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93-592: Sacerdos Matris Deum Magnae Idaeae was the title of the Priestess of the goddess Cybele in Ancient Rome . The office as introduced when the cult of Cybele was officially introduced in Rome in 204 BC. The Priestess of Cybele served alongside a male priest of Cybele as the two leaders of the cult; together, they supervised the galli , the assistants, who performed other tasks around the liturgy, such as providing

186-480: A sacerdos Cereris or Cerealis , "priestess of Ceres ", an office never held by men. Female sacerdotes played a leading role in the sanctuaries of Ceres and Proserpina in Rome and throughout Italy that observed so-called "Greek rite" ( ritus graecus ). This form of worship had spread from Sicily under Greek influence, and the Aventine cult of Ceres in Rome was headed by male priests. Only women celebrated

279-643: A 10 precept nun; when she received full ordination in 2000, her dwelling became America's first Theravada Buddhist bhikkhuni vihara. In 1998 Sherry Chayat, born in Brooklyn, became the first American woman to receive transmission in the Rinzai school of Buddhism. In 2006 Merle Kodo Boyd , born in Texas, became the first African-American woman ever to receive Dharma transmission in Zen Buddhism. Also in 2006, for

372-506: A married couple, the rex and regina sacrorum , and the flamen and flaminica Dialis . The regina sacrorum ("queen of the sacred rites") and the flaminica Dialis (high priestess of Jupiter ) each had her own distinct duties and presided over public sacrifices, the regina on the first day of every month , and the flaminica every nundinal cycle (the Roman equivalent of a week). The highly public nature of these sacrifices, like

465-414: A patron of the wellbeing of the family, and she also appears to have been worshipped in relation to the military and state, too, since these protected the household. Because of her encompassing role in everyday life, men and women both worshipped Hera. The Heraion accommodated a number of yearly festivals that included Argos and other nearby communities. Specifically, there were annual events to celebrate

558-408: A priestess, Khrysis, had inadvertently left a torch too close to some garlands which started the fire (4.133). A new temple was built on a different terrace in between 420 B.C.E and 410 B.C.E. Amandry suggests that the construction of this new temple was not just solely because it was acting as a replacement; there is evidence that adding this temple, commonly called the classical temple, was planned in

651-645: A protector and patron of the state. Because family served as a foundation for the army and the army would in turn protects the interests of the home, Hera's role as a patron goddess encompassed society within the Argive Plain in a very multidimensional way. General Gordon found the Argive Heraion in 1831. Excavations of the Second Temple Terrace occurred, led by Gordon in 1836 and by Bursian and Rangabé in 1854. Schliemann investigated

744-437: A protector concerned with the family. There are many small figurines of children and women as well as amulets for protection that support this hypothesis. Further, there have also been terracotta votives that depict household activities like making food, clothing, and weaving. These also confirm Hera's association with preserving the home. Finally, warrior figurines and shields found at the Argive Heraion indicate Hera's status as

837-759: A staircase leading up to the Old temple Terrace. There was also new construction to the east of the Heraion's site in the form of the establishment of the rectangular East Building. Argos also built another stoa on the southern side of the sanctuary, commonly referred to as the South Stoa. In The History of the Peloponnesian War , Thucydides reveals that the Old Temple at the Heraion burned down in 423 B.C. (4.133). According to this account of Thucydides,

930-576: A successful arrival, their mother prays to Hera for the highest blessing to be bestowed upon them. Kleobis and Biton go into the temple of Hera, fall asleep, and never awaken. Despite this description of the Procession of the Hera Argeia, it is still unclear when these processions began. These festivals additionally enabled time for socialization, and they also allowed for competition between individual families and amongst different communities in

1023-540: A variety of contrasting interpretations. Roger Gryson asserts that it is "difficult to form an idea of the situation which Pope Gelasius opposed" and observes that "it is regrettable that more details" about the situation are not available. The Protestant Reformation introduced the dogma that the authority of the Bible exceeds that of Roman Catholic popes and other church figures. Once the Roman Catholic hierarchy

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1116-470: A woman might be a mantic (mantis) who became the mouthpiece of a deity through possession, but the "prophecy of interpretation" required specialized knowledge and was considered a rational process suited only to a male '"prophet" ( prophētēs ). The Latin word sacerdos , "priest", is the same for both the grammatical genders . In Roman state religion , the Vestal Virgins were responsible for

