Misplaced Pages

#536463

80-522: A kaya (plural makaya or kayas ) is a sacred site of the Mijikenda people in the former Coast Province of Kenya . Often located within sacred forests , a kaya is considered to be an intrinsic source of ritual power and the origin of cultural identity; it is also a place of prayer for members of the Mijikenda ethnic group. The settlement, ritual centre, and fortified enclosure associated with

160-634: A UNESCO World Heritage Site , the Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests. Mijikenda people are also known for creating wooden kigango funerary statues which have been displayed in museums around the world and sold in the international art market. These artifacts were at one time legally sold by reputable art galleries and curio shops during the early 1970s to the 1990s; however, other kigango statues were found to have been stolen from cultural sites and illegally sold. Each Mijikenda ethnic group has its own unique customs and dialects of

240-833: A 3.2% rise in global deforestation. Massive wildfires in Canada , exacerbated by climate change , contributed to a 24% increase in global tree cover loss, highlighting the ongoing threats to forests essential for carbon storage and biodiversity . Despite some progress, the overall trends in forest destruction and climate impacts remain off track. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report stated in 2022: “Over 420 million ha of forest were lost to deforestation from 1990 to 2020; more than 90% of that loss took place in tropical areas (high confidence), threatening biodiversity, environmental services, livelihoods of forest communities and resilience to climate shocks (high confidence).” See also: Global deforestation sharply accelerated around 1852. As of 1947,

320-668: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . More than 50 makaya have been identified within the Kwale , Mombasa , and Kilifi counties. In fact, the National Museums of Kenya have identified 60 unique makaya since the early 1990s. They measure between 30 and 300 hectares each. These are scattered over what remains of the Mosaic Eastern Arc Mountain forest ecoregion, which spreads for 900 kilometers from Mozambique to Somalia . Still, they are concentrated within

400-423: A ceremony. It is also believed that food cooked using wood from these sacred forest could cause sickness, and also that a dwelling built with timber drawn from the forest would collapse. The conservation of the sacredness of the forest was aimed at preserving its darkness. Additionally, rain prayers , peace prayers, political stability prayers, and prayers for economic stability are all examples of ritual practices of

480-469: A complex patron-client relationship which was important for the establishment of large scale plantations on the East African coast. This account goes on to say that these enslaved Giriama peoples were integrated into Swahili and Arab land owning families and were sometimes referred to as dependents rather than slaves. Overall the treatment of these slaves was not very harsh, due to the ease of escape,

560-425: A cultural time from a common origin. It promotes a higher unity among the group of the nine individual ethnic groups that makes up the Mijikenda peoples. Singwaya is considered by the Mijikenda to be their common origin point, and the birthplace of their language and traditions. This origin legend also defines some of the relationships of the ethnic groups that make up the Mijikenda peoples, for example one version of

640-413: A dress code, no disturbing of the natural flaura, no photography, no speaking too loudly, and no fondling one another. Mijikenda is a word that refers specifically to the nine original sub-ethnic groups and their corresponding makaya settlements, including the A'Giriama, A'Kauma, A'Chonyi, A'Kambe, A'Dzihana, A'Rihe, A'Rahai, A'Duruma, and A'Digo. Other scholars distinguish these nine groups as simply

720-514: A hinterland stretch of 200 kilometres (120 mi) in the southern coastal plains area of Kenya, between the towns of Mombasa and Kilifi . While visitors are not allowed to enter most makaya , Kaya Kinondo, a 30-hectare forest on Diani Beach , allows visitors and falls under the auspices of the Kaya Kinondo Ecotourism Project. There are specific rules that visitors must adhere to when visiting Kaya Kinondo, including

800-604: A lack of adequate preservation policy. One example of this is with the Kaya Mrima in Kwale, which was threatened by a Canadian mining firm that would surely cause irreparable damage to the site. Additionally, one of the inadequate conservation policies created is entitled the Antiquities and Monuments Act of 1983, which aimed to protect Kenyan heritage but falls short as it is open to interpretation. Still, organizations such as

