The information is then sent to the Dicastery for the Causes of Saints of the Holy See for evaluation at the universal level of the church. If the application is approved

2499-655: A technical one in ancient Roman religion , but due to its globalized use in Christianity the modern word saint is now also used as a translation of comparable terms for persons "worthy of veneration for their holiness or sanctity" in other religions. Many religions also use similar concepts (but different terminology) to venerate persons worthy of some honor. Author John A. Coleman of the Graduate Theological Union , Berkeley, California , wrote that saints across various cultures and religions have

2646-607: Is a Christian. This is similar in usage to Paul 's numerous references in the New Testament of the Bible. In this sense, anyone who is within the Body of Christ (i.e., a professing Christian) is a saint because of their relationship with Christ Jesus. Many Protestants consider intercessory prayers to the saints to be idolatry , since what they perceive to be an application of divine worship that should be given only to God himself

2793-431: Is affixed to such a document in 1694, but the tone of the supposed handwritten penitentials is in rhetorical and autocratic, in contrast to her normally lyrical style. One is signed " Yo, la Peor de Todas " ("I, the worst of all women"). She is said to have sold all her books, then an extensive library of more than 4,000 volumes, as well as her musical and scientific instruments. Other sources report that her defiance toward

2940-541: Is being given to other believers, dead or alive. Within some Protestant traditions, saint is also used to refer to any born-again Christian . Many emphasize the traditional New Testament meaning of the word, preferring to write "saint" to refer to any believer, in continuity with the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers . The use of "saint" within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church)

3087-752: Is no formal canonization process in Hinduism, but over time, many men and women have reached the status of saints among their followers and among Hindus in general. Unlike in Christianity, Hinduism does not canonize people as saints after death, but they can be accepted as saints during their lifetime. Hindu saints have often renounced the world, and are variously called gurus , sadhus , rishis , devarishis , rajarshis , saptarishis , brahmarshis , swamis , pundits , purohits , pujaris , acharyas , pravaras , yogis , yoginis , and other names. Some Hindu saints are given god-like status, being seen as incarnations of Vishnu , Shiva , Devi , and other aspects of

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3234-608: Is on display at The Brooklyn Museum. Like Stein, she was also an author and American ex-pat living in Paris at the time, hosting literary salons that were attended by Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald as well. She bought a home with an old Masonic temple in the backyard which she dubbed Temple d’Amitié, the Temple of Friendship, for private meetings with attendees of her salons. In 2018, Barnard College professor Caroline Weber's book “Proust's Duchess: How Three Celebrated Women Captured

3381-666: Is similar to the Protestant tradition. In the New Testament, saints are all those who have entered into the Christian covenant of baptism. The qualification "latter-day" refers to the doctrine that members are living in the latter days before the Second Coming of Christ , and is used to distinguish the members of the church, which considers itself the restoration of the ancient Christian church. Members are therefore often referred to as " Latter-day Saints " or "LDS", and among themselves as "saints". In some theological literature,

3528-418: Is sometimes used, it is only used with the older English connotation of honoring or respecting ( dulia ) a person. According to the church, Divine worship is in the strict sense reserved only to God ( latria ) and never to the saints. One is permitted to ask the saints to intercede or pray to God for persons still on Earth, just as one can ask someone on Earth to pray for him. A saint may be designated as

3675-480: The Bluestockings and other intellectuals to discuss a variety of topics. At that time women had powerful influence over the salon. Women were the center of life in the salon and carried very important roles as regulators. They could select their guests and decide the subjects of their meetings. These subjects could be social, literary, or political topics of the time. They also served as mediators by directing

3822-600: The Christian influence on Druze faith , two Christian saints become the Druze 's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and Saint Elijah . Thus, in all the villages inhabited by Druzes and Christians in central Mount Lebanon a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either one of them. According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druzes appreciated the two saints for their bravery: Saint George because he confronted

3969-695: The Church of England , a saint is one who is sanctified, as it translates in the Authorized King James Version (1611) 2 Chronicles 6:41: Now therefore arise, O L ORD God, into thy resting place, thou, and the ark of thy strength: let thy priests, O L ORD God, be clothed with salvation, and let thy saints rejoice in goodness. In the Lutheran Church , all Christians, whether in Heaven or on Earth, are regarded as saints. However,

4116-801: The Eastern Orthodox Church , the title Ὅσιος , Hosios (f. Ὁσία Hosia ) is also used. This is a title attributed to saints who had lived a monastic or eremitic life equivalent to the more usual title of "Saint". The Oriental Orthodox churches ‒ the Armenian Apostolic Church , the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , the Tewahedo Church , Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church , and the Syriac Orthodox Church ‒ follow

4263-539: The French Revolution and especially under Napoleon Bonaparte 's Regime. It has become known as the Coppet group . De Staël is author of around thirty publications, from which On Germany (1813) was the most well known in its time. She has been painted by such famous painters as François Gérard and Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun . In 18th-century England, salons were held by Elizabeth Montagu , in whose salon

4410-600: The Palais du Louvre by the marquise de Rambouillet , where gathered the original précieuses , and, in 1652 in Le Marais , the rival salon of Madeleine de Scudéry , a long time habituée of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. Les bas-bleus , borrowed from England's " blue-stockings ," soon found itself in use upon the attending ladies, a nickname continuing to mean "intellectual woman" for the next three hundred years. Paris salons of

4557-641: The Pope may canonize the candidate as a saint for veneration by the universal church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a saint is defined as anyone who is in Heaven , whether recognized here on Earth, or not. By this definition, Adam and Eve , Moses , the various prophets , and archangels are all given the title of "Saint". Sainthood in the Orthodox Church does not necessarily reflect

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4704-621: The Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743) through the campaign for the war she launched in her salon. Outside of politics, Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht acted as the hostess of the literary academy Tankebyggarorden and Anna Maria Lenngren did the same for the Royal Swedish Academy . During the reign of Gustavian age , the home of Anna Charlotta Schröderheim came to be known as a center of opposition. Salon hostesses were still attributed influence in politic affairs in