1209-526: Is clear that Argos was emulating the Mycenaean stonework style, Cyclopean masonry . Such a choice in design was purposeful; the people of developing Argos sought to forge links with the preceding Mycenaeans, who were especially revered and worshipped in this time period. As explained by E.L. Tilton, it is clear Argos built this part of the Heraion far after the Mycenaeans. First, Tilton points out that

1302-484: Is distinguished from the process of consecration to religious orders , namely nuns and monks , which are typically open to women and men. Some Protestant denominations understand ordination more generally as the acceptance of a person for pastoral work. Historians Gary Macy, Kevin Madigan and Carolyn Osiek report having identified documented instances of ordained women in the early Church . In 2021, excavations at

1395-678: Is no vocation that is more "sacred" than any other. Because Christ is Lord over all areas of life, and because His word applies to all areas of life, nowhere does His Word even remotely suggest that the ministry is "sacred" while all other vocations are "secular". Scripture knows no sacred-secular distinction. All of life belongs to God. All of life is sacred. All believers are priests. Most Protestant denominations require pastors, ministers, deacons, and elders to be formally ordained. The early Protestant reformer Martin Bucer , for instance, cited Ephesians 4 and other Pauline letters in support of this. While

1488-458: Is not of the woman, but the woman is of the man [1 Corinthians 11:8]." Indeed, after man fell, that command was; but before man fell there was no such command; for they were both meet-helps [Genesis 2:18,20], and they were both to have dominion over all that God made [Genesis 1:26,28]. And as the apostle saith, "for as the woman is of the man", his next words are, "so is the man also by the woman; but all things are of God [1 Corinthians 11:12]". And so

1581-515: Is reflective of structures dated to the 7th century. Strom and Billot suggest that the temple had columns, though Billot contends that the inside design and layout cannot be discovered due to lack of evidence. There is a paved section to the west and south of where the Old Temple Terrace and on the Old Temple. Due to their high visibility from afar, these spaces could have served to showcase impressive dedications from wealthy visitors of

1674-1016: The Catholic Mariavite Church and are based in the town of Felicjanów in the Płock region of Poland, are headed by a bishop who is a woman, although their numbers are dwarfed by the adherents of the more conventionally patriarchal Mariavites of Płock. The Eastern Orthodox Church follows a line of reasoning similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church with respect to the ordination of bishops and priests, and does not allow women's ordination to those orders. Thomas Hopko and Evangelos Theodorou have contended that female deacons were fully ordained in antiquity. K. K. Fitzgerald has followed and amplified Theodorou's research. Metropolitan Kallistos Ware wrote: The order of deaconesses seems definitely to have been considered an "ordained" ministry during early centuries in at any rate

1767-573: The Church of England . Where laws prohibit sex discrimination in employment , exceptions are often made for clergy (for example, in the United States ) on grounds of separation of church and state . In Ancient Egyptian religion , God's Wife of Amun was the highest ranking priestess ; this title was held by a daughter of the High Priest of Amun , during the reign of Hatshepsut , while

1860-578: The Hieros Gamos of Hera and Zeus. According to Pausanias, the people of Argos believed that the spring of Kanathos by nearby Nauplion was sacred, and Hera bathed there to gain back her virginity before the Hieros Gamos. As a result, the Argives bathed her statue before the ceremonies surrounding this festival. Beyond this occasion, there is evidence that rituals for betrothed women occurred at

1953-617: The Mariavite movement originally began as a response to the perceived corruption of the Roman Catholic Church in the Russian Partition of 19th century Poland. The Mariavites, so named for their devotion to the Virgin Mary, attracted numerous parishes across Mazovia and the region around Łódź and at their height numbered some 300,000 people. Fearing a schism , the established church authorities asked for intervention from

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2046-610: The New Testament which would promote a division between roles of men and women in the Christian Church. Evangelical Christians who place emphasis on the infallibility of the Bible base their opposition to women's ordination as deacons and pastors partly upon the writings of the Apostle Paul , such as Ephesians 5:23, 1 Timothy 2:11–15, and 1 Timothy 3:1–7, which they interpret as demanding male leadership in

