144-482: The Sator Square (or Rotas-Sator Square or Templar Magic Square ) is a two-dimensional acrostic class of word square containing a five-word Latin palindrome . The earliest squares were found at Roman-era sites, all in ROTAS-form (where the top line is "ROTAS", not "SATOR"), with the earliest discovery at Pompeii (and also likely pre-AD 62). The earliest square with Christian-associated imagery dates from
288-852: A 'destroyer of many monasteries, and embezzler of Church revenues for his own use...', condemning him for his use of Church property. This is supported by the second source, the Contintuations , which related that, in 733 in Burgundy, Charles split the Lyonnais between his followers, this likely including Church land. Further chronicles like the Gesta episcoporum Autissiodorensium and the Gesta Sanctorum Patrum Fontanellensis Coenobii recorded monasteries losing substantial land. The monastery at Auxerre
432-564: A case where a person from Lyon recovered from insanity after eating three crusts of bread inscribed with the square. After the meal, the person then recited five paternosters for the five wounds of Christ, linking to the Christian imagery believed encoded into the square. Scholars have found medieval Sator-based charms, remedies, and cures, for a diverse range of applications from childbirth, to toothaches, to love potions, to ways of warding off evil spells, and even to determine whether someone
576-544: A column in the Palestra Grande [ it ] (the gymnasium) near the Amphitheatre of Pompeii ( CIL IV 8623 ). This discovery led to Della Corte to reexamine a fragment of a square, again also in ROTAS-form, that he had made in 1925 at the house of Publius Paquius Proculus, also at Pompeii ( CIL IV 8123 ). The square at the house of Publius Paquius Proculus was dated between AD 50 and AD 79 (based on
720-584: A conclusion. A 1987 computer analysis by William Baines derived a number of "pseudo-Christian formulae" from the square but Baines concluded it proved nothing. There is considerable contemporary academic support for the theory that the square originated as a Roman-era word puzzle. Italian historian Arsenio Frugoni found it written in the margin of the Carme delle scolte modenesi beside the Roma-Amor palindrome, and Italian classicist Margherita Guarducci noted it
864-534: A different chronology and reading of the LHF , which places Sigibert's death on 1 February 651. According to a Gerberding narrative, Grimoald and Dido organised Dagobert's exile around 16 January 651 to Ireland at Nivelles and then, when Sigibert died a month later, they acted out the plan and tonsured Dagobert, replacing him with Childebert, who ruled until 657. Clovis II then immediately acted and invaded Austrasia, executing Grimoald and his son. Then, either in 657 or 662,
1008-570: A diverse range of contemporary artworks including fiction books, paintings, musical scores, and films, and most notably in Christopher Nolan 's 2020 film Tenet . In 2020, The Daily Telegraph called it "one of the closest things the classical world had to a meme ". The Sator square is arranged as a 5 × 5 grid consisting of five 5-letter words, thus totaling 25 characters. It uses 8 different Latin letters: 5 consonants (S, T, R, P, N) and 3 vowels (A, E, O). In some versions,
1152-675: A famous description of Sigibert being 'seized with the wildest grief and sat there on his horse weeping unrestrainedly for those he had lost' as Radulf returned to his camp victorious. Upon Sigibert's return from Unstruct, Grimoald, now mayor, began to build power for the Pippinid clan. He utilized the existing links between the family and ecclesiastical community to gain control over local holy men and women who, in turn, supported Pippinid assertions of power. Grimoald established links with Aquitanian and Columbianan missionaries Amandus and Remaclus , both of whom came to be influential bishops within
1296-699: A limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack of suitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of Arnulf of Carinthia as the king of East Francia , a bastard child of a legitimate Carolingian king, Carloman of Bavaria , himself a son of the First King of the Eastern division of the Frankish kingdom, Louis the German. It was after Charlemagne's death that
1440-626: A position of prime importance with the Merovingian royal court. The mayor of the palace would act as the mediator between the King and the magnates of the region; as Paul Fouracre summarises, they were 'regarded as the most important non-royal person in the kingdom.' The reason Pippin was not rewarded sooner is not certain, but two mayors, Rado (613 – c. 617 ) and Chucus ( c. 617 – c. 624 ), are believed to have preceded him and were potentially political rivals connected to
1584-461: A powerful religious and magical medieval symbol. It has instead been argued that the square was created in its ROTAS-form as a Jewish symbol, embedded with cryptic religious symbolism, which was later adopted in its SATOR-form by Christians. There are many other less-supported academic origin theories, such as a Pythagorean or Stoic puzzle, a Gnostic or Orphic or Italian pagan amulet , a cryptic Mithraic or Semitic numerology charm, or that it
SECTION 10
#17327807836451728-561: A remedy during labour in the twelfth-century Latin medical text, the Trotula , and was widely cited as a cure for dog bites and rabies in medieval Europe; in both cases, the remedy/cure is administered by eating bread inscribed with the words of the square. By the sixteenth century, the use of the square to cure insanity and fever was being documented in books such as De Varia Quercus Historia (1555) by Jean du Choul, and De Rerum Varietate (1557) by Gerolamo Cardano . Jean du Choul describes
1872-476: A soldier to fight in their place. Institutions, such as monasteries or churches were also required to send soldiers to fight based on the wealth and the amount of lands they held. In fact, the use of ecclesiastical institutions for their resources for the military was a tradition that the Carolingians continued and greatly benefitted from. It was "highly unlikely that armies of many more than a hundred thousand effectives with their support systems could be supplied in
2016-411: Is a complex and sophisticated palindrome (which Fishwick believed was embedded with hidden Jewish symbolism, per the "Jewish Symbol" origin theory below), and to expect more from the word was unreasonable from its likely Jewish creators. Attempts have been made to discover "hidden meanings" by the anagrammatic method of rearranging the letters of which the square is composed. The origin and meaning of
2160-404: Is a position he would hold until his retirement in 629 after Chlotar's death, when he left for a small ecclesiastical community near Habendum; he was later buried at the monastery of Remiremont after his death c. 645 . Pippin was not immediately rewarded, but eventually was given the position of maior palatti or ' mayor of the palace ' of Austrasia in 624. This reward secured Pippin
2304-615: Is apparent that Charles' expansion of control consumed plenty of reallocated properties, many of which were ecclesiastical domains. When King Theuderic IV died in 737, Charles did not install a Merovingian successor. Unlike his Carolingian predecessors, Charles was clearly strong enough by the end of his reign to not rely on Merovingian loyalties. He had created his own power bloc through the vassals he installed in Frankish heartlands and peripheral states. Even prior to Theuderic's death, Charles did act with complete sovereignty in Austrasia. It
2448-413: Is best understood using the theory of a Carolingian grand strategy . A grand strategy is a long term military and political strategy that lasts for longer than a typical campaigning season, and can span long periods of time. The Carolingians followed a set course of action that discounts the idea of a random rise in power and can be considered as a grand strategy. Another major part of the grand strategy of