880-472: A plane table, a plumb bob, a compass, and a thirty-meter tape. He was able to produce both contour maps, individual settlement maps, and maps that show the distribution of makaya across the region. Excavation posed a difficult task for Mutoro and his team because remains are buried on the site and he feared that they would accidentally exhume the dead. For example, at the Singwaya site they planned to excavate

SECTION 10

#1732765510537

960-560: A portion of the crop as compensation in a similar patron-client relationship as before. However some accounts state that the slavery that the Giriama people endured was harsher than was previously believed. Enslaved Giriama people were known to have fled by the hundreds to any sanctuary they could, in some cases seeking refuge in Christian Missionary stations, in other cases fleeing to runaway slave settlements. Additionally

1040-407: Is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the decade 1990–2000 to 5.2 million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. The rate of decline of net forest loss slowed in the most recent decade due to a reduction in the rate of forest expansion. In many parts of

1120-758: Is around 38%. Since 1960, roughly 15% of the Amazon has been removed with the intention of replacing the land with agricultural practices. It is no coincidence that Brazil has recently become the world's largest beef exporter at the same time that the Amazon rainforest is being clear cut. Another prevalent method of agricultural deforestation is slash-and-burn agriculture , which was primarily used by subsistence farmers in tropical regions but has now become increasingly less sustainable. The method does not leave land for continuous agricultural production but instead cuts and burns small plots of forest land which are then converted into agricultural zones. The farmers then exploit

1200-399: Is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh , are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in

1280-421: Is defined as the conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced). Deforestation and forest area net change are not the same: the latter is the sum of all forest losses (deforestation) and all forest gains (forest expansion) in a given period. Net change, therefore, can be positive or negative, depending on whether gains exceed losses, or vice versa. The FAO estimates that

1360-605: Is estimated that some 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses , although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades. Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990. More than 100 million hectares of forests are adversely affected by forest fires, pests, diseases, invasive species , drought and adverse weather events. Deforestation

1440-605: Is not an issue because of longer fallow periods and lesser overall deforestation. The relatively small size of the plots allowed for no net input of CO 2 to be released. Consumption and production of beef is the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon , with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. Livestock ranching requires large portions of land to raise herds of animals and livestock crops for consumer needs. According to

1520-453: Is projected to occur by the mid-21st century. In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10% remaining, with another 10% in a degraded condition . 80% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. Estimates vary widely as to

1600-727: Is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for 14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%. More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018. Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, palm oil , rice, rubber , and various other popular products. The rising demand for certain products and global trade arrangements causes forest conversions , which ultimately leads to soil erosion . The top soil oftentimes erodes after forests are cleared which leads to sediment increase in rivers and streams. Most deforestation also occurs in tropical regions. The estimated amount of total land mass used by agriculture

1680-461: Is that deforestation reduces the uptake of carbon dioxide ( carbon sequestration ) from the atmosphere. This reduces the potential of forests to assist with climate change mitigation . The role of forests in capturing and storing carbon and mitigating climate change is also important for the agricultural sector. The reason for this linkage is because the effects of climate change on agriculture pose new risks to global food systems . Since 1990, it

SECTION 20

#1732765510537

1760-560: The Congolese rainforest increased by 5%. The World Wildlife Fund 's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. In 2011, Conservation International listed

1840-467: The Digo , Chonyi , Kambe , Duruma , Kauma , Ribe , Rabai , Jibana , and Giriama peoples. The villages have lowland tropical forest areas in their surrounds and were reached via paths through the forest. The forest flora was used solely for the collection of medicinal herbs. The practices of tree cutting, livestock grazing, and farmland clearing were not permitted within a kaya . It is understood that

1920-535: The Mijikenda language , although the dialects are similar to each other and to Swahili . The orthodox view of the Mijikenda's origins is that the Mijikenda peoples originated in Shungwaya (Singwaya) and various other parts of the northern Somali coast, and where pushed south by the Galla ( Oromo ) and reached Kenya around the 16th century. This view of the origins of the Mijikenda people was argued by Thomas Spear in