2139-684: The Vatican . The Mariavites were eventually excommunicated by Papal Bull in 1905 and 1906. Their clergy, cut loose from the Catholic Church, found sanctuary with the Old Catholic Church and in 1909 the first Mariavite bishop, Michael Kowalski , was consecrated in Utrecht. Twenty years later, the now constituted Mariavite Church was riven by policy differences and a leadership struggle. Nevertheless, Archbishop Kowalski ordained

2232-759: The 1976 Vatican Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood . Supporters of women's ordination interpret the above-mentioned New Testament texts as being specific to certain social and church contexts and locations and addressing problems of church order in the early Church period. They regard Jesus as setting the example of treating women with respect, commending their faith and tasking them to tell others about him and Paul as treating women as his equals and co-workers. They point to notable female figures in

2325-402: The 5th century, even before the fire. To accommodate the growing Argive state during this time, expansion at the Argive Heraion was necessary, and further, these changes "fit well into a general pattern of post conquest revision, clarifying social status and rights in light of the new social order, integrating cult activity, and reinforcing Argos' dominant position on the plain" (Morgan 86). If

2418-595: The Argive Heraion. Coulton dated the long stoa of the Heraion to be from the late 7th to 6th century B.C.E. in 1976. The long stoa, also called the North Stoa, measures 62.10 x 9.20 m. Additionally, Coulton dated a smaller stoa, the North-East Building, to be from around the middle of the 6th century B.C.E. The North-East Building, measuring 20.60 x 6.90 m, is to the east of the larger North Stoa. Billot suggests in his 1997 work that Argos also built

2511-400: The Argive Heraion. As a young woman left the status of a child and became a married woman, there were numerous practices at the site of the Heraion, like bathing in the water from the river Eleutherion, that would serve to get her ready for marriage. Additionally, there is evidence for a procession up to the Argive Heraion from Argos. Called the Procession of the Hera Argeia, the march left

2604-608: The Bible such as Phoebe , Junia (considered an apostle by Paul) and others in Romans 16:1, the female disciples of Jesus , and the women at the crucifixion who were the first witnesses to the Resurrection of Christ , as supporting evidence of the importance of women as pastoral or episcopal leaders in the early Church. The teaching of the Roman Catholic Church , as emphasized by Pope John Paul II in

2697-603: The Christian East.   [...] Some Orthodox writers regard deaconesses as having been a "lay" ministry. There are strong reasons for rejecting this view. In the Byzantine rite the liturgical office for the laying-on of hands for the deaconess is exactly parallel to that for the deacon; and so on the principle lex orandi, lex credendi —the Church's worshipping practice is a sure indication of its faith—it follows that

2790-431: The Church. Some Evangelicals also look to the levitical priesthood and historic rabbinate , being male only. Other evangelical denominations officially authorize the full ordination of women in churches. Catholics may allude to Jesus Christ 's choice of disciples as evidence of his intention for an exclusively male apostolic succession , as laid down by early Christian writers such as Tertullian and reiterated in

2883-463: The Dark Age, the Argive Plain underwent dramatic shifts and changes as populations grew and city states began to emerge. Among these emerging powers in the plain was Argos, previously a small group of towns in the Dark Age. As Argos grew in both population and wealth, it had the resources to take on projects that would serve and promote its growing community. The building of this large sacred space,

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2976-517: The Heraion are tombs from the plain's predecessors, the Mycenaeans ; the establishment of the Heraion nearby this already sacred area served as a way for Argos to legitimize their growing state by linking it to Mycenaean heroic success and prestige. Before Argos built the earliest structures of the Heraion and held influence over the area, groups were using the land in the Neolithic period into

3069-419: The Heraion at Argos, reflected a new shared identity for the people within this area of the developing plain. Use of the sanctuary extended beyond Argos from the Heraion's establishment in the 8th century B.C.E., and the sanctuary functioned as a shared place of worship and meeting space for various communities in the Argive Plain until 460 B.C.E. Measuring 55.80 m x 34.40 m, the rectangular Old Temple Terrace

3162-405: The Heraion stands above the central terrace, and the structure serves as a retaining wall ; the hard surface constructed on the top of the wall acts could have acted a foundation for a large structure. The Old Temple stands on the upper terrace of the Heraion nearby. With only the southern stylobate intact, archaeologists have not been able to date it with certainty, but the stylobate's style