2592-450: Is known about Pippin's early life, but a controversial story from AMP suggests that Pippin reclaimed power in Austrasia by killing a legendary ' Gundoin ' as revenge for the assassination of his father Ansegisel. This story is regarded as slightly fantastical by Paul Fouracre , who argues the AMP, a pro-Carolingian source potentially written by Giselle (Charlemagne's sister) in 805 at Chelles,
2736-520: Is likely a proper name or possibly a theophoric name , that was adapted from a non-Latin word or was invented specifically for the Sator square. French historian Jerome Carcopino believed that it came from the Gaulish word for a 'plough'; however, this has been discounted by other academics. American ancient legal historian David Daube believed that AREPO represented a Hebrew or Aramaic rendition of
2880-594: Is likely due to Childebrand's sponsorship of the manuscript that his involvement is so extensively recorded in the Continuations . According to the manuscript, Childebrand and Charles noticed the Arab army, with Maurontus' welcome, entering Avignon and quickly moved against the alliance. They besieged the city and claimed victory; the Franks then made the decision to invade Septimania , taking Narbonne and flanking
3024-428: Is that Pippin's role primes him perfectly for his future and demonstrates his family to be 'natural leaders of Austrasia.' However, Fouracre does also acknowledge his existence in charter evidence and confirms that he was a political link to rival mayor Wulfoald . These rivalries would make Pippin natural enemies with Gundoin, making the murder plausible as part of Pippin's rise to power. The Arnulfing clan reappear in
SECTION 20
#17327807836453168-565: The Ethiopian Book of the Dead , the individual nails in Christ's cross were called: Sador, Alador, Danet, Adera, Rodas. These are likely derived from even earlier Coptic Christian works that also ascribe the wounds of Christ and the nails of the cross with names that resemble the five words from the square. While there is little doubt among academics that Christians adopted the square, it
3312-659: The Lex Alamannorum without Carolingian consultation. As recorded in the Alemannia source, the Breviary of Erchanbert , the Alemanni 'refused to obey the duces of the Franks because they were no longer able to serve the Merovingian kings. Therefore, each of them kept to himself.' This statement was true for more than just Alemannia and, just like in those regions, Charles brutally forced them into submission. Charles
3456-569: The Abbey of Saint Wandrille in 701, which was later owned along with Fleury Abbey (founded by Pippin in 703). Imbued with internal strength, Pippin also began to look outwards from the Frankish Empire to subdue the people, that the AMP records, who once were 'subjected to the Franks ... [such as] the Saxons, Frisians, Alemans, Bavarians, Aquitainians, Gascons and Britons.' Pippin defeated
3600-582: The Alpha and Omega that are established in Christian symbolism . The positioning of the A s and O s was further supported by the fact that the position of the T s in the Sator square formed the points of a cross – there are obscure references in the Epistle of Barnabas to T being a symbol of the cross – and that the A s and O s also lay in the four quadrants of this cross. At the time of this discovery,
3744-528: The Carlovingians , Carolingus , Carolings , Karolinger or Karlings ) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne , descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The dynasty consolidated its power in the 8th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary, and becoming
3888-472: The Continuations , Pippin made arrangements with his rival, Archbishop Cunibert , to get Austrasian support for the 10-year-old King Sigibert III, who ruled Austrasia whilst his brother Clovis II ruled over Neustria and Burgundy . Soon after securing his position once again, he unexpectedly died in 640. Following Pippin's sudden death, the Pippinid family worked swiftly to secure their position. Pippin's daughter Gertrude and wife Itta founded and entered
4032-551: The Gundoinings , whose connections in Adalgesil , Cunibert, archbishop of Cologne , Otto and Radulf (who would later revolt in 642) once again removed the Pippinid and Arnulfing influence in the Austrasia assemblies. Pippin did not reappear in the historical record until Dagobert's death in 638, when he had seemingly been reinstated as mayor of Austrasia and began to support the new young King Sigebert III . According to
4176-492: The LHF , the Arnulfing army met Ebroin, who had gained the support of King Theuderic III , at Bois-du-Fays , and they were easily defeated. Martin fled to Laon , from where he was lured and murdered by Ebroin at Asfeld . Pippin fled to Austrasia and soon received Ermenfred , an officer of a royal fisc who had assassinated Ebroin. The Neustrians, with Ebroin dead, installed Waratto as mayor, and he looked for peace with
4320-582: The Latinised name of multiple Frankish kings including Charlemagne and Charles Martel . The name originates from a common Germanic word, rendered in Old High German as Karl or Kerl , meaning ' man ' , ' husband ' , or ' freeman ' . The Carolingian line first began with two important rival Frankish families, the Pippinids and Arnulfings , whose destinies became intermingled in
4464-549: The Lex Baiuvariorum . When Charles moved, the region was experiencing a power struggle between Grimoald of Bavaria and his nephew Hugbert , but when Grimoald died in 725, Hugbert gained the position and Charles reaffirmed their support. The Continuations records that when Charles left Bavaria, he took hostages, one of which was Swanachild , who later would become Charles' second wife. Paul Fouracre believes this marriage could have been intentionally forced, based upon
Sator Square - Misplaced Pages Continue
4608-477: The Nivelles Abbey , and his only son Grimoald worked to secure his father's position of maior palatii. The position was not hereditary and therefore passed to another Austrasian noble, Otto, the tutor of Sigebert III. According to the Continuations , Grimoald began to work with his father's accomplice Cunibert to remove Otto from office. He finally succeeded in c. 641 , when Leuthar, Duke of
4752-679: The de facto rulers of the Franks as the real powers behind the Merovingian throne. In 751 the Merovingian dynasty which had ruled the Franks was overthrown with the consent of the Papacy and the aristocracy, and Pepin the Short , son of Martel, was crowned King of the Franks . The Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Emperor of the Romans in
4896-474: The "Paternoster theory" in 1926 led to a brief consensus among academics that the square was created by early Christians, but the subsequent discoveries at Pompeii led many academics to believe that the square was more likely created as a Roman word puzzle (as per the Roma-Amor puzzle ), which was later adopted by Christians. This origin theory, however, fails to explain how a Roman word puzzle then became such
5040-464: The "composition of palindromes was, in fact, a pastime of Roman landed gentry". American classical epigraphist Rebecca Benefiel, noted that by 2012, Pompeii had yielded more than 13,000 separate inscriptions and that the house of Publius Paquius Proculus (where a square was found) had more than 70 pieces of graffiti alone. A 1969 computer study by Charles Douglas Gunn started with a Roma-Amor square and found 2,264 better versions, of which he considered
5184-658: The Adopted taking the Austrasian throne from the true Merovingian King Dagobert II , son of the late Sigibert who died young at 26 years old. Historians like Pierre Riché are certain that Sigibert died in 656, having adopted Childebert due to his lack of an adult male heir. Following this, young Dagobert II was then exiled and tonsured by Grimoald and Dido of Poitiers , who then installed Childebert as King of Austrasia. Clovis II in Neustria, uncle to Dagobert, then reacted to
5328-579: The Alamans killed Otto under Grimoald's and, we must assume, Cunibert's orders. Grimoald then became mayor of Austrasia. His power at this time was extensive, with properties in Utrecht , Nijmegen , Tongeren and Maastricht ; he was even called 'ruler of the realm' by Desiderius of Cahors in 643. This could not have been done if Grimoald had not secured Sigibert III's support. The Pippinids already gained royal patronage from Pippin I's support, but this