4851-525: The United Methodist Book of Discipline states: The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory, pardon, worshiping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God. In many Protestant churches, the word saint is used more generally to refer to anyone who

4998-511: The deities . The name santería was originally a pejorative term for those whose worship of saints deviated from Catholic norms. Buddhists in both the Theravada and Mahayana traditions hold the Arhats in special esteem, as well as highly developed Bodhisattvas . Tibetan Buddhists hold the tulkus (reincarnates of deceased eminent practitioners) as living saints on earth. Due to

5145-596: The hacienda of Panaoyan, in Amecameca , leased by her maternal grandfather, and home to the ample Ramírez de Santillana family. Among her relatives, several women with the name "Inés" have been noted, included her grandmother Inés de Brenes, her maternal-aunt Inés Ramírez de Santillana, and her first-cousin Inés de Brenes y Mendoza, married to a grandson of Antonio de Saavedra Guzmán , the first ever published American -born poet. Later described as child prodigy , Sor Juana

5292-522: The hierarchical structure of the Catholic Church . Along with Carta Atenagórica , the bishop also published his own letter in which he said she should focus on religious instead of secular studies. He published his criticisms to use them to his advantage against the priest, and while he agreed with her criticisms, he believed that as a woman, she should devote herself to prayer and give up her writings. In response to her critics, Sor Juana wrote

5439-504: The icons of saints. When an Orthodox Christian venerates icons of a saint he is venerating the image of God which he sees in the saint. Because the church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead, as the saints are considered to be alive in Heaven, saints are referred to as if they are still alive, and are venerated, not worshipped. They are believed to be able to intercede for salvation and help mankind either through direct communion with God or by personal intervention. In

5586-532: The illegitimate daughter of Don Pedro Manuel de Asuaje y Vargas-Machuca, a Spanish navy captain from the Canary Islands involved in colonial transatlantic shipping and trade, and Doña Isabel Ramírez de Santillana y Rendón, a distinguished criolla , whose father leased the Hacienda de Panoayan , near Mexico City. There are two different baptism registrations that have been attributed to her, one under

5733-467: The patriarchal structure of the Catholic Church , Sor Juana was repeatedly criticized for believing that her writing could achieve the same philanthropic goals as community work. By 1693, she seemingly ceased writing to avoid risking official censure . Although there is no undisputed evidence of her renouncing her writing, there are documents showing her agreeing to undergo penance . Her name

5880-482: The public sphere as being more widespread than previously appreciated. Recent historiography of the salons has been dominated by Jürgen Habermas ' work, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (triggered largely by its translation into French, in 1978, and then English, in 1989), which argued that the salons were of great historical importance. Theaters of conversation and exchange – such as

6027-400: The public sphere is so heavily contested. Individuals and collections of individuals that have been of cultural significance overwhelmingly cite some form of engaged, explorative conversation regularly held with an esteemed group of acquaintances as the source of inspiration for their contributions to culture, art, literature and politics, leading some scholars to posit the salon's influence on

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6174-793: The 1680s and 1690s, the salon of countess Magdalena Stenbock became a meeting where foreign ambassadors in Stockholm came to make contacts, and her gambling table was described as a center of Swedish foreign policy. During the Swedish Age of Liberty (1718–1772), women participated in political debate and promoted their favorites in the struggle between the Caps (party) and the Hats (party) through political salons. These forums were regarded influential enough for foreign powers to engage some of these women as agents to benefit their interests in Swedish politics. The arguably most noted political salonnière of

6321-488: The 1840s were a related phenomenon attracting men and women, scientists and writers. Martha Washington , the first American First Lady , performed a function similar to the host or hostess of the European salon. She held weekly public receptions throughout her husband's eight-year presidency (1789–1797). At these gatherings, members of Congress , visiting foreign dignitaries, and ordinary citizens alike were received at

6468-584: The 1860s. Her salon was attended by Moncure D. Conway , Louisa May Alcott , Arthur Munby , feminists Barbara Bodichon , Lydia Becker , Elizabeth Blackwell , and Elizabeth Malleson. Holland House in Kensington under the Fox family in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was akin to a French salon, largely for adherents to the Whig Party. Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées from 1828 and into

6615-708: The 1880s and 1890s. In Iberia or Latin America , a tertulia is a social gathering with literary or artistic overtones. The word is originally Spanish and has only moderate currency in English, in describing Latin cultural contexts. Since the 20th century, a typical tertulia has moved out from the private drawing-room to become a regularly scheduled event in a public place such as a bar, although some tertulias are still held in more private spaces. Participants may share their recent creations ( poetry , short stories , other writings, even artwork or songs). In Switzerland,

6762-776: The 18th and 19th centuries, many large cities in Europe held salons along the lines of the Parisian models. Prior to the formation of Belgium, Béatrix de Cusance hosted a salon in Brussels in what was then the Spanish Netherlands in the mid-17th century. In the late 18th century, the political salon of Anne d'Yves played a role in the Brabant Revolution of 1789. In Belgium , the 19th-century salon hosted by Constance Trotti attracted cultural figures,

6909-412: The 18th century hosted by women include the following: Some 19th-century salons were more inclusive, verging on the raffish, and centered around painters and "literary lions" such as Madame Récamier . After the shock of the 1870 Franco-Prussian War , French aristocrats withdrew from the public eye. However, Princess Mathilde still held a salon in her mansion, rue de Courcelles, later rue de Berri. From

7056-479: The 18th century, and among the most notable salonnières were Barbara Sanguszko , Zofia Lubomirska , Anna Jabłonowska , a noted early scientist and collector of scientific objects and books, Izabela Czartoryska , and her later namesake, Princess Izabela Czartoryska founder of Poland's first museum and a patron of the Polish composer Frederic Chopin . The salon culture was introduced to Imperial Russia during

7203-526: The Arts: Adele Bloch-Bauer and Berta Zuckerkandl . Increasingly emancipated German-speaking Jews wanted to immerse themselves in the rich cultural life. However, individual Jews were faced with a dilemma: they faced new opportunities, but without the comfort of a secure community. For Jewish women, there was an additional issue. German society imposed the usual gender role restrictions and antisemitism, so cultivated Jewish women tapped into