3255-588: The Imperial cult. From the Mid Republic onward, religious diversity became increasingly characteristic of the city of Rome. Many religions that were not part of Rome's earliest state religion offered leadership roles as priests for women, among them the imported cult of Isis and of the Magna Mater ("Great Mother", or Cybele ). An epitaph preserves the title sacerdos maxima for a woman who held

3348-641: The Late Helladic period. P. Alin found evidence in the form of Protogeometric pottery pieces to support that groups had settled near the Old Temple Terrace and the Second Temple, and he also found a tholos and plot of Mycenaean chamber tombs nearby. There is not enough evidence to confirm whether the site was continually used from the time of the Bronze Age to the Dark Age. At the end of

3441-446: The Old Temple Terrace twenty years later. More comprehensive excavations began at the end of the 19th century. In 1892, Waldstein carried out four campaigns that surveyed the entire sanctuary, its surviving buildings, and votives. Blegen turned away from the sanctuary and did work on the surrounding area of the Argive Heraion, finding evidence for cemeteries and occupation nearby the site. Caskey and Amandry carried out an excavation upon

3534-528: The Pan-Amazon region called for "married priests, pope to reopen women deacons commission." Pope Francis later omitted discussion of the issue from the ensuing documents. Various Catholics have written in favor of ordaining women. Dissenting groups advocating women's ordination in opposition to Catholic teaching include Women's Ordination Worldwide, Catholic Women's Ordination, Roman Catholic Womenpriests , and Women's Ordination Conference . Some cite

3627-518: The Roman Catholic Church teaches that this requirement is a matter of divine law; it belongs to the deposit of faith and is unchangeable. In 2007, the Holy See issued a decree stating that attempted ordination of a woman would result in automatic excommunication for the women and bishops attempting to ordain them, and in 2010, that attempted ordination of women is a "grave delict". An official Papal Commission ordered by Pope Francis in 2016

3720-670: The Salvation Army were women. Similarly, the Church of the Nazarene has ordained women since its foundation in 1908, at which time a full 25% of its ordained ministers were women. Heraion of Argos The Heraion of Argos ( Greek : Ἡραῖον Ἄργους ) is an ancient sanctuary in the Argolid , Greece , dedicated to Hera , whose epithet "Argive Hera" (Ἥρη Ἀργείη Here Argeie ) appears in Homer 's works. Hera herself claims to be

3813-911: The Theravada bhikkhuni ordination of German nun Samaneri Dhira, occurred on June 21, 2015, at Anenja Vihara. The first Theravada ordination of bhikkhunis in Indonesia after more than a thousand years occurred in 2015 at Wisma Kusalayani in Lembang, Bandung. Those ordained included Vajiradevi Sadhika Bhikkhuni from Indonesia, Medha Bhikkhuni from Sri Lanka, Anula Bhikkhuni from Japan, Santasukha Santamana Bhikkhuni from Vietnam, Sukhi Bhikkhuni and Sumangala Bhikkhuni from Malaysia, and Jenti Bhikkhuni from Australia. The official lineage of Tibetan Buddhist bhikkhunis recommenced on 23 June 2022 in Bhutan when 144 nuns, most of them Butanese, were fully ordained. In

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3906-598: The Vestals took a vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were off-limits to the male colleges of priests. They retained their religious authority until the Christian emperor Gratian confiscated their revenues and his successor Theodosius I closed the Temple of Vesta permanently. The Romans also had at least two priesthoods that were each held jointly by

3999-549: The West Building, a gathering space, during this century. However, Miller's work in 1973 puts this building's construction in the last half of the fifth century or later, according to a hypothesized order of construction. The West Building still retains a main peristyle with two rows of columns to the east, south, and west. To the North of the building, there are three rooms with a shared hallway that connects other rooms from

4092-1350: The abbot of the Vajra Dakini Nunnery in 2004. The Vajra Dakini Nunnery does not follow The Eight Garudhammas . Also in 2010, in Northern California, four novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai Theravada tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony. Bhante Gunaratana and other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere. The following month, more bhikkhuni ordinations were completed in Southern California, led by Walpola Piyananda and other monks and nuns. The bhikkhunis ordained in Southern California were Lakshapathiye Samadhi (born in Sri Lanka), Cariyapanna, Susila, Sammasati (all three born in Vietnam), and Uttamanyana (born in Myanmar). The first bhikkhuni ordination in Germany,