5472-510: The Arab army. The Franks then fought off a support army sent from Spain under Omar-ibn Chaled at the River Berre . From there the Franks then pursued the retreating Arabs and ravaged the cities of Nîmes , Agde and Béziers before returning to Francia. Later that year, Charles and Childebrand returned to Provence, likely collecting more forces, and then forcing the rebellious Maurontus into 'impenetrable rocky fastnesses out to sea.' Paul
5616-781: The Austrasians met Radulf on the River Unstrut where he had set up a stronghold. What followed was a disorganized battle spread over several days, in which the Austrasian lords disagreed on tactics. Grimoald and Adalgesil strengthened their position by defending Sigibert's interests, but could not establish a unanimous agreement. During their final assault, the 'men of Mainz ' betrayed the Austrasians and joined with Radulf. This penultimate battle killed many important Austrasian lords, including Duke Bobo and Count Innowales , and resulted in Sigibert's defeat. The Continuations offers
5760-626: The Austrasians. Despite an exchange of hostages, Warrato's son Gistemar attacked Pippin at Namur and displaced his father. He died shortly thereafter and Warrato resumed his position, wherein peace was reached but tense relations remained until Warrato's death in 686. He left behind his wife Ansfled and his son Berchar , whom the Neustrians installed as mayor. Against his father's policy, Berchar did not maintain peace and incited Pippin into violence. In 687, Pippin rallied an Austrasian army and led an assault on Neustria, facing Theuderic III and
5904-578: The Bald , fought a three-year civil war ending only with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the empire into three regna while according imperial status and a nominal lordship to Lothair who, at 48, was the eldest. The Carolingians differed markedly from the Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to prevent infighting among heirs and assure
Sator Square - Misplaced Pages Continue
6048-774: The Carolingians relative local support that potentially allowed Charles to assert dominance over Eudo's son and successor Hunald of Aquitaine , but records of continued hostilities in 736 only further cemented that relations were strained. With a stronger establishment in Aquitaine, Charles made moves to assert his dominance into Burgundy. The region, at least in the Northern areas, had remained controlled and allied with Frankish interest. Influential nobility like Savaric of Auxerre , who had maintained near-autonomy and led military forces against Burgundian towns like Orléans , Nevers and Troyes , even dying whilst besieging Lyon , were
6192-499: The Carolingians themselves seemingly became increasingly powerful due to their generosity. By giving away their land, the Merovingians allowed themselves to become figureheads and the 'do nothing kings' that Einhard prefaced in the Vita Karoli Magni . Due to his vast military conquests, Charles often reallocated existing land settlements, including Church property, to new tenants. Ecclesiastical property and monasteries in
6336-698: The Carolingians, who allocated and spread their power to their subordinates. Ganshof's arguments connect these ties to a military-tenure relationship; however, this is never represented in primary material, and instead is only implied, and likely derived from, an understanding of 'feudalism' in the High Middle Ages. Recent historians like Paul Fouracre have criticised Ganshof's review for being too simplistic, and in reality, even though these systems of vassalage did exist between lord and populace, they were not as standardised as older historiography has suggested. For example, Fouracre has drawn particular attention to
6480-533: The Civil War years. This was most apparent in Provence , where local magnates, like Abbo of Provence , were incredibly supportive of Charles' attempts to reinstate Frankish power. In 739, he used his power in Burgundy and Aquitaine to lead an attack with his brother Childebrand I against Arab invaders and Duke Maurontus , who had been claiming independence and allying himself with Muslim emir Abd ar-Rahman. It
6624-704: The Deacon later records in his Historia Langobardorum Maurontus received help from the Lombards, and his Arab allies then fled. At this time, Charles then assumed control of the region and, judging from Charter evidence, appointed Abbo of Provence as patricius (Patrician) in the region. Charles also ruled the Frankish realm, although the majority of his policies were centred upon his conquests and his military ventures. In 19th century historiography, historians like Heinrich Brunner even centred their arguments around Charles' necessity for military resources, in particular
6768-606: The Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons minor kings in the various regions ( regna ) of the Empire, which they would inherit on the death of their father, which Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious both did for their sons. Following the death of the Emperor Louis the Pious in 840, his surviving adult sons, Lothair I and Louis the German , along with their adolescent brother Charles
6912-437: The Franks and Aquitainians through a marriage to Eudo's daughter. Abd ar-Rahman then besieged Cerdanya and forced Munuza into retreat into France, at which point he continued his advance into Aquitaine, moving as far as Tours before he was met by Charles Martel. Carolingian sources attest that Duke Eudo begged Charles for assistance, but Ian N. Wood claims these embassies have been invented by later pro-Carolingian annalists. Eudo
7056-558: The Late Empire, the population had become militarized and were thus available for military use. The existence of the remaining Roman infrastructure that could be used for military purposes, such as roads, strongholds and fortified cities meant that the reformed strategies of the Late Romans would still be relevant. Civilian men who lived either in or near a walled city or strong point were required to learn how to fight and defend
7200-540: The Merovingian court. Remaclus, in particular, was important as after becoming bishop of Maastricht, he established two monasteries: Stavelot Abbey and Malmedy . Under Grimoald's direction, the Arnulfings were also further established with Chlodulf of Metz , son of St. Arnulf, taking the bishopric of Metz in 656. The final moment of Grimoald's life is an area that is disputed in both date and event, titled: 'Grimoald's coup'. It involves Grimoald and his son Childebert
7344-576: The Merovingian power within these border regions remained. Charles first set out to reinstate Carolingian dominance internally within Francia: the Continuations lists Charles' continuous maneuvers which solidified the campaigns generating the Carolingian military foundation. In 718, the AMP records that Charles fought against the Saxons, pushing them as far as the river Weser and following up with subsequent campaigns in 720 and 724 which secured
SECTION 50
#17327807836457488-404: The Merovingian royalty. Charles Martel has become notorious in historiography for his role in the development of the concept of feudalism . The debates are rooted in the arguments of historians like François-Louis Ganshof , who viewed Charles' reign as the birth of the 'feudal' relationship between power and property. This results from the increased use of precaria or temporary land grants by
7632-595: The Middle Ages, the square was inscribed on disks that were then thrown into fires to extinguish them. An edict in 1743 by Duke Ernest Auguste of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach required all settlements to make Sator square disks to combat fires. By the fifteenth century the square was being used as a touchstone against fire at the Château de Chinon and Château de Jarnac [ fr ] in France. The square appears as