7350-546: The Belgian aristocracy and members of the French exiled colony. In Denmark , the salon culture was adopted during the 18th century. Christine Sophie Holstein and Charlotte Schimmelman were the most notable hostesses, in the beginning and in the end of the 18th century respectively, both of whom were credited with political influence. During the Danish Golden Age in the late 18th century and early 19th century,

7497-749: The Catholic faith, or by popular acclamation (see folk saint ). The English word saint comes from the Latin sanctus , with the Greek equivalent being ἅγιος ( hagios ) 'holy'. The word ἅγιος appears 229 times in the Greek New Testament , and its English translation 60 times in the corresponding text of the King James Version of the Bible . The word sanctus was originally

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7644-520: The Church led to the confiscation of all of her books and instruments, although the bishop himself agreed with the contents of her letters. Of more than one hundred unpublished works, only a few of her writings have survived, which are known as the Complete Works . According to Octavio Paz , her writings were saved by the vicereine. She died after ministering to other nuns stricken during a plague , on 17 April 1695. Sigüenza y Góngora delivered

7791-799: The Convent of Santa Paula of the Hieronymite in Mexico City from 1669 until her death in 1695, and there she studied, wrote, and collected a large library of books. The Viceroy and Vicereine of New Spain became her patrons; they supported her and had her writings published in Spain. She addressed some of her poems to paintings of her friend and patron María Luisa Manrique de Lara y Gonzaga , daughter of Vespasiano Gonzaga , Duca di Guastala, Luzara e Rechiolo and Inés María Manrique, 9th Countess de Paredes, which she also addressed as Lísida. In November 1690,

7938-527: The Day of Judgment. However, both the tombs of prophets and saints are visited frequently ( Ziyarat ) . People would seek the advice of a saint in their quest for spiritual fulfilment. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are usually acknowledged informally by consensus of common people, not by scholars. Unlike prophets, women like Rabia of Basra were accepted as saints. Saints are recognized as having specific traits they can be identified through. These include: floating lights appearing above their tomb,

8085-436: The Divine—this can happen during their lifetimes, or sometimes many years after their deaths. This explains another common name for Hindu saints: godmen, is invention of western Abrahamic media to a Pagan Ideas. Besides prophets, according to Islam , saints possess blessings (Arabic: بركة, "baraka") and can perform miracles (Arabic: كرامات, Karāmāt ). Saints rank lower than prophets, and they do not intercede for people on

8232-515: The Hindu Shadhus , the Buddhist A rahant or B odhisattva, the Daoist S hengren, the Shinto K ami, and others have all been referred to as saints. Cuban Santería , Haitian Vodou , Trinidad Orisha-Shango , Brazilian Umbanda , Candomblé , and other similar syncretist religions adopted the Catholic saints, or at least the images of the saints, and applied their own spirits/deities to them. They are worshipped in churches (where they appear as saints) and in religious festivals, where they appear as

8379-399: The Imagination of Fin-de-Siècle Paris” was shortlisted for the Pulitzer Prize and was the first in-depth study of the three Parisian salon hostesses Proust used to create his supreme fictional character, the Duchesse de Guermantes. Contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politeness, civility and honesty, though whether they lived up to these standards is

8526-415: The Lord". The title Saint denotes a person who has been formally canonized —that is, officially and authoritatively declared a saint, by the church as holder of the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven , and is therefore believed to be in Heaven by the grace of God . There are many persons that the church believes to be in Heaven who have not been formally canonized and who are otherwise titled saints because of

8673-411: The New Spain, among others. Her criticism of misogyny and the hypocrisy of men led to her condemnation by the Bishop of Puebla , and in 1694 she was forced to sell her collection of books and focus on charity towards the poor. She died the next year, having caught the plague while treating her sisters. In 1667, she entered the Monastery of St. Joseph, a community of the Discalced Carmelite nuns , as

8820-412: The Swedish age of liberty was countess Hedvig Catharina De la Gardie (1695–1745) , whose salon has some time been referred to as the first in Sweden, and whose influence on state affairs exposed her to libelous pamphlets and made her a target of Olof von Dahlin 's libelous caricature of the political salon hostess in 1733. Magdalena Elisabeth Rahm was attributed to have contributed to the realization of

8967-570: The Viceroy of New Spain Don Antonio Sebastián de Toledo , Marquis of Mancera . The viceroy Marquis de Mancera, wishing to test the learning and intelligence of the 17-year-old, invited several theologians, jurists, philosophers, and poets to a meeting, during which she had to answer many questions unprepared and explain several difficult points on various scientific and literary subjects. The manner in which she acquitted herself astonished all present and greatly increased her reputation. Her literary accomplishments garnered her fame throughout New Spain. She

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9114-399: The Westernization Francophile culture of the Russian aristocracy in the 18th century. During the 19th century, several famous salon functioned hosted by the nobility in Saint Petersburg and Moscow, among the most famed being the literary salon of Zinaida Volkonskaya in 1820s Moscow. In Sweden, the salon developed during the late 17th century and flourished until the late 19th century. During

9261-411: The Whiggish, male dominated history identified by Herbert Butterfield . Even in 1970, works were still being produced that concentrated only on individual stories, without analysing the effects of the salonnières' unique position. The integral role that women played within salons, as salonnières, began to receive greater - and more serious - study in latter parts of the 20th century, with the emergence of

9408-480: The activity of the imagination as an image-reflecting apparatus: the Pharos . From this moment, her soul, in a dream, sees itself free at the summit of her own intellect; in other words, at the apex of a pyramid-like mount, which aims at God and is luminous. There, perched like an eagle, she contemplates the whole creation, but fails to comprehend such a sight in a single concept. Dazzled, the soul's intellect faces its own shipwreck, caused mainly by trying to understand

9555-433: The age of five, she reportedly could do accounts. At age eight, she composed a poem on the Eucharist . By adolescence, Inés had mastered Greek logic , and at age thirteen she was teaching Latin to young children. She also learned the Aztec language of Nahuatl and wrote some short poems in that language. In 1664, at the age of 16, Inés was sent to live in Mexico City. She asked her mother's permission to disguise herself as