4185-493: The alleged ordination of Ludmila Javorová in Communist Czechoslovakia in 1970 by Bishop Felix Davídek (1921–1988), himself clandestinely consecrated due to the shortage of priests caused by state persecution, as a precedent. The Catholic Church treats attempted ordinations of women as invalid and automatically excommunicates all participants. Inspired by a mystically inclined nun, Feliksa Kozłowska ,

4278-449: The apostle clears his own words; and so as man and woman are restored again, by Christ up into the image of God [Colossians 3:10], they both have dominion again in the righteousness and holiness [Ephesians 4:24], and are helps-meet, as before they fell. The ordination of women has once again been a controversial issue in more recent years with societal focus on social justice movements. Still, some Christians believe in an interpretation of

4371-558: The apostolic letter Ordinatio sacerdotalis , is "that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgement is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful". This teaching is embodied in the current canon law (1024) and the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992), by the canonical statement: "Only a baptized man ( Latin : vir ) validly receives sacred ordination." Insofar as priestly and episcopal ordination are concerned,

4464-587: The aunt and foster mother of Buddha, was the first bhikkhuni; she was ordained in the sixth century BCE. Prajñādhara is the twenty-seventh Indian Patriarch of Zen Buddhism and is believed to have been a woman. In the Mahayana tradition during the 13th century, the Japanese Mugai Nyodai became the first female Zen master in Japan. However, the bhikkhuni ordination once existing in

4557-465: The capital of Egypt was in Thebes during the second millennium BC (circa 2160 BC). Later, Divine Adoratrice of Amun was a title created for the chief priestess of Amun . During the first millennium BC, when the holder of this office exercised her largest measure of influence, her position was an important appointment facilitating the transfer of power from one pharaoh to the next, when his daughter

4650-680: The church in Cenchreae. In the late second century AD, the Montanist movement ordained women priests and bishops. In 494 AD, in response to reports that women were serving at the altar in the south of Italy, Pope Gelasius I wrote a letter condemning female participation in the celebration of the Eucharist . However, according to O'Brien, he never specified the scriptural or theological foundation for restricting priesthood to men only. Several textual ambiguities and silences have resulted in

4743-408: The city of Argos and headed up the sacred way with groups of young women, cows, and armed young men in the parade. In the Histories , Herodotus tells of a specific event that occurred during one of these processions, the story of Kleobis and Biton (1.31). The sons of a priestess at the Heraion, Kleobis and Biton assist their mother in traversing up to the sanctuary by pulling her cart by hand. Upon

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4836-409: The continuance and security of Rome as embodied by the sacred fire that they were required to tend on pain of extreme punishment. The Vestals were a college of six sacerdotes (plural) devoted to Vesta , goddess of the hearth, both the focus of a private home ( domus ) and the state hearth that was the center of communal religion . Freed of the usual social obligations to marry and rear children,

4929-512: The countries where Theravada is more widespread died out around the 10th century, and novice ordination has also disappeared in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as nuns in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries. These "precept-holders" live in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular,

5022-408: The cult and the divinity in which they served. Priestesses played a major role in the Eleusinian Mysteries , in which they served on many levels, from the High Priestess of Demeter and Dadouchousa Prietess to the Panageis and Hierophantides . The Gerarai were priestesses of Dionysus who presided over festivals and rituals associated with the god. A body of priestesses might also maintain

5115-494: The cult at a particular holy site, such as the Peleiades at the oracle of Dodona . The Arrephoroi were young girls ages seven to twelve who worked as servants of Athena Polias on the Athenian Acropolis and were charged with conducting unique rituals under the surveillance of the High Priestess of Athena Polias . The Priestess of Hera at Argos served at the Heraion of Argos and enjoyed great prestige in all Greece. At several sites women priestesses served as oracles ,

5208-450: The deaconesses receives, as does the deacon, a genuine sacramental ordination: not just a χειροθεσια ( chirothesia ) but a χειροτονια ( chirotonia ). On October 8, 2004, the Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church of Greece voted to permit the appointment of monastic deaconesses—women to minister and assist at the liturgy within their own monasteries. The document however does not use the term χειροτονία , 'ordination', although

5301-407: The design of the sanctuary, rituals, and festivals held there. At the Argive Heraion, Hera was worshipped for a number of purposes that served the individual, family, and polis : "Hera appears as multifunctional goddess, whose Panhellenic status as a wife of Zeus and 'queen' of the gods stands behind her functions as protectress of childbirth, growing up, and marriage" (Baumbach 6). Hera appears to be