7776-539: The Neustrian mayor, now Berchar, in combat. They met at the Battle of Tertry , where the AMP records that Pippin, after offering peace which was rejected by Theuderic at Berchar's behest, crossed the river Omignon at the break of dawn and attacked the Neustrians, who believed the battle won when they saw Pippin's camp abandoned. This surprise attack was successful and the Neustrians fled. Following this victory, Berchar
7920-420: The Neustrians (either Clovis II who died in 657 or his son Chlothar III ) installed infant King Childeric II to the throne of Austrasia, marrying him to Bilichild , the daughter of Sigibert's widow Chimnechild of Burgundy . Grimoald and Childebert's deaths brought an end to the direct Pippinid line of the family, leaving the Arnulfing descendants from Begga and Ansegisel to continue the faction. Very little
8064-446: The Neustrians and Charles as the Frankish king. With his ascension to the throne, several significant moments in Frankish history occurred. Firstly, the LHF ended, likely composed several years later in 727 and ended one of the several perspectives we have on Charles' ascension. Secondly, and more importantly, the Arnulfing predominance in the faction ended and the Carolingian (translating to 'sons of Charles') officially began. Once
8208-797: The Nordic neo-folk band Heilung is based on the Sator square. All its individual musical parts, melodies and instruments (and even at times the lyrics) play the same both forward and backwards. Acrostic Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.237 via cp1104 cp1104, Varnish XID 202698333 Upstream caches: cp1104 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 07:59:43 GMT Carolingian dynasty The Carolingian dynasty ( / ˌ k ær ə ˈ l ɪ n dʒ i ə n / KARR -ə- LIN -jee-ən ; known variously as
8352-703: The Pompeii squares were added at a later date by looters. The lack of any disturbance to the volcanic deposits at the palestra, however, meant that this was unlikely, and the Paternoster theory as a proof of Christian origination lost much of its academic support. Regardless of its Christian origins, many academics considered the Paternoster discovery as being a random occurrence to be mathematically impossible. Several examined this mathematical probability including German historian Friedrich Focke [ de ] and British historian Hugh Last , but without reaching
8496-527: The Rhine, Charles had the opportunity to assert his dominance over Aquitaine and began committing military resources and performing raids in 731. However, before he could make any major movements, Aquitaine was invaded by Umayyad warlord Abd al-Rahman I . Following Abd al-Rahman's ascension in Spain in 731, another local Berber lord Munuza revolted, set himself up at Cerdanya and forged defensive alliances with
8640-472: The SATOR-form (which gave an emphasis on the "sower", which was associated with Christ). Research in 2006 by French classical scholar Nicolas Vinel drew on recent discoveries on the mathematics of ancient magic squares to propose that the square was a "Jewish cryptogram using Pythagorean arithmetic". Vinel decoded several Jewish concepts in the square, including the reason for AREPO, and was able to explain
8784-413: The Sator square to be the best. The square's origin as a word puzzle solved the problem of AREPO (a word that appears nowhere else in classical writing), as being a necessary component to complete the palindrome. Fishwick still considered this interpretation as unproven and clarified that the apparent discovery of the Roma-Amor palindrome written beside the 1954 discovery of a square on a tile at Aquincum,
SECTION 60
#17327807836458928-469: The Sator square, particularly in its SATOR-form, became adopted into Christian imagery is not disputed by academics. Academics note the repeated association of Christ with the "sower" (or SATOR), and the words of the Sator square have been discovered in Christian settings even in very early medieval times, including: The Sator square appears in diverse Christian communities, such as in Abyssinia where in
9072-442: The West in over three centuries. Nearly every monarch of France from Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious till the penultimate monarch of France Louis Philippe have been his descendants. His death in 814 began an extended period of fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire . The Carolingian dynasty takes its name from Carolus ,
9216-403: The ancient Greek for alpha ( Ἄλφα ) and omega ( ω ), giving the " Alpha-Omega " concept (cf. Isiah 44.6 , and Revelation 1:8 ) from early Judeo-Christianity. J. Gwyn Griffiths contended that the term AREPO came, via Alexandria , from the attested Egyptian name "Hr-Hp" ( ḥr ḥp ), which he took to mean "the face of Apis ". In 1983, Serbian-American scholar Miroslav Marcovich proposed
9360-433: The areas in which they lived. These men were rarely used in the course of Carolingian grand strategy because they were used for defensive purposes, and the Carolingians were for the most part on the offensive most of the time. Another class of civilians were required to serve in the military which included going on campaigns. Depending on one's wealth, one would be required to render different sorts of service, and "the richer
9504-515: The arts, including some classical and contemporary composers such as works by Austrian composer Anton Webern and Italian composer Fabio Mengozzi , writers such as Brazilian writer Osman Lins (whose novel Avalovara (1973) follows the structure of the square), and painters such as American artist Dick Higgins with La Melancolia (1983), and American artist Gary Stephan with Sator Arepo Tenet Opera Rotas (1982). British-American director Christopher Nolan 's 2020 film Tenet , incorporates all
9648-450: The central word TENET, gives SATOR OPERA TENET – TENET OPERA SATOR, which has been very loosely interpreted as: "as ye sow, so shall ye reap", while some believe the square should be read as just three words – SATOR OPERA TENET, which they loosely translate as: "The Creator (the author of all things) maintains his works"; both of which could imply Graeco-Roman Stoic and/or Pythagorean origins. British academic Duncan Fishwick observes that
9792-417: The contemporary historical record in c. 676 , when the LHF mentions ' Pippin and Martin' rising up against a tyrannical Ebroin , mayor of Austrasia. Pippin II, now head of the faction, and Martin, who was either Pippin's brother or relative, rose up against Ebroin and gathered an army (potentially with the aid of Dagobert II who had been brought back to Austrasia by mayor Wulfoald). According to
9936-475: The decorative style of the interior), and the palestra square find was dated pre-AD 62 (and therefore the earthquake of AD 62 ), making it the oldest known Sator square discovery to date. The words are in Latin, and the following translations are known by scholars: The most direct sentence translation is: "The sower (or, farmer) Arepo holds the wheels with care (or, with care the wheels)". Similar translations include: "The farmer Arepo works his wheels", or "Arepo
10080-431: The development of mounted warrior or cavalry that would peak in the High Middle Ages . However, in modern historiography, historians like Pierre Riche and Paul Fouracre have discredited his ideas as too simplistic and have aimed to depict more realistic fragments of development that may or not have been interdependent. This was the period in which the Carolingians first began to establish themselves as fully independent from
10224-512: The dynasty began slowly to crumble. His kingdom was split into three parts, each being ruled over by one of his grandsons. Only the kingdoms of the eastern and western portions survived, becoming the predecessors of modern Germany and France. The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888. They ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rule in Vermandois and Lower Lorraine after
10368-473: The earliest known Sator square was from the fourth century, further supporting the dating of the Christian symbolism inherent in the Paternoster theory. Academics considered the Christian origins of the square to be largely resolved. With the subsequent discovery of Sator squares at Pompeii, dating pre-79 AD, the Paternoster theory began to lose support, even among notable supporters such as French historian Guillaume de Jerphanion . Jerphanion noted: that (1) it