9702-473: The aristocracy have always drawn to their court poets, writers and artists, usually with the lure of patronage , an aspect that sets the court apart from the salon. Another feature that distinguished the salon from the court was its absence of social hierarchy and its mixing of different social ranks and orders. In the 17th and 18th centuries, "salon[s] encouraged socializing between the sexes [and] brought nobles and bourgeois together". Salons helped facilitate

9849-423: The aristocratic 'schools of civilité'. Politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the 'age of conversation'. The topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not 'polite' to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons. The salonnières were expected, ideally, to run and moderate

9996-433: The authors of blessings. Such a view was condemned but the former was affirmed." Some Anglicans and Anglican churches, particularly Anglo-Catholics, personally ask prayers of the saints. However, such a practice is seldom found in any official Anglican liturgy. Unusual examples of it are found in The Korean Liturgy 1938, the liturgy of the Diocese of Guiana 1959 and The Melanesian English Prayer Book. Anglicans believe that

10143-402: The bishop of Puebla, Manuel Fernández de Santa Cruz published, under the pseudonym of Sor Filotea, and without her permission, Sor Juana's critique of a 40-year-old sermon by Father António Vieira , a Portuguese Jesuit preacher. Although Sor Juana's intentions for the work, called Carta Atenagórica are left to interpretation, many scholars have opted to interpret the work as a challenge to

10290-466: The body not decaying, a pleasant and miraculous odor coming from the body, appearing in the dreams of others who they pray on behalf of, appearing in two places at once, and having normally impossible knowledge. Salon (gathering) A salon is a gathering of people held by a host. These gatherings often consciously followed Horace 's definition of the aims of poetry , "either to please or to educate" (Latin: aut delectare aut prodesse ). Salons in

10437-400: The breaking down of social barriers which made the development of the enlightenment salon possible. In the 18th century, under the guidance of Madame Geoffrin , Mlle de Lespinasse, and Madame Necker , the salon was transformed into an institution of Enlightenment . The enlightenment salon brought together Parisian society, the progressive philosophes who were producing the Encyclopédie ,

10584-503: The candidate may be granted the title Venerable (stage 2). Further investigation, step 3, may lead to the candidate's beatification with the title Blessed , which is elevation to the class of the Beati . Next, and at a minimum, proof of two important miracles obtained from God through the intercession of the candidate are required for formal canonization as a saint. Finally, in the last stage, after all of these procedures are complete,

10731-419: The canon (official list) of saints of the church. The formal process of recognition involves deliberation by a synod of bishops. The Orthodox Church does not require the manifestation of miracles; what is required is evidence of a virtuous life. If the ecclesiastical review is successful, this is followed by a service of glorification in which the saint is given a day on the church calendar to be celebrated by

10878-431: The chains of love, shackled in its irons, a wretched slave despairing of her freedom, and so far, so distant from consolation? Do you see my soul filled with pain and anguish, wounded by torments so savage, so fierce, burned in the midst of living flames and judging herself unworthy of her castigation? Do you see me without a soul, pursuing a folly I myself condemn as strange? Do you see me bleeding along

11025-516: The church still recognizes and honors specific saints, including some of those recognized by the Catholic Church, but in a qualified way: according to the Augsburg Confession , the term saint is used in the manner of the Catholic Church only insofar as to denote a person who received exceptional grace, was sustained by faith, and whose good works are to be an example to any Christian. Traditional Lutheran belief accounts that prayers to

11172-404: The conversation (See Women in the salon). There is, however, no universal agreement among historians as to what was and was not appropriate conversation. Marcel Proust 'insisted that politics was scrupulously avoided'. Others suggested that little other than government was ever discussed. The disagreements that surround the content of discussion partly explain why the salon's relationship with

11319-419: The courtly people wished to designate, in a broad or narrow sense, the quality of their own behavior'. Joan Landes agrees, stating that, 'to some extent, the salon was merely an extension of the institutionalized court' and that rather than being part of the public sphere, salons were in fact in conflict with it. Erica Harth concurs, pointing to the fact that the state 'appropriated the informal academy and not

11466-408: The cultural salon. But from 1800 on, salons performed a political and social miracle. The salon allowed Jewish women to establish a venue in their homes in which Jews and non-Jews could meet in relative equality. Like-minded people could study art, literature, philosophy or music together. This handful of educated, acculturated Jewish women could escape the restrictions of their social ghetto. Naturally

11613-643: The details, accidents, and mysteries of each being. By that time, the body has consumed all its nourishment, and it starts to move and wake up, soul and body are reunited. The poem ends with the Sun overcoming Night in battle between luminous and dark armies, and with the poet's awakening. Sor Juana's first volume of poetry, Inundación castálida , was published in Spain by the Vicereine Maria Luisa Manrique de Lara y Gonzága, Countess of Paredes, Marquise de la Laguna. Many of her poems dealt with

11760-506: The discussion. The salon was an informal education for women, where they were able to exchange ideas, receive and give criticism, read their own works and hear the works and ideas of other intellectuals. Many ambitious women used the salon to pursue a form of higher education. Two of the most famous 17th-century literary salons in Paris were the Hôtel de Rambouillet , established in 1607 near

11907-536: The discussions at her houses led up to the May Revolution , the first stage in the struggle for Argentine independence from Spain. In the vast Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania , Duchess Elżbieta Sieniawska held a salon at the end of the 17th century. They became very popular there throughout the 18th century. Most renowned were the Thursday Lunches of King Stanisław II Augustus at the end of

12054-454: The double standards men use on women that creates a path for women leaving them in situations they cannot win. While also including the names of Thais and Lucretia along with the concept of prostitution to add on how men use women and leave them helpless with nothing but the blame and hatred. Hombres necios explored the idea of why women were frequently held guilty for the sins that men incited onto them. Sor Juana expresses her voice through

12201-423: The dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of Baal and won over them. In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druzes were attracted to warrior saints that resemble their own militarized society. Hindu saints are those recognized by Hindus as showing a great degree of holiness and sanctity. Hinduism has a long tradition of stories and poetry about saints. There