5394-462: The efforts of Sakyadhita , an International Buddhist Women Association, ten Sri Lankan women were ordained as bhikkhunis in Sarnath, India. Also, bhikkhuni ordination of Buddhist nuns began again in Sri Lanka in 1998 after a lapse of 900 years. In 2003 Ayya Sudhamma became the first American-born woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, on February 28, 2003, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni , formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became

5487-499: The festival ludi Megalenses : they were dressed with the image of the Goddess on their breast, beat a sacred drum called tympana , and performed a ritual form of beggary called metragyrtai , while the galli played the procession music. Additionally, the Priestess carried a small figure depicting the Goddess. Ordination of women#Ancient Rome In some cases, women have been permitted to be ordained, but not to hold higher positions, such as (until July 2014) that of bishop in

5580-432: The first 12 nuns as priests in 1929. He also introduced priestly marriage. The split in the church took effect, in part, over the place of the feminine in theology and the role of women in the life of the church. By 1935, Kowalski had introduced a "universal priesthood" that extended the priestly office to selected members of the laity. The two Mariavite churches survive to this day. The successors of Kowalski, who are known as

5673-427: The first Thai woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination as a Theravada nun (Theravada is a school of Buddhism). Dhammananda Bhikkhuni was ordained in Sri Lanka. Dhammananda Bhikkhuni's mother Venerable Voramai, also called Ta Tao Fa Tzu, had become the first fully ordained Thai woman in the Mahayana lineage in Taiwan in 1971. A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen, became

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5766-399: The first time in American history, a Buddhist ordination was held where an American woman (Sister Khanti-Khema) took the Samaneri (novice) vows with an American monk ( Bhante Vimalaramsi ) presiding. This was done for the Buddhist American Forest Tradition at the Dhamma Sukha Meditation Center in Missouri. In 2010 the first Tibetan Buddhist nunnery in America (Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont)

5859-414: The first time such ordination had occurred in Australia. It was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October 2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha , Seri, and Hasapanna were ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full accordance with the Pali Vinaya. In 1997 Dhamma Cetiya Vihara in Boston was founded by Ven. Gotami of Thailand, then

5952-510: The first woman ordained as a monk in Thailand, in 2002. Since then, the Thai Senate has reviewed and revoked the secular law passed in 1928 banning women's full ordination in Buddhism as unconstitutional for being counter to laws protecting freedom of religion. However Thailand's two main Theravada Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya, have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks. In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravada nuns,

6045-455: The form of games. There is evidence that people of the Argive Plain held sacred games at the Argive Heraion, and archaeologists have found multiple bronze hydriai with inscriptions that indicate they were prizes. Visits to the Argive Heraion often involved the dedication of votives to Hera, and since votives were traditionally left in place after dedication, these offerings provided a substantial amount of evidence for archaeologists studying

6138-434: The governing council of Burmese Buddhism has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree. However, in 2003, Saccavadi and Gunasari were ordained as bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka , thus becoming the first female Burmese novices in modern times to receive higher ordination in Sri Lanka. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations,

6231-471: The highest priesthood of the Magna Mater's temple near the current site of St. Peter's Basilica . Inscriptions for the Imperial era record priestesses of Juno Populona and of deified women of the Imperial household . Under some circumstances, when cults such as mystery religions were introduced to Romans, it was preferred that they be maintained by women. Although it was Roman practice to incorporate other religions instead of trying to eradicate them,

6324-399: The holy music. Officially, the Priestess as well as the priest were to be from Phrygia , the home country of the Goddess; in practice, they may not always have been from Phrygia, but they were always foreigners. In contrast to the priest, who castrated himself, the priestess performed no bodily changes of herself. The priestess and the priest lead the official procession of the Goddess during

6417-459: The liturgical traditions of Christianity , including the Roman Catholic Church , Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy , Lutheranism and Anglicanism , the term ordination refers more narrowly to the means by which a person is included in one of the orders of bishops , priests or deacons . Among these historic branches of Christianity, the episcopacy and priesthood have been reserved for men, although women have served as deacons and apostles. This