2000-730: The Philippines , Indonesia , Thailand , Burma , Malaysia , Bangladesh , China, Sri Lanka , Laos , Nigeria , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Liberia , Guinea , Ghana and the Ivory Coast , have lost large areas of their rainforest. Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin , where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres. Some 80% of

2080-479: The World Wildlife Fund , "Extensive cattle ranching is the number one culprit of deforestation in virtually every Amazon country, and it accounts for 80% of current deforestation." The cattle industry is responsible for a significant amount of methane emissions since 60% of all mammals on earth are livestock cows. Replacing forest land with pastures creates a loss of forest stock , which leads to

2160-417: The kaya surrounding the settlement acted as a buffer between the settlement itself and the outside world. As the populations of these kaya grew, security grew which lead to a period of stability which allowed the Mijikenda people to spread outwards along the coasts and southwards along the border of Tanzania. Eventually all nine of the original kaya were abandoned as the Mijikenda settled elsewhere, however

2240-577: The tropics . In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests . These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage . The direct cause of most deforestation is agriculture by far. More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018. Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee , palm oil , rubber and various other popular products. Livestock grazing also drives deforestation. Further drivers are

2320-574: The wood industry ( logging ), urbanization and mining . The effects of climate change are another cause via the increased risk of wildfires (see deforestation and climate change ). Deforestation results in habitat destruction which in turn leads to biodiversity loss . Deforestation also leads to extinction of animals and plants, changes to the local climate, and displacement of indigenous people who live in forests. Deforested regions often also suffer from other environmental problems such as desertification and soil erosion . Another problem

2400-654: The Coastal Forest Conservation Unit, established by the National Museums of Kenya, have been working to conserve the makaya and garner awareness from the local community. The Krapf Memorial Museum in Rabai created a Kaya replica so that non-Mijikenda visitors, who are not allowed to physically enter the makaya , would be able to engage with the historical site at a distance. But, the exhibit only lasted from 2001 to about 2003 because it

2480-452: The Giriama, Rabai, Chonyi, Kauma, Kambe, Jibana, Ribe, Duruma, and Digo. Furthermore, Miji- literally means villages and -Kenda means nine in Bantu languages. The Duruma and Digo makaya are distinctly southern settlements of the Mijikenda, separated from the other seven of the initial makaya . Research supports the hypothesis that the initial kaya settlements tend to be concentrated in

Kaya (Mijikenda) - Misplaced Pages Continue

2560-460: The Kaya Kinodao area has been identified which can be visited as part of ecotourism project. 187 species of plant, 48 species of bird, and 45 species of butterfly have been identified. Colobus monkeys and golden-rumped elephant shrews have also been reported. Entry into the forest was dictated by the traditional rules set by a governing body called the ngambi formed by elderly members of

2640-691: The Mijikenda kaya settlements of the Kenyan coast were founded at the same time as the Swahili settlements, but more has been published about the Swahili compared to the Mijikenda. Additionally, some archaeologists believe that the makaya were established in this area beginning in the ninth century, possibly making them even older than the Swahili coastal settlements. In the present day, intensive deforestation for agricultural use and logging necessitated declaring 38 kaya forest areas legally as national monuments. Local communities manage these areas. Wildlife in

2720-550: The Mijikenda peoples are the Chonyi , Kambe , Duruma , Kauma , Ribe , Rabai , Jibana , Giriama , and Digo . The Digo are southern Mijikenda while the others are northern Mijikenda. The Digo are also found in Tanzania due to their proximity to the common border. Each of the Mijikenda groups has a sacred forest, a kaya , which is a place of prayer. Eleven of the approximately 30 kaya forests have been inscribed together as

2800-438: The Mijikenda peoples. Sometime during the late 19th century the Mijikenda peoples began leaving their kaya homesteads and settling areas elsewhere. The layout of the kaya settlements usually had centrally positioned areas devoted to leadership and worship, with other areas devoted to initiation ceremonies, areas for developing magic and medicine, and areas devoted to burials and entertainment placed around them. The forests of