12348-471: The early 16th century up until around the end of the 18th century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at the French Revolution where, she writes: 'the literary public sphere was transformed into the political public'. Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848: A whole world of social arrangements and attitude supported

12495-537: The end of the 18th century; and in Greece by Alexandra Mavrokordatou in the 17th century. Italy had had an early tradition of the salon; Giovanna Dandolo became known as a patron and gatherer of artists as wife of Pasquale Malipiero , the doge in Venice in 1457–1462, and the courtesan Tullia d'Aragona held a salon already in the 16th century, and in the 17th century Rome, the abdicated Queen Christina of Sweden and

12642-489: The entire church, and loved all people. Orthodox belief considers that God reveals saints through answered prayers and other miracles. Saints are usually recognized by a local community, often by people who directly knew them. As their popularity grows they are often then recognized by the entire church through the Holy Spirit . The word canonization means that a Christian has been found worthy to have his name placed in

12789-469: The entire church. This does not, however, make the person a saint; the person already was a saint and the church ultimately recognized it. As a general rule, only clergy will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession, however, in veneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. The altar in an Orthodox Church usually contains relics of saints, often of martyrs . Church interiors are covered with

12936-487: The eulogy at her funeral. First Dream , a long philosophical and descriptive silva (a poetic form combining verses of 7 and 11 syllables), deals with the shadow of night beneath which a person falls asleep in the midst of quietness and silence. There night and day animals participate, either dozing or sleeping, all urged to silence and rest by Harpocrates. The person's body ceases its ordinary operations, which are described in physiological and symbolical terms, ending with

13083-572: The executive mansion. More recently, "society hostesses" such as Perle Mesta have done so as well. The Stettheimer sisters, including the artist Florine Stettheimer , hosted gatherings at their New York City home in the 1920s and '30s. During the Harlem Renaissance , Ruth Logan Roberts , Georgia Douglas Johnson and Zora Neale Hurston hosted salons that brought together leading figures in African-American literature, and in

13230-741: The existence of French salons: an idle aristocracy, an ambitious middle class, an active intellectual life, the social density of a major urban center, sociable traditions, and a certain aristocratic feminism. This world did not disappear in 1789. In the 1920s, Gertrude Stein 's Saturday evening salons (described in Ernest Hemingway 's A Moveable Feast and depicted fictionally in Woody Allen 's Midnight in Paris ) gained notoriety for including Pablo Picasso and other twentieth-century luminaries like Alice B. Toklas . Her contemporary Natalie Clifford Barney's handmade dinner place setting

13377-722: The expression bluestocking originated, and who created the Blue Stockings Society , and by Hester Thrale . In the 19th century, the Russian Baroness Méry von Bruiningk hosted a salon in St. John's Wood , London , for refugees (mostly German) of the revolutions of 1848 (the Forty-Eighters ). Clementia Taylor , an early feminist and radical held a salon at Aubrey House in Campden Hill in

13524-511: The fame of their holiness. Sometimes the word saint also denotes living Christians. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church , "The patriarchs, prophets, and certain other Old Testament figures have been and always will be honored as saints in all the church's liturgical traditions." In his book Saint of the Day , editor Leonard Foley says this: the "[Saints'] surrender to God's love

13671-470: The first half of the 19th century, which was said of both Aurora Wilhelmina Koskull in the 1820s as well as Ulla De Geer in the 1840s. In the 19th century, however, the leading salon hostesses in Sweden became more noted as the benefactors of the arts and charity than with politics. From 1820 and two decades onward, Malla Silfverstolpe became famous for her Friday nights salon in Uppsala, which became

13818-539: The following family resemblances : The anthropologist Lawrence Babb, in an article about Indian guru Sathya Sai Baba , asks the question "Who is a saint?" and responds by saying that in the symbolic infrastructure of some religions, there is the image of a certain extraordinary spiritual person's "miraculous powers", to whom frequently a certain moral presence is attributed. These saintly figures, he asserts, are "the focal points of spiritual force-fields". They exert "powerful attractive influence on followers but touch

13965-657: The greatest songs and chamber music works of Fauré , Debussy , Ravel and Poulenc . Until the 1950s, some salons were held by ladies mixing political men and intellectuals during the IVth Republic, like Mme Abrami, or Mme Dujarric de La Rivière. The last salons in Paris were those of Marie-Laure de Noailles , with Jean Cocteau , Igor Markevitch , Salvador Dalí , etc., Marie-Blanche de Polignac ( Jeanne Lanvin 's daughter) and Madeleine and Robert Perrier , with Josephine Baker , Le Corbusier , Django Reinhardt , etc. Salon sociability quickly spread through Europe. In

14112-443: The inner lives of others in transforming ways as well". According to the Catholic Church , a saint may be anyone in Heaven , whether recognized on Earth or not, who forms the "great cloud of witnesses" (Hebrews 12:1). These "may include our own mothers, grandmothers or other loved ones (cf. 2 Tim 1:5)" who may have not always lived perfect lives, but "amid their faults and failings they kept moving forward and proved pleasing to

14259-435: The intention of obtaining healing from God through their intercession is taken from the early church. For example, an American deacon claimed in 2000 that John Henry Newman (then blessed) interceded with God to cure him of a physical illness. The deacon, Jack Sullivan, asserted that after addressing Newman he was cured of spinal stenosis in a matter of hours. In 2009, a panel of theologians concluded that Sullivan's recovery

14406-463: The invocation of saints, permitting the latter in accordance with Article XXII. Indeed, the theologian E.J. Bicknell stated that the Anglican view acknowledges that the term "invocation may mean either of two things: the simple request to a saint for his prayers (intercession), 'ora pro nobis', or a request for some particular benefit. In medieval times the saints had come to be regarded as themselves

14553-563: The leading personalities of her time. The most sensitive issues were discussed there, as well as literary topics. Mariquita Sánchez is widely remembered in the Argentine historical tradition because the Argentine National Anthem was sung for the first time in her house, on 14 May 1813. Other notable salonnières in colonial Buenos Aires were Mercedes de Lasalde Riglos and Flora Azcuénaga . Along with Mariquita Sánchez,