6510-420: The mid-17th century. Women's ministry has been part of Methodist tradition in the UK for over 200 years. In the late 18th century in England, John Wesley allowed for female office-bearers and preachers. The Salvation Army has allowed the ordination of women since its beginning in 1865, although it was a hotly disputed topic between William and Catherine Booth. The fourth, thirteenth, and nineteenth Generals of

6603-402: The middle of this century altered the structure of the Heraion. Argos conquered the nearby states of Mycenae, Tiryns, and Midea in 460 B.C.E., and the considerable renovations and additions to the Argive Heraion site certainly reflect the changing sociopolitical state. Argos seemed to concentrate its changes to the lower terrace. First, Argos connected the two stoas built in the 6th century with

6696-714: The most famous of which is the Oracle of Delphi . The priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi was the Pythia , credited throughout the Greco-Roman world for her prophecies , which gave her a prominence unusual for a woman in male-dominated ancient Greece . The Phrygian Sibyl presided over an oracle of Apollo in Anatolian Phrygia . The inspired speech of divining women, however, was interpreted by male priests;

6789-460: The plain through a variety of walking trails and roads that brought surrounding enclaves, like Mycenae and Argos, together for worship and sacred games. The chosen area where the Heraion stands today is not completely flat, and the Argives constructed a massive retaining wall and terrace for a better space at the time of construction. The river Eleutherion runs close to the sacred site, providing water for cleansing rituals and sacrifices. Also nearby

6882-623: The precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better training than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests. In Tibet there is currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but the Dalai Lama has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination. The bhikkhuni ordination of Buddhist nuns has always been practiced in East Asia. In 1996, through

6975-721: The process of ordination varies among the denominations and the specific church office to be held, it may require preparatory training such as seminary or Bible college , election by the congregation or appointment by a higher authority, and expectations of a lifestyle that requires a higher standard. For example, the Good News Translation of James 3:1 says, "My friends, not many of you should become teachers. As you know, we teachers will be judged with greater strictness than others." Usually, these roles were male preserves. However, Quakers, who have no ordained clergy, have had women preachers and leaders from their founding in

7068-583: The protector of Argos in Iliad IV, 50–52): "The three towns I love best are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets". The memory was preserved at Argos of an archaic, aniconic pillar representation of the Great Goddess . The site, which might mark the introduction of the cult of Hera in mainland Greece, lies northeast of Argos between the sites of Mycenae and Midea , two important Mycenaean cities. The traveller Pausanias , visiting

7161-593: The regular maintenance of a cult. Epitaphs provide the main evidence for these priesthoods, and the woman is often not identified in terms of her marital status. The tradition of the ordained monastic community in Buddhism (the sangha ) began with the Buddha, who established an order of monks. According to the scriptures, later, after an initial reluctance, he also established an order of nuns. Fully ordained Buddhist nuns are called bhikkhunis . Mahapajapati Gotami ,

7254-503: The right to vote or hold political office. Priestesses of Liber , the Roman god identified with Dionysus , are mentioned by the 1st-century BC scholar Varro , as well as indicated by epigraphic evidence. Other religious titles for Roman women include magistra , a high priestess, female expert or teacher; and ministra , a female assistant, particularly one in service to a deity. A magistra or ministra would have been responsible for

7347-678: The rites of the Bona Dea ("Good Goddess"), for whom sacerdotes are recorded. The Temple of Ceres in Rome was surved by the Priestess of Ceres, Sacerdos Cereris , and the Temple of Bona Dea by the Priestess of Bona Dea, Sacerdos Bonae Deae . Other Priestesses were the Sacerdos Liberi , Sacerdos Fortunae Muliebris and the Sacerdos Matris Deum Magnae Idaeae ; sacerdos also served as priestesses of

7440-679: The rites that are to be used are rites of ordination of clergy. A justification given by many Protestants for female ministry is the fact that Mary Magdalene was chosen by Jesus to announce his resurrection to the apostles. A key theological doctrine for Reformed and most other Protestants is the priesthood of all believers —a doctrine considered by them so important that it has been dubbed by some as "a clarion truth of Scripture": This doctrine restores true dignity and true integrity to all believers since it teaches that all believers are priests and that as priests, they are to serve God—no matter what legitimate vocation they pursue. Thus, there

7533-427: The role of the Vestals, indicates that women's religious activities in ancient Rome were not restricted to the private or domestic sphere. So essential was the gender complement to these priesthoods that if the wife died, the husband had to give up his office. This is true of the flaminate, and probably true of the rex and regina . The title sacerdos was often specified in relation to a deity or temple, such as