2880-585: The Mijikenda that occur at kayas, even in the present. Mijikenda peoples Modern ethnicities Diaspora Performing arts Government agencies Television Radio Newspapers Mijikenda ("the Nine Tribes") are a group of nine related Bantu ethnic groups inhabiting the coast of Kenya , between the Sabaki and the Umba rivers, in an area stretching from the border with Tanzania in

2960-525: The Wasegeju. Initially, the Mijikenda peoples migrated to this coastal Kenya region in the late 16th century from their former Shungwaya homeland to the north. Ultimately, by the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, these ten initial settlements had been largely deserted by the Mijikenda peoples as they migrated to different regions and established succeeding makaya . Many makaya were originally fortified villages of various ethnic groups, including

3040-426: The book The Kaya Complex , and was also confirmed by many Mijikenda oral traditions. Furthermore, oral tradition states that the precise reason for the Galla pushing the Mijikenda from Singwaya was the murder of a Galla Tribesman by a Mijikenda youth, and the Mijikenda tribes subsequent refusal to pay compensation to the Galla. However it has also been theorized that the Mijikenda peoples may have originated in roughly

3120-671: The coastal areas also extended to the Hinterland regions where the Mijikenda people resided. One group of Mijikenda peoples, Known as the Giriama peoples were mistrustful of the British colonial government, as prior to Britain's colonization of the coastal and hinterland areas this group had had its people captured by Arab and Swahili slave traders during the 19th century. Differing accounts of this period exist, with some sources stating that these enslaved Giriama peoples participated in

3200-642: The commodity is consumed. For example, consumption patterns in G7 countries are estimated to cause an average loss of 3.9 trees per person per year. In other words, deforestation can be directly related to imports—for example, coffee. In 2023, the Global Forest Watch reported a 9% decline in tropical primary forest loss compared to the previous year, with significant regional reductions in Brazil and Colombia overshadowed by increases elsewhere, leading to

3280-466: The community. This governing body was primarily concerned with its management, conservation and utilization of the biological resources in adherence to the traditional beliefs about the sacredness of the forest. However, the creation of a central governing body has affected the role of the local elders. An ecotourism project was launched in 2001 with funds provided by the Ford Foundation with

Kaya (Mijikenda) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3360-478: The country's western regions at a rate of 15,000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010. In 2009, Paraguay's parliament refused to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether. As of 2007, less than 50% of Haiti's forests remained . From 2015 to 2019, the rate of deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo doubled. In 2021, deforestation of

3440-780: The decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010. Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace. The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests". Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types, and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging. Despite these uncertainties, there

3520-498: The deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world. The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world. The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America —which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia. In Central America , two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40% of all

3600-429: The establishment of the kaya and was portrayed as a time of stability by these oral traditions, this period ended in the mid to late 19th century with the rise of colonialism. The kaya also represented an important political symbol to the Mijikenda peoples, as well as being an important cultural symbol to the Mijikenda peoples. The political symbolism of the kaya also played a part in the resistance to colonialism for

3680-463: The extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. This is equivalent to losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds. A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that

3760-432: The first gate on each pathway, on the right hand side. The more important and often older makaya had bigger ritual symbols called mafingo , which could be up to 2 meters in height. At the end of the pathways, there is a broad expanse with a moroni , a large house that resembles a dome, in the middle situated between a fig tree and a baobab tree, mugandi and muyu respectively. There are many myths and beliefs narrated by

3840-482: The forest are also part of the kaya . This ecozone is thought to be the only living example of what the ecosystem was like during the early settlement period of the East African coast . In the present day, the kaya is also referred to as a traditional organizational unit of the Mijikenda. Eleven of the approximately 60 separate makaya have been grouped together and inscribed as the Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests,

3920-432: The form of charcoal or timber ), while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and agricultural crops. The vast majority of agricultural activity resulting in deforestation is subsidized by government tax revenue . Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management , and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation. The types of drivers vary greatly depending on