14700-616: The literary salon played a significant part in Danish culture life, notably the literary salons arranged by Friederike Brun at Sophienholm and that of Kamma Rahbek at Bakkehuset . In the German-speaking palatinates and kingdoms, the most famous were held by Jewish ladies, such as Henriette Herz , Sara Grotthuis , and Rahel Varnhagen , and in Austria in the late 18th and early 19th centuries by two prominent Jewish Patrons of

14847-507: The lives of 2,565 saints. Robert Sarno, an official of the Dicastery for the Causes of Saints of the Holy See , expressed that it is impossible to give an exact number of saints. The veneration of saints, in Latin cultus , or the "cult of the Saints", describes a particular popular devotion or entrustment of one's self to a particular saint or group of saints. Although the term worship

14994-566: The local bishop . Pope John XVIII subsequently permitted a cult of five Polish martyrs . Pope Benedict VIII later declared the Armenian hermit Simeon of Mantua to be a saint, but it was not until the pontificate of Pope Innocent III that the Popes reserved to themselves the exclusive authority to canonize saints, so that local bishops needed the confirmation of the Pope. Walter of Pontoise

15141-459: The meaning behind the poem. Sor Juana emphasizes the male irrationality with a man's ability and behavior to harm a woman by deeming her as "impure" by ruining her honor and reputation. Sor Juana does this by casting the blame on men arguing that they are the root cause of their mistakes and create problems for women to avoid their own mistakes. Elizabeth argues that by utilizing impurity and the concept of "fall from grace" , Hombres Necios implores

15288-553: The middle of the 19th century until the 1930s, a lady of society had to hold her "day", which meant that her salon was opened for visitors in the afternoon once a week, or twice a month. Days were announced in Le Bottin Mondain . The visitor gave his visit cards to the lackey or the maître d'hôtel , and he was accepted or not. Only people who had been introduced previously could enter the salon . Marcel Proust called up his own turn-of-the-century experience to recreate

15435-412: The more positive aspects of women in the salon. Indeed, according to Jolanta T. Pekacz, the fact women dominated history of the salons meant that study of the salons was often left to amateurs, while men concentrated on 'more important' (and masculine) areas of the Enlightenment. Historians tended to focus on individual salonnières, creating almost a 'great-woman' version of history that ran parallel to

15582-419: The name of "Juana" in 1648, and another one under the name of "Inés" in 1651, still a matter of academic research and debate. There is, nevertheless agreement that she was one of the three children that Doña Isabel Ramírez de Santillana had out of wedlock with Don Pedro de Asuaje. Despite having had an occasional contact with her father as a child, Sor Juana's infancy occurred entirely around her mother's family in

15729-525: The name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet , réduit , ruelle , and alcôve . Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were frequently held in the bedroom (treated as a more private form of drawing room): a lady, reclining on her bed, would receive close friends who would sit on chairs or stools drawn around. This practice may be contrasted with the greater formalities of Louis XIV 's petit lever , where all stood. Ruelle , literally meaning "narrow street" or "lane", designates

15876-459: The nature of salons. The main criticism of Habermas' interpretation of the salons, however, is that the salons of most influence were not part of an oppositional public sphere, and were instead an extension of court society. This criticism stems largely from Norbert Elias ' The History of Manners , in which Elias contends that the dominant concepts of the salons – politesse , civilité and honnêteté – were 'used almost as synonyms, by which

16023-576: The only effective Mediator between the believer and God the Father, in terms of redemption and salvation, is God the Son, Jesus Christ . Historical Anglicanism has drawn a distinction between the intercession of the saints and the invocation of the saints. The former was generally accepted in Anglican doctrine, while the latter was generally rejected. There are some, however, in Anglicanism, who do beseech

16170-408: The overwhelming abundance of the universe, until reason undertakes that enterprise, beginning with each individual creation, and processing them one by one, helped by the ten categories of Aristotle . The soul cannot get beyond questioning herself about the traits and causes of a fountain and a flower, intimating perhaps that his method constitutes a useless effort, since it must take into account all

16317-519: The presence of a beautiful and educated patroness such as Isabella d'Este or Elisabetta Gonzaga . Salons were an important place for the exchange of ideas. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664 (from the Italian salone , the large reception hall of Italian mansions; salone is actually the augmentative form of sala , room). Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using

16464-831: The princess Colonna, Marie Mancini , rivaled as salon hostesses. In the 18th century, Aurora Sanseverino provided a forum for thinkers, poets, artists, and musicians in Naples, making her a central figure in baroque Italy . The tradition of the literary salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century. Naturally there were many salons with some of the most prominent being hosted by Clara Maffei in Milan, Emilia Peruzzi in Florence and Olimpia Savio in Turin. The salons attracted countless outstanding 19th-century figures including

16611-486: The process of canonization in the Catholic Church or glorification in the Eastern Orthodox Church after their approval. In many Protestant denominations saint refers broadly to any holy Christian , without special recognition or selection. While the English word saint (deriving from the Latin sanctus ) originated in Christianity, historians of religion tend to use the appellation "in

16758-524: The process of beatification will serve to illustrate in detail the general principles exposed above upon proof of their holiness or likeness to God. On 3 January 993, Pope John XV became the first pope to proclaim a person a saint from outside the diocese of Rome: on the petition of the German ruler, he had canonized Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg . Before that time, the popular "cults", or venerations, of saints had been local and spontaneous and were confirmed by

16905-448: The public and private spheres overlapped in the salons. Antoine Lilti ascribes to a similar viewpoint, describing the salons as simply 'institutions within Parisian high society'. When dealing with the salons, historians have traditionally focused upon the role of women within them. Works in the 19th and much of the 20th centuries often focused on the scandals and 'petty intrigues' of the salons. Other works from this period focused on

17052-456: The public sphere comes from Dena Goodman's The Republic of Letters , which claims that the 'public sphere was structured by the salon, the press and other institutions of sociability'. Goodman's work is also credited with further emphasizing the importance of the salon in terms of French history, the Republic of Letters and the Enlightenment as a whole, and has dominated the historiography of