10512-737: The early 7th century. Both men came from noble backgrounds on the western borders of the Austrasia territory between the Meuse and Moselle rivers, north of Liège . The first two figures, Pippin I of Landen and Arnulf of Metz , from whom historians have taken the family names, both first appeared in the fourth book of the Continuations of Fredegar as advisers to Chlotar II of Neustria , who 'incited' revolt against King Theuderic II and Brunhild of Austrasia in 613. Through shared interests, Pippin and Arnulf allied their families through
10656-489: The early Carolingians encompassed their political alliance with the aristocracy. This political relationship gave the Carolingians authority and power in the Frankish kingdom. Beginning with Pippin II, the Carolingians set out to put the regnum Francorum ("kingdom of the Franks") back together, after its fragmentation after the death of Dagobert I , a Merovingian king. After an early failed attempt in c. 651 to usurp
10800-405: The eastern Neustrian borders and faced Duke Eudo in battle at Soissons. Duke Eudo, realising he was outmatched, retreated to Paris, where he took Chilperic and the royal treasury and left for Aquitaine . Charles pursued them, according to the Continuations , as far as Orleans, but Eudo and the Neustrians managed to escape. In 718, King Chlothar IV died and was not replaced; instead, Charles became
10944-541: The encroaching Radbod and the Neustrians. In 716, Charles finally met the Frisians as they approached and, although the AMP attempts equalize the losses, it is confirmed from the descriptions in the LHF and the Continuations that Charles was defeated with heavy losses. Chilperic, Raganfred and, according to the Continuations , Radbod, then travelled from Neustria through the forest of the Ardennes and raided around
11088-534: The end of the Middle Ages, the "prophylactic magic" of the square was firmly established in the superstition of Italy, Serbia, Germany, and Iceland, and eventually even crossed to North America". The square appears in versions of several popular magical manuscripts from the early and late middle ages magical text such as the Tabula Smaragdina and the Clavicula Salomonis . In Germany in
11232-510: The fact that Swanchild's heritage related her both to Alemannia and Bavaria. Not only would their marriage have allowed greater control over both regions, but it also would have cut the existing family ties that the Agilofings had to the Pippinid family branch. Plectrude's sister Regintrud was married to Theodo of Bavaria , and this relation provided an opportunity for disenfranchised family members to defect. Following his conquest east of
11376-556: The fellow Austrasian 'Gundoinings' noble family. Once elected, Pippin served faithfully under Chlotar until the latter's death in 629, and solidified the Pippinids' position of power within Austrasia by supporting Chlotar's son Dagobert, who became King of Austrasia in 623. Pippin, with support from Arnulf and other Austrasian magnates, even used the opportunity to support the killing of an important political rival Chrodoald , an Agilolfing lord. Following King Dagobert I's ascent to
11520-592: The field in a single theatre of operation." Because of this, each landholder would not be required to mobilize all of his men each year for the campaigning season, but instead, the Carolingians would decide which kinds of troops were needed from each landholder, and what they should bring with them. In some cases, sending men to fight could be substituted for different types of war machines. In order to send effective fighting men, many institutions would have well trained soldiers that were skilled in fighting as heavily armored troops. These men would be trained, armored, and given
11664-465: The five of the names from the Sator square: American author Lawrence Watt-Evans notes that Sir Terry Pratchett named the main square in the fictional city of Ankh-Morpork in his Discworld book series, "Sator Square", in a deliberate reference to the symbol. Watt-Evans notes that the Discworld series is full of other incidental references to unusual symbols and concepts. The song Tenet by
11808-446: The immediate dangers were dealt with, Charles then began to consolidate his position as sole mayor of the Frankish kingdom. The civil unrest between 714 and 721 had destroyed the continental political cohesion, and peripheral kingdoms like Aquitaine, Alemannia , Burgundy and Bavaria had slipped from the Carolingian's grasp. Even though the faction had, by Charles Martel's time, established strong political control over Francia, loyalty to
11952-456: The importance of this victory. Marios Costambeys , Matthew Innes and Simon MacLean all show that the Tertry victory did not establish solid authority over Neustria immediately, evidenced by the fact that Pippin immediately installed 'Norbert, one of his followers' (as written in the LHF ) and then his son Grimoald in 696 to ensure continued influence. Pippin II then became overall mayor of
12096-441: The incentives that drew lords and warriors into the Carolingian armies, arguing that the primary draw was 'booty' and treasure gained from conquest rather than 'feudal' obligation. Although Charles' reign is no longer considered transitional in its feudal developments, it is seen as a transitional period in the spread of the existing system of vassals and precaria land rights. Due to Charles' continued military and missionary work,
12240-400: The key to Charles' support. As such, Charles made multiple attempts to both gain the faction's support and remove their authority. When Savaric died during Charles' early reign, he agreed to support Savaric's nephew Bishop Eucherius of Orléans ' claim to the bishopric. However, once Charles had established a powerful basis by 737, he exiled Eucherius, with the help of a man called Chrodobert, to
12384-516: The king directed all the affairs of state under a separate government', a system which created tensions with the Neustrians. Theudoald ruled uncontested for around six months, until June 715, when the Neustrians revolted. Theudoald and the Arnulfings' supporters met at the Battle of Compiègne on 26 September 715, and after a decisive victory, the Neustrians installed a new mayor Ragenfrid and, following Dagobert's death, their own Merovingian king Chilperic II . Charter evidence suggests that Chilperic
12528-462: The last king died in 987, but they never sought the royal or imperial thrones and made peace with the new ruling families. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet , thus beginning the Capetian dynasty . The historian Bernard Bachrach argues that the rise of the Carolingians to power
12672-496: The late Merovingian and Carolingian period were political centres and often closely related to the royal court; as such they often became involved in political matters, which often overlapped with Charles' reallocation of land. This 'secularisation' of Church property caused serious tension between the Carolingian church and state, and often gave Charles a negative depiction in ecclastical sources. The reallocation of church land
12816-522: The letters " aleph " and " tau " are used in the Talmud as symbols of totality. The T s of TENET may be explained not as Christian crosses, but as a Latin form of the Jewish "tau" salvation symbol (from Ezekiel), and its archaic form (+ or X) appears regularly on ossuaries of both Hellenistic and early Roman times. Fishwick highlights the central position of the letter N , as Jews attached significance to
12960-532: The man was, the greater was his military obligation for service". For example, if rich, one might be required as a knight. Or one might be required to provide a number of fighting men. In addition to those who owed military service for the lands they had, there were also professional soldiers who fought for the Carolingians. If the holder of a certain amount of land was ineligible for military service (women, old men, sickly men or cowards) they would still owe military service. Instead of going themselves, they would hire
