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61-470: The movement promoted self-help and collaboration among the people during its first phase, as the central government provided a fixed amount of raw materials to each of the participating villages free of charge and entrusted the locals to build whatever they wished with them. The government first selected 33,267 villages and provided 335 sacks of cement. 16,600 villages that demonstrated success were then granted additional resources of 500 sacks of cement and

122-492: A 2.48-billion dollars-a-year industry" in the United States alone. By 2006, research firm Marketdata estimated the "self-improvement" market in the U.S. as worth more than US$ 9 billion—including infomercials , mail-order catalogs , holistic institutes, books, audio cassettes , motivation-speaker seminars, the personal coaching market, and weight-loss and stress-management programs. Market data projected that

183-600: A cognitive bias, typically seen as a hindrance, can enhance collective decision-making by encouraging a wider exploration of possibilities. Because they cause systematic errors , cognitive biases cannot be compensated for using a wisdom of the crowd technique of averaging answers from several people. Debiasing is the reduction of biases in judgment and decision-making through incentives, nudges, and training. Cognitive bias mitigation and cognitive bias modification are forms of debiasing specifically applicable to cognitive biases and their effects. Reference class forecasting

244-407: A factor of just 1.6, while social isolation does so by a factor of 2.0... suggest[ing] an added value to self-help groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous as surrogate communities." Some psychologists advocate for positive psychology , and explicitly embrace an