17199-751: The rival salons of the fictional duchesse de Guermantes and Madame Verdurin. He experienced himself his first social life in salons such as Mme Arman de Caillavet 's one, which mixed artists and political men around Anatole France or Paul Bourget ; Mme Straus ' one, where the cream of the aristocracy mingled with artists and writers; or more aristocratic salons like Comtesse de Chevigné 's, Comtesse Greffulhe 's, Comtesse Jean de Castellane's, Comtesse Aimery de La Rochefoucauld's, etc. Some late 19th- and early 20th-century Paris salons were major centres for contemporary music, including those of Winnaretta Singer (the princesse de Polignac), and Élisabeth, comtesse Greffulhe . They were responsible for commissioning some of

17346-423: The romantic painter Francesco Hayez , composer Giuseppe Verdi and naturalist writers Giovanni Verga , Bruno Sperani and Matilde Serao . The salons served a very important function in 19th-century Italy, as they allowed young attendees to come into contact with more established figures. They also served as a method of avoiding government censorship, as a public discussion could be held in private. The golden age of

17493-537: The rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry . In Britain, mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage is credited with introducing the scientific soirée, a form of salon, from France. Babbage began hosting Saturday evening soirées in 1828. The history of the salon is far from straightforward. The salon has been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist , Marxist , cultural , social, and intellectual historians. Each of these methodologies focuses on different aspects of

17640-619: The saints are prohibited, as they are not mediators of redemption. But, Lutherans do believe that saints pray for the Christian Church in general. Philip Melanchthon , the author of the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, approved honoring the saints by saying they are honored in three ways: The Lutheran Churches also have liturgical calendars in which they honor individuals as saints. The intercession of saints

17787-476: The saints have a special symbol by tradition, e.g., Saint Lawrence , deacon and martyr, is identified by a gridiron because he is believed to have been burned to death on one. This symbol is found, for instance, in the Canadian heraldry of the office responsible for the St. Lawrence Seaway . Formal canonization is a lengthy process, often of many years or even centuries. There are four major steps to become

17934-550: The saints is concerned, one of the Church of England 's Articles of Religion "Of Purgatory " condemns "the Romish Doctrine concerning ...(the) Invocation of Saints" as "a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God". Anglo-Catholics in Anglican provinces using the Articles often make a distinction between a "Romish" and a "Patristic" doctrine concerning

18081-446: The saints' intercession. Those who beseech the saints to intercede on their behalf make a distinction between mediator and intercessor , and claim that asking for the prayers of the saints is no different in kind than asking for the prayers of living Christians. Anglican Catholics understand sainthood in a more Catholic or Orthodox way, often praying for intercessions from the saints and celebrating their feast days. According to

18228-516: The salon culture was extant in the mid-18th century, represented by Julie Bondeli in Bern and Barbara Schulthess in Zürich, and the salon of Anna Maria Rüttimann-Meyer von Schauensee reached in influential role in the early 19th century. In Coppet Castle close to Lake Geneva , the exiled Parisian salonnière and author, Madame de Staël , hosted a salon which played a key role in the aftermath of

18375-422: The salon in Italy could be said to coincide with the pre-unification period, after which the rise of the newspaper replaced the salon as the main place for the Italian public to engage in the room of sex. Argentina 's most active female figure in the revolutionary process, Mariquita Sánchez , was Buenos Aires ' leading salonnière . She fervently embraced the cause of revolution, and her tertulia gathered all

18522-404: The salon' due to the academies' 'tradition of dissent' – something that lacked in the salon. But Landes' view of the salons as a whole is independent of both Elias' and Habermas' school of thought, insofar that she views the salons as a 'unique institution', that cannot be adequately described as part of the public sphere, or court society. Others, such as Steven Kale, compromise by declaring that

18669-496: The salon, and thus have varying analyses of its importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus on the relationship between the salons and the public sphere , as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them. Most studies stretch from

18816-411: The salons since its publication in 1994. Habermas' dominance in salon historiography has come under criticism from some quarters, with Pekacz singling out Goodman's Republic of Letters for particular criticism because it was written with 'the explicit intention of supporting [Habermas'] thesis', rather than verifying it. The theory itself, meanwhile, has been criticized for a fatal misunderstanding of

18963-515: The salons, and the coffeehouses in England – played a critical role in the emergence of what Habermas termed the public sphere , which emerged in cultural-political contrast to court society . Thus, while women retained a dominant role in the historiography of the salons, the salons received increasing amounts of study, much of it in direct response to, or heavily influenced by Habermas' theory. The most prominent defense of salons as part of

19110-504: The society was heavily patriarchal, but Sor Juana managed to publish this work, which added to the backlash she would eventually face from the Church. Yet Sor Juana was driven by a conviction for women's education and was determined to apply her writing to challenge those who believed a woman's intellectual abilities were irrelevant. Erin Elizabeth details how Sor Juana structured the poem to be centered on accusations onto men that elevate

19257-478: The space between a bed and the wall in a bedroom; it was used commonly to designate the gatherings of the " précieuses ", the intellectual and literary circles that formed around women in the first half of the 17th century. The first renowned salon in France was the Hôtel de Rambouillet not far from the Palais du Louvre in Paris , which its hostess, Roman-born Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet (1588–1665), ran from 1607 until her death. She established

19404-947: The subject of love and sensuality. Colombian-American translator Jaime Manrique described her poetry thus: "her love poems are expressions of a complex and ambivalent modern psyche, and because they are so passionate and ferocious that when we read them we feel consumed by the naked intensity she achieves." One of Sor Juana's sonnets: ¿Vesme, Alcino, que atada a la cadena de Amor, paso en sus hierros aherrojada, mísera esclavitud, desesperada de libertad, y de consuelo ajena? ¿Ves de dolor y angustia el alma llena, de tan fieros tormentos lastimada, y entre las vivas llamas abrasada juzgarse por indigna de su pena? ¿Vesme seguir sin alma un desatino que yo misma condeno por extraño? ¿Vesme derramar sangre en el camino siguiendo los vestigios de un engaño? ¿Muy admirado estás? Pues ves, Alcino: más merece la causa de mi daño. Do you see me, Alcino, here am I caught in