13104-427: The marriage of Pippin's daughter Begga and Arnulf's son Ansegisel . As repayment for their help during the Austrasian conquest, Chlotar rewarded both men with important positions of power in Austrasia. However, Arnulf was the first to gain. He was bestowed the bishopric of Metz in 614, entrusting him with the management of the Austrasian capital and the education of Chlotar's young son, the future Dagobert I . This
13248-467: The monasteries of Ohrdruf , Tauberbischofsheim , Kitzingen and Ochsenfurt . Charles, realising the potential of establishing Carolingian-supportive episcopal centres, utilised Saint Pirmin , an itinerant monk, to establish an ecclesiastical foundation on Reichenau Island in Lake Constance . He was expelled in 727 by Lantfrid and he retreated to Alsace , where he established monasteries with
13392-443: The monastery of St Trond . Charles took further military action in the same year to fully assert his authority, and installed his sons Pippin and Remigius as magnates. This was followed by the installation of political supporters from Bavaria and local supporters like Theuderic of Autun and Adalhard of Chalon . This acquisition of land in southern France was supported by the increased social chaos that seemingly developed during
13536-485: The most prominent works in a 2003 paper published in Cryptologia . Among the more diverse but less supported theories Sheldon recorded were: In 2003, Rose Mary Sheldon noted: "Long after the fall of Rome, and long after the general public had forgotten about classical word games, the square survived among people who might not even read Latin. They continued to use it as a charm against illness, evil and bad luck. By
13680-741: The nineteenth century in South America, where the Sator square was used as a cure for dog bites and snake-bites in Brazil, and in enclaves of German settlers (or mountain whites ) in the Allegheny Mountains who used the square to prevent fire, stop fits, and prevent miscarriages. The Sator square features in eighteenth-century books on Pow-wow folk medicine of the Pennsylvania Dutch , such as The Long Lost Friend (see image). The Sator square has inspired many works in
13824-517: The northern borders of Austrasia and Neustria. He subdued his former enemy Raganfred at Angers in 724 and secured his patronage, removing the remaining political resistance that had continued to thrive in western Neustria. In 725, Charles set out against the peripheral kingdoms, starting with Alemannia. The region had almost gained independence during the reign of Pippin II and under the leadership of Lantfrid , Duke of Alemannia, as (710–730) they acted without Frankish authority, issuing law codes like
13968-457: The oldest unsolved word puzzles in the world". In 2018, American ancient classical historian Megan O'Donald still noted that "most interpretations of the ROTAS square have failed to gain consensus due to failings", and, in particular, reconciling the archeological evidence with the square's later adoption as a religious and magical object. Irrespective of the theory of its origin, the evidence that
14112-577: The pagan chieftain Radbod in Frisia, an area that had been slowly encroached upon by Austrasian nobles and Anglo-Saxon missionaries like Willibrord , whose links would later make him a connection between the Arnulfings and the papacy. Following Gotfrid, Duke of Alemannia in 709, Pippin also moved against the Alemans and subjugated them again to royal control. As Pippin approached his death in late 714, he
14256-620: The political systems that existed in the heartlands, Austrasia and Neustria, officially began to spread to the periphery. Those whom Charles appointed as new nobility in these regions, often with lifetime tenures, ensured that Carolingian loyalties and systems was maintained across the kingdoms. The Carolingians were also far more strict with their land rights and tenure than their Merovingian predecessors, carefully distributing their new land to new families temporarily, but maintaining their control. Merovingians kings weakened themselves by allocating too much of their royal domains to supporting factions;
14400-500: The primary authority in Francia. He established a peace treaty with Duke Eudo that ensured Chilperic II was returned to Francia; thereafter, until Chilperic's death in 720 at Noyon , the kingship was restored with Carolingian control and Charles became the maior palatii in both Neustria and Austrasia. Following Chilperic II's death, the Merovingian king Theuderic IV , son of Dagobert III, was taken from Chelles Abbey and appointed by
14544-547: The revolt and lured Grimoald and Childebert into Neustria, where they were executed. This story is only confirmed by the pro-Neustrian source, the Liber Historia Francorum ( LHF ) and selected charter evidence. Other contemporary sources like the Continuations fail to mention the event and Carolingian sources like Annales Mettenses Priores ( AMP ) ignore the event and even deny Grimoald's existence. As such, historian Richard Gerberding has suggested
14688-434: The river Rhine and Cologne , taking treasure from Plectrude and her supporters. As they returned, Charles ambushed the returning party at the Battle of Amblève and was victorious, inflicting heavy losses on the Neustrian invaders. In 717, Charles mustered his army again and marched on Neustria, taking the city of Verdun during his conquest. He met Chilperic and Raganfred again at the Battle of Vinchy on 21 March 717 and
14832-648: The royal palace under Theuderic II, becoming mayor of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy. His son Drogo , from his wife Plectrude , was also imbued with power when he married Berchar's widow Adaltrude (potentially maneuvered by Ansfled) and was made Duke of Champagne. Pippin was politically dominating and had the power to elect the next two Merovingian kings after Theuderic II died in 691; he installed King Clovis IV (691-695), Childebert III (695-711) and Dagobert III (711-715). Pippin moved to secure further power by consolidating his position in Neustria, installing several bishops like Gripho , Bishop of Rouen and Bainus at
14976-571: The same time in Jarrow , England , recorded the event in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , and his victory gained Charles Martel the admiration of seminal historian Edward Gibbon who considered him the Christian saviour of Europe. Although his victory was considered famous, in reality his victory was far less impactful, and Charles would not gain much control in Aquitaine until Eudo's death in 735. The victory may have given
15120-594: The sixth century. By the Middle Ages , Sator squares had been found across Europe , Asia Minor , and North Africa . In 2022, the Encyclopedia Britannica called it "the most familiar lettered square in the Western world". A significant volume of academic research has been published on the square, but after more than a century, there is no consensus on its origin and meaning. The discovery of
15264-515: The sower (sator) guides (tenet) the wheel (rotas) with skill (opera)". Some academics, such as French historian Jules Quicherat , believe the square should be read in a boustrophedon style (i.e. in alternating directions). The boustrophedon style, which in Greek means "as the Ox plows", emphasizes the agricultural aspect of the square. Such a reading when applied to the SATOR-form square, and repeating
15408-461: The square as being likely of Jewish origin. Fishwick notes that the failings of the Paternoster theory (above) are resolved when looked at from a Jewish perspective. Large numbers of Latin-speaking Jews had been settled in Pompeii, and their affinity for cryptic and mystical word symbols was well known. The Alpha and Omega concept appears much earlier in Judaism (Ex. 3.14; Is. 41.4, and 44.6 ), and
15552-431: The square has eluded a definitive academic consensus even after more than a century of study. In 1938, British classical historian Donald Atkinson said the square occupied the "mysterious region where religion, superstition, and magic meet, where words, numbers, and letters are believed, if properly combined, to exert power over the processes of nature ...". Even by 2003, American academic Rose Mary Sheldon called it "one of