4000-568: The global forest carbon stock has decreased 0.9%, and tree cover 4.2% between 1990 and 2020. As of 2019 there is still disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not: "While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forest. Deforestation in many countries —both naturally occurring and human-induced —is an ongoing issue. Between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres (890,000 square miles) of forests around

4080-504: The idea that the transition from ex-slaves to manual laborers was made difficult due to fear among members of the colonial government that the fugitive and freed slaves would start a rebellion. Deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms , ranches , or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface

SECTION 50

#1732765510537

4160-402: The implication of increased greenhouse gas emissions by burning agriculture methodologies and land-use change . A large contributing factor to deforestation is the lumber industry . A total of almost 4 million hectares (9.9 million acres) of timber, or about 1.3% of all forest land, is harvested each year. In addition, the increasing demand for low-cost timber products only supports

4240-403: The importance of these kaya did not diminish, and they were still held as sacred sites. During the precolonial period the Mijikenda people were horticulturalists and pastoralists , And had well established trade with the coastal Swahili peoples. The Hinterland people (The Mijikenda, Pokomo , and Segeju peoples) grew food that the coastal Swahili people depended on. This trade relationship

4320-462: The kin-based patron-client system, and Islam's prohibition of harsh treatment of slaves. This is contrasted by the treatment of the slaves on the nearby islands such as Pemba or Zanzibar where slaves were treated more harshly. As slave ownership declined on the East African coast many of the Ex-slaves moved on to find employment as manual laborers on their former master's plantations and were paid

4400-702: The largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in

4480-445: The local women of the area which relate to the sacredness of these forests. It is the general belief that the forests are inhabited by spirits. Makaya are considered the resting place for the founders of Mijikenda peoples, called Korma or spirits. Some of them believe that cutting a tree with a machete could result in the machete rebounding and causing injury to the leg which could be healed only by offering cloth to village elders in

4560-430: The main driver of deforestation and forest fragmentation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40 percent of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33 percent. Trees are cut down for use as building material, timber or sold as fuel (sometimes in

4640-407: The midden, also known as the dzala , but had to avoid the vikango , or kaya grave posts, by subdividing the area into small 1 x 1 meter squares. Fingo (protective talismans) are buried in the kaya and are cared for by kaya elders who protect the traditions of the Mijikenda. Mijikenda believe that they brought the fingo charms from their ancestral home of Shungwaya , a myth of origin . In

4720-460: The nutrients in the ashes of the burned plants. As well as, intentionally set fires can possibly lead to devastating measures when unintentionally spreading fire to more land, which can result in the destruction of the protective canopy. The repeated cycle of low yields and shortened fallow periods eventually results in less vegetation being able to grow on once burned lands and a decrease in average soil biomass. In small local plots sustainability

4800-450: The objective of generating income for the local people and encouraging ecotourism to help preserve the sacredness of the forests. Eleven Mijikenda makaya were grouped together and inscribed as the Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests, a World Heritage Site, in 2008 under criteria (iii), (v), and (vi). The conservation of the makaya has been a difficult task for the modern day Mijikenda community and other locals, due to environmental threats and

4880-640: The oral tradition states that the Digo were the first to leave Singwaya and thus are accepted as the other groups as senior, then the Ribe left, followed by the Giriama, the Chonyi, and the Jibana. The kayas were the first homesteads of the Mijikenda peoples after their exodus from Singwaya. Oral tradition states that it was the Digo who were the first to migrate southward and establish the first kaya . The period after

SECTION 60

#1732765510537

4960-566: The original 16 million square kilometres (6 million square miles) of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the Earth. More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018. The global annual net loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 10 billion. According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 the global average annual deforested land in the 2015–2020 demi-decade

5040-407: The original six kaya . At the turn of the 17th century the Mijikenda settled six fortified hilltop kaya , where they made their homesteads. These original six kaya were later expanded into nine kaya . The origin legend serves as a narrative of a real migration that happened at a specific point in time to a real place, but also serves as a narrative of a mythical migration that took place through

5120-418: The other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated. From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO . During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline

5200-410: The planet had 15 to 16 million km (5.8 to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature tropical forests , but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed. Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14% to 6%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests

5280-408: The present day, many fingo are lost or stolen, considered to be objet d'art . A kaya has a specific layout that is pretty generalizable according to scholars who study them. They are usually surrounded by a dense forest and have two pathways on either side leading to several wooden gates fortified with stone. The number of gates on these pathways varies from kaya to kaya. The fingo is displayed at

5360-492: The rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years. Brazil has lost 90–95% of its Mata Atlântica forest. Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year. However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019. Brazil is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency. Paraguay was losing its natural semi-humid forests in

5440-472: The rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing. On

5520-476: The region in which they take place. The regions with the greatest amount of deforestation for livestock and row crop agriculture are Central and South America, while commodity crop deforestation was found mainly in Southeast Asia. The region with the greatest forest loss due to shifting agriculture was sub-Saharan Africa. The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming

5600-462: The same places they currently reside. One possible explanation for this is that the Mijikenda peoples adopted the Singwaya narrative in order to create an ethnic identity that allowed them to create a relationship to the Swahili who also claimed Singwaya origins. Oral tradition also states that the Mijikenda peoples split into six separate peoples during this southern migration after they were driven out of Singwaya. These six groups would go on to settle

5680-522: The size of India—by 2050. 36% of globally planted forest area is in East Asia – around 950,000 square kilometers. From those 87% are in China. Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90% of West Africa 's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. Madagascar has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests. In South Asia , about 88% of the rainforests have been lost. Mexico , India ,

5760-610: The somewhat constricted, eastern ridge-forest environments of the coast because of the presence of two river systems, the Rare and the Galana rivers, as well as fertile land for pastoralism and agriculture. But the ten initial makaya could also be concentrate in these areas largely due to the security it provided from the surrounding outsider settlements of the Swahili, the Waata, the Kwavi, and

5840-552: The south to the border near Somalia in the north. Archaeologist Chapuruka Kusimba contends that the Mijikenda formerly resided in coastal cities, but later settled in Kenya's hinterlands to avoid submission to dominant Portuguese forces that were then in control. Historically, these Mijikenda ethnic groups have been called the Nyika or Nika by outsiders. It is a derogatory term meaning "bush people." The nine Ethnic groups that make up

5920-467: The top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% or more of their original habitat , and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world). As of 2015 , it is estimated that 70% of the world's forests are within one kilometer of a forest edge, where they are most prone to human interference and destruction. Deforestation in particular countries: Agricultural expansion continues to be

6000-473: The world were cut down. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity . Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests . As a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres (2.4 million square miles) remain of

6080-576: The world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation are increasing the area of forested lands. The amount of forest has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forestation will increase by 10%—an area

6160-456: Was 10 million hectares and the average annual forest area net loss in the 2000–2010 decade was 4.7 million hectares. The world has lost 178 million ha of forest since 1990, which is an area about the size of Libya. An analysis of global deforestation patterns in 2021 showed that patterns of trade, production, and consumption drive deforestation rates in complex ways. While the location of deforestation can be mapped, it does not always match where

6240-461: Was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase. An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015. Africa had

6320-775: Was based on economic, military, and political alliances. The Mijikenda peoples even participated in Mombasa politics. However, during the colonial period under the British power was given to the Coastal Swahili peoples and the Arab peoples of the area. The Coastal strip of land near the Hinterlands was recognized as belonging to the Sultan of Oman, subsequently the Mijikenda people could only go there as squatters and were in danger of expulsion at any time. The colonial power over

6400-445: Was considered inauthentic. Archaeological studies such as that of Henry Mutoro's, published in 1987, have taken place at the makaya. Mutoro surveyed and excavated eight different makaya, including the Singwaya, Bate, Kambe, Mudzi Mwiru, Mudzi Mpya, Bomu, Fungo, and Dagamra. For each of these kaya, Mutoro and his team embarked using a closed traverse method in order to map its boundaries and several tools such as ranging poles, an alidade,

#536463