19551-519: The term to refer to biblical figures, Christian leaders, and martyrs of the faith. Many Methodist churches are named after saints—such as the Twelve Apostles , John Wesley , etc.—although most are named after geographical locations associated with an early circuit or prominent location. Methodist congregations observe All Saints' Day . Many encourage the study of saints, that is, the biographies of holy people. The 14th Article of Religion in

19698-428: The tradition of the French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries are still being conducted. The salon first appeared in Italy in the 16th century, then flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. It continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century. In 16th-century Italy, some brilliant circles formed in the smaller courts which resembled salons, often galvanized by

19845-839: The use of the Baroque literary style, which was prevalent at her time, in a manner that can be understood. Today it is often seen as a pro-feminist love letter, and even in a "machista" Latin American society it has been popular among the population. Translated by David Frye a la mujer sin razón, sin ver que sois la ocasión de lo mismo que culpáis: si con ansia sin igual solicitáis su desdén, ¿por qué queréis que obren bien si las incitáis al mal? Combatís su resistencia y luego, con gravedad, decís que fue livianidad lo que hizo la diligencia. Parecer quiere el denuedo de vuestro parecer loco, al niño que pone el coco y luego le tiene miedo. Queréis, con presunción necia, hallar

19992-442: The use of the term saint depends on the context and denomination . In Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , Anglican , Oriental Orthodox , and Lutheran doctrine, all of their faithful deceased in Heaven are considered to be saints, but a select are considered worthy of greater honor or emulation. Official ecclesiastical recognition, and consequently a public cult of veneration , is conferred on some denominational saints through

20139-468: The use of the term saint tends to be used in non-Christian contexts as well. In many religions, there are people who have been recognized within their tradition as having fulfilled the highest aspirations of religious teaching. In English, the term saint is often used to translate this idea from many world religions . The jewish ḥasīd or tsaddiq , the islamic qidees , the Zoroastrian F ravashi ,

20286-471: The way as I follow the trail of an illusion? Are you very surprised? See then, Alcino: the cause of harm to me deserves much more. Sor Juana's Hombres Necios (Foolish men) , written in the 1680s, is among the first proto-feminist literary works in the Americas that explores the double standards of men while also accusing men of trying to diminish a woman's honor. During seventeenth-century Mexico

20433-574: The women had to be in well-connected families, either to money or to culture. In these mixed gatherings of nobles, high civil servants, writers, philosophers and artists, Jewish salonnières created a vehicle for Jewish integration, providing a context in which patrons and artists freely exchanged ideas. Henriette Lemos Herz, Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel, Dorothea Mendelssohn Schlegel, Amalie Wolf Beer and at least twelve other salonnières achieved fame and admiration. In Spain , by María del Pilar Teresa Cayetana de Silva y Álvarez de Toledo, 13th Duchess of Alba at

20580-488: Was Saint Juan de la Cruz , one of the most accomplished authors of the Spanish Baroque. She chose to become a nun so that she could study as she wished since she wanted "to have no fixed occupation which might curtail my freedom to study." In the convent and perhaps earlier, Sor Juana became intimate friends with Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora , who visited her in the convent's locutorio. She stayed cloistered in

20727-723: Was criticized in the Augsburg Confession, Article XXI: Of the Worship of the Saints . This criticism was rebutted by the Catholic side in the Confutatio Augustana , which in turn was rebutted by the Lutheran side in the Apology to the Augsburg Confession . While Methodists as a whole do not venerate saints, they do honor and admire them. Methodists believe that all Christians are saints , but mainly use

20874-480: Was educated at home at the Hacienda de Papaya , becoming fluent in both Latin and Nahuatl , and learning philosophy, and mathematics. She was given free access to her grandfather's private library. During her childhood, Inés often hid in the hacienda chapel to read her grandfather's books from the adjoining library, something forbidden to girls. By the age of three, she had learned how to read and write Latin. By

21021-511: Was much admired in the viceregal court, and she received several proposals of marriage, which she declined. After joining a nunnery in 1667, Sor Juana began writing poetry and prose dealing with such topics as love, environmentalism , feminism , and religion. She turned her nun's quarters into a salon , visited by New Spain's female intellectual elite, including Doña Eleonora del Carreto, Marchioness of Mancera, and Doña Maria Luisa Gonzaga , Countess of Paredes de Nava, both Vicereines of

21168-642: Was reprimanded and ordered to stop writing after the exposure of a private letter in which she wrote of the right of women to education. In addition to her status as a woman in a self-prescribed position of authority, Sor Juana's radical position made her an increasingly controversial figure. She famously remarked by quoting an Aragonese poet and echoing St. Teresa of Ávila : "One can perfectly well philosophize while cooking supper." In response, Francisco de Aguiar y Seijas , Archbishop of Mexico joined other high-ranking officials in condemning Sor Juana's "waywardness." In addition to opposition she received for challenging

21315-436: Was so generous an approach to the total surrender of Jesus that the Church recognizes them as heroes and heroines worthy to be held up for our inspiration. They remind us that the Church is holy, can never stop being holy and is called to show the holiness of God by living the life of Christ." The Catholic Church teaches that it does not "make" or "create" saints, but rather recognizes them. Proofs of heroic virtue required in

21462-742: Was the last person in Western Europe to be canonized by an authority other than the Pope: Hugh de Boves , the Archbishop of Rouen , canonized him in 1153. Thenceforth a decree of Pope Alexander III in 1170 reserved the prerogative of canonization to the Pope, insofar as the Latin Church was concerned. Alban Butler published Lives of the Saints in 1756, including a total of 1,486 saints. The latest revision of this book, edited by Herbert Thurston and Donald Attwater , contains

21609-429: Was the result of his prayer to Newman. According to the church, to be deemed a miracle, "a medical recovery must be instantaneous, not attributable to treatment, disappear for good." Once a person has been canonized, the deceased body of the saint is considered holy as a relic . The remains of saints are called holy relics and are usually used in churches. Saints' personal belongings may also be used as relics. Some of

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