15696-438: The square have the word ROTAS as the top line (called a ROTAS-form square, left above), but the inverted version with SATOR in the top line became more dominant from early medieval times (called a SATOR-form square, right above). Some academics call it a Rotas-Sator Square, and some of them refer to the object as a rebus , or a magic square . Since medieval times, it has also been known as a Templar Magic Square. The existence of
15840-591: The square is less of a pure word puzzle but more a piece of Latin Roman graffito that should be read figuratively as a wheel (i.e. the ROTAS), and that the textual-visual interplay had parallels with other forms of graffito found in Pompeii, some of which later became adopted as charms. Some prominent academics, including British-Canadian ancient Roman scholar Duncan Fishwick, American ancient legal historian David Daube , and British ancient historian Mary Beard , consider
15984-597: The square was long recognized from early medieval times, and various examples have been found in Europe, Asia Minor , North Africa (in mainly Coptic settlements), and the Americas. Medieval examples of the square in SATOR-form abound, including the earliest French example in a Carolingian Bible from AD 822 at the monastery of Saint-Germain-des-Prés . Many medieval European churches and castles have Sator square inscriptions. The first recognized serious academic study of
16128-465: The square was the 1881 publication of Reinhold Köhler's [ de ] historical survey in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie [ de ] , titled "Sator-Arepo-Formel", and a considerable body of academic research has been subsequently published on the meaning of the square. Up until the 1930s, a Coptic papyrus with the square in the ROTAS-form dating from the fourth or fifth century AD
16272-622: The support of the Etichonid clan, who were Carolingian supporters. This relationship gave the Carolingians long-term benefit from Pirmin's future achievements, which brought abbeys in the eastern provinces into Carolingian favour. In 725, Charles continued his conquest from Alemannia and invaded Bavaria. Like Alemannia, Bavaria had continued to gain independence under the rule of the Agilolfings clan who, in recent years, had increased links with Lombardy and affirmed their own law codes, like
16416-417: The term AREPO as a Latinized abbreviation of Harpocrates (or " Horus -the-child"), god of the rising sun, also called Γεωργός `Aρπον , which Marcovich suggests corresponds to SATOR AREPO. This would translate the square as: "The sower Horus/Harpocrates keeps in check toils and tortures". Duncan Fishwick, among other academics, believed that AREPO was simply a residual word that was required to complete what
16560-416: The things they needed in order to fight as heavy troops at the expense of the household or institution for whom they fought. These armed retinues served almost as private armies, "which were supported at the expense of the great magnates, [and] were of considerable importance to early Carolingian military organization and warfare." The Carolingians themselves supported their own military household and they were
16704-408: The throne from the Merovingians, the early Carolingians began to slowly gain power and influence as they consolidated military power as mayors of the palace. In order to do this, the Carolingians used a combination of Late Roman military organization along with the incremental changes that occurred between the fifth and eighth centuries. Because of the defensive strategy the Romans had implemented during
16848-472: The throne in c. 629 , he returned the Frankish capital back to Paris in Neustria , from whence it had been removed by Chlotar in 613. As a result, Pippin lost his position as mayor and the support of the Austrasian magnates, who were seemingly irritated by his inability to persuade the King to return the political centre to Austrasia. Instead, Dagobert turned to the Pippinids' political rival family,
16992-523: The translation from the boustrophedon approach fails when applied to a ROTAS-form square; however, Belgian scholar Paul Grosjean reversed the boustrophedon rule on the ROTAS-form (i.e. starting on the right-hand side instead of the left) to get SAT ORARE POTEN, which loosely translates into the Jewish call to prayer, "are you able to pray enough?". The word AREPO is a hapax legomenon (i.e. it appears nowhere else in Latin literature). Some academics believe it
17136-513: The translations of the words ROTAS OPERA TENET AREPO SATOR are irrelevant, except to the extent that they make some sense and thereby hide a Jewish cryptic charm, and to require them to mean more is "to expect the impossible". The motivation for the creation square might have been the Jewish pogroms of AD 19 or AD 49; however, it fell into disuse only to be revived later by Christians facing their own persecution, and who appreciated its hidden Paternoster and Alpha and Omega symbolism, but who focused on
17280-423: The utterance of the "Name" (or nomen). In addition, Fishwick believes a Jewish origin provides a satisfactory explanation for the Paternoster cross (or X) as the configuration is an archaic Jewish "tau" (+ or X). Fishwick draws attention to some liturgical prayers in Judaism, where several prayers refer to "Our Father". None of these liturgical prayers, however, can be dated to before Jesus . Fishwick concludes that
17424-480: The vertical and horizontal lines of the grid are also drawn, but in many cases, there are no such lines. The square is described as a two-dimensional palindrome , or word square , which is a particular class of a double acrostic . The square comes in two forms: ROTAS (left, below), and SATOR (right, below): R O T A S O P E R A T E N E T A R E P O S A T O R S A T O R A R E P O T E N E T O P E R A R O T A S The earliest Roman-era versions of
17568-710: The word SAUTRAN that appears beside the square that was discovered on the palestra column in Pompeii. Vinel addressed a criticism of the Jewish origin theory – why would the Jews have then abandoned the symbol? – by noting the Greek texts that they also abandoned (e.g. the Septuagint ) in favor of Hebrew versions. The amount of academic research published on the Rotas-Sator square is regarded as being considerable (and even described by one source as "immense"); American academic Rose Mary Sheldon attempted to catalog and review
17712-549: Was Charlemagne , Pepin's son. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire , is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire . The Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish (and Merovingian ) practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of
17856-613: Was a main protagonist in the Battle of Toulouse (721) , which famously stopped Muslim lord Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani 's advances in Narbonne and gained Eudo praise in the Liber Pontificalis . Charles met the Muslim force at the famous Battle of Poitiers (732) and came out victorious, killing Abd ar-Rahman. This moment cemented Charles Martel in historical records and gained him international praise. Bede , writing at
18000-546: Was a witch. Richard Cavendish notes a medieval manuscript in the Bodleian says: "Write these [five sator] words on in parchment with the blood of a Culver [pigeon] and bear it in thy left hand and ask what thou wilt and thou shalt have it. fiat." Other examples include Bosnia, where the square was used as a remedy for aquaphobia , and in Iceland, it was etched into the fingernails to cure jaundice . There are examples from
18144-514: Was buried at St Denis in Paris. He made secure succession plans, likely learning from his father, that ensured Francia was effectively divided between his sons, Carloman and Pippin as maior palatii . According to the Continuations , the eldest son, Carloman, was given control of the eastern kingdoms in Austrasia, Alammania and Thuringia, while Pippin was given the western kingdoms in Burgundy, Neustria and Provence. The greatest Carolingian monarch