7626-551: The secrecy of some mystery cults was regarded with suspicion. In 189 BCE, the senate attempted to suppress the Bacchanals , claiming the secret rites corrupted morality and were a hotbed of political conspiracy. One provision of the senatorial decree was that only women should serve as priests of the Dionysian religion , perhaps to guard against the politicizing of the cult, since even Roman women who were citizens lacked

7719-531: The site in the 2nd century CE, referred to the area as Prosymna (Προσύμνη). Located within the fertile Argive Plain in the Northeastern part of the Peloponnesian peninsula , the Heraion at Argos stands on the lower hills leading up to Mount Euboea. Around five miles from the city of Argos , three miles from Mycenae , and six miles from Tiryns , the Heraion remained accessible to inhabitants of

7812-410: The site of a 1600-year-old Byzantine basilica revealed mosaics that provided evidence of women serving primarily as diaconal ministers in early Christendom , although there has been speculation of other females in ministry as leaders of convents . Additionally, Paul's letter to the Romans , written in the first century AD, mentions a woman deacon: I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a deacon of

7905-412: The site. Worshippers at the Heraion said a prayer before leaving things like figurines, seals, amulets, and jewelry in specific areas at the site. By studying these votives, archaeologists have been better able to learn about the daily concerns, values, and lives of those in the Argive Plain. Findings of images that have symbols for childcare and womanhood further confirm Hera's status at this sanctuary of

7998-547: The temple was still in use by the 4th-century, it would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire , when laws against non-Christian religions and their sanctuaries were enacted by the Christian emperors. The Ancient Greeks worshipped Hera as the queen of the gods, amongst many other roles. At these sacred sites, like the Heraion at Argos, the Ancient Greeks usually emphasized specific certain qualities or roles that manifested themselves in

8091-436: The terrace is too long and is not segmented in the way Mycenaeans typically built their walls and terraces. Additionally, the stones employed by the Argives in the construction of the Old Temple Terrace are bigger than those installed by Mycenaeans. From these observations done in 1903, Tilton concluded that Argos was consciously trying to recreate and imitate structures from the time of the Mycenaeans. The Old Temple Terrace at

8184-477: The west and main part of the building. There are cuttings for couch space, suggesting that these three rooms functioned as a space for dining and socializing. The middle of the 5th century B.C.E. yielded many changes for Argos and its territory. While the Heraion at Argos functioned primarily as a shared worship and meeting space for communities nearby in the Argive Plain, the Argive quest for expansion and power in

8277-510: Was adopted to fill it by the incumbent office holder. The Divine Adoratrice ruled over the extensive temple duties and domains, controlling a significant part of the ancient Egyptian economy. Ancient Egyptian priestesses: In ancient Greek religion , some important observances, such as the Thesmophoria , were made by women. Priestesses, Hiereiai , served in many different cults of many divinities, with their duties varying depending on

8370-522: Was charged with determining whether the ancient practice of having female deacons ( deaconesses ) is possible, provided they are non-ordained and that certain reserved functions of ordained male permanent or transitional deacons—proclaiming the Gospel at Mass, giving a homily, and performing non-emergency baptisms—would not be permitted for the discussed female diaconate. In October 2019, the Synod of Bishops for

8463-535: Was no longer accepted as the sole authority, some denominations allowed women to preach. For example, George Fox founded the Quaker movement after stating he felt the " inner light " of Christ living in the believer was discovered in 1646. He believed that the inner light worked in women as well as in men, and said: And some men may say, man must have the power and superiority over the woman, because God says, "The man must rule over his wife [Genesis 3:16]; and that man

8556-679: Was officially consecrated. It offers novice ordination and follows the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism. The abbot of the Vajra Dakini nunnery is Khenmo Drolma, an American woman, who is the first bhikkhuni in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism, having been ordained in Taiwan in 2002. She is also the first westerner, male or female, to be installed as an abbot in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism, having been installed as

8649-418: Was the first structure built at the Argive Heraion. The Argives built the terrace in the late eighth or early seventh century by piling large stones of various shapes onto each other. These stones are found naturally around 50 m from the terrace surface, and on the southern side of this structure, and the Argives dispersed them intermittently with smaller blocks in between. Based on the remaining structure, it

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