18288-538: Was clearly a political choice from within the direct family line, as Pippin had two adult illegitimate children, Charles Martel and Childebrand I , from a second wife or concubine named Alpaida . They were ousted so Theudoald (with Plectrude's regency) could take the throne, a choice that would result in disaster. When Pippin II died in December 714, the Arnulfings' dominance over Francia disintegrated. The LHF tells us that 'Plectrude along with her grandchildren and
18432-474: Was clearly weak at this time and he required the support of the established Merovingians to gather military support. Despite his weaknesses, Charles' recent success had made him a greater political entity; as such, Chilperic and Raganfred could not win a decisive victory against him. So, in 718 they too sent embassies and won the support of Duke Eudo of Aquitaine who, at their request, mustered 'a Gascon army' to face Charles. In response, Charles brought an army to
18576-410: Was considered the earliest version. In 1889, British ancient historian Francis Haverfield identified the 1868 discovery of a Sator square found in ROTAS-form scratched on a plaster wall in the Roman settlement of Corinium at Cirencester to be of Roman origin; however, his assertion was discounted at the time by most academics who considered the square to be an "early medieval charm". Haverfield
18720-448: Was either killed, as the AMP argues, by his own people, but the LHF suggests that it is more likely that he was murdered by his mother-in-law, Ansfled. This moment was decisive in Arnulfing history as it was the first time that any of the faction had national control. Paul Fouracre even argues it is for this that the AMP starts with Pippin II, as a false dawn upon which Charles Martel would rebuild. However, historians have discredited
18864-492: Was faced with a succession crisis. Drogo, Pippin's oldest son, died in 707 and his second son Grimoald, according to the LHF , was killed whilst praying to Saint Lambert in Liège in 714 by Rantgar, suspected by Paul Fouracre to be a pagan. Pippin, before his death, made his six-year-old grandson Theudoald (Grimoald's son) his successor in Neustria, a choice that is believed to have been promoted by his wife Plectrude, which
19008-462: Was further bolstered by Grimoald's role in Duke Radulf of Thuringia's rebellion. Just prior to Otto's assassination, in c. 640 Radulf revolted against the Merovingians and made himself King of Thuringia. Sigibert, with an Austrasian army including Grimoald and Duke Adalgisel , went on campaign and after a brief victory against Fara , son of the assassinated Agilofing lord Chrodoald,
19152-439: Was improbable that many Christians were present at Pompeii, that (2) first-century Christians would have written the square in Greek and not Latin, that (3) the Christian concepts of Alpha and Omega only appear after the first century, that (4) the symbol of the cross only appears from about AD 130–131, and that (5) cryptic Christian symbols only appeared during the persecutions of the third century . Jérôme Carcopino claimed
19296-440: Was incorrectly translated (if anything it supported the square as a charm). Fishwick, and others, consider the key failing of the Roman puzzle theory of origin is the lack of any explanation as to why the square would later become so strongly associated with Christianity, and with being a medieval charm. Some argue that this can be bridged if considered as a Pythagorean - Stoic puzzle creation. In 2018, Megan O'Donnell argued that
19440-455: Was not clear that they had originated the symbol. During 1924 to 1926, three people separately discovered, or rediscovered, that the square could be used to write the name of the Lord's Prayer , the "Paternoster", twice and intersecting in a cross-form (see image opposite). The remaining residual letters (two A s and two O s) could be placed in the four quadrants of the cross and would represent
19584-527: Was not new by Charles' reign; Ian Wood has managed to identify the practice going back to the reigns of Dagobert I (629–639) and Clovis II (639–657). The majority of the sources that depict Charles' involvement in Church land rights come from the 9th century, and are therefore less reliable, but two supposedly contemporary sources also identify this issue. The first, a letter sent by missionary Saint Boniface to Anglo-Saxon king Æthelbald of Mercia , called Charles'
19728-413: Was once again victorious, forcing them back to Paris . He then swiftly returned to Austrasia and besieged Cologne, defeating Plectrude and reclaiming his father's wealth and treasure. Charles bolstered his position by installing the Merovingian king Chlothar IV in Austrasia as an opposing Merovingian to Chilperic II. Despite not having a Merovingian king for around 40 years in Austrasia, Charles' position
19872-516: Was only in areas like Neustria, where Carolingian opposition historically existed, that Charles knew he would face criticism if he usurped the throne. Therefore, until his death, Charles ruled as Princeps or First Man/First Citizen, officially gaining the title with his uncontested leadership with the acquisition of Provence in 737. This meant that the issue of kingship remained ever present for his successors who would have to work further to establish themselves as royal. When Charles died in 741, he
20016-480: Was reduced to a hundred mansus by Pippin III's reign, and at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille under Abbot Teutsind , who was appointed by Charles in 735/6, the Church's local property was reduced to a third its size. Wood has also criticised this point and proven that the loss of land by the Church was in reality very small, the remaining land being simply leased as it went beyond the Church's capabilities. Regardless, it
20160-664: Was similar to the ROMA OLIM MILO AMOR two-dimensional acrostic word puzzle that was also found at Pompeii (see Wiktionary for details on the Pompeiian graffito), and at Ostia and Bolonia. Similarly, another ROTAS-form square scratched into a Roman-era wall in the basement of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore , was found alongside the Roma-Amor, and the Roma-Summus-Amor, palindromes. Duncan Fishwick noted
20304-635: Was simply a device for working out wind directions. The square has long associations with magical powers throughout its history (and even up to the 19th century in North and South America), including a perceived ability to extinguish fires, particularly in Germany. The square appears in early and late medieval medical textbooks such as the Trotula , and was employed as a medieval cure for many ailments, particularly for dog bites and rabies , as well as for insanity, and relief during childbirth. It has featured in
20448-423: Was successful in his first campaign, but returned in 730, the same year that Duke Lantfrid died and was succeeded by his brother Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia . As successful as campaigning had been, Charles seemingly took inspiration from Anglo-Saxon missionary Saint Boniface , who in 719 was sent by Pope Gregory II to convert Germany, in particular the areas of Thuringia and Hesse , where he established
20592-581: Was the son of the former King Childeric II, but this would make Daniel in his 40s, which is quite old to take the throne. Following their victory, the Neustrians joined with Radbod, King of the Frisians and invaded Austrasia, aiming towards the Meuse river to take the heartland of the faction's support. It is at this moment that Charles Martel is first mentioned in historical records, which note him surviving imprisonment by his step-mother, Plectrude. Charles managed to escape and mustered an Austrasian army to face
20736-476: Was ultimately proved right by the 1931-32 excavations at Dura-Europos in Syria that uncovered three Sator separate square inscriptions, all in ROTAS-form, on the interior walls of a Roman military office (and a fourth a year later) that were dated from circa AD 200. Five years later in 1936, Italian archaeologist Matteo Della Corte [ it ] discovered a Sator square, also in ROTAS-form, inscribed on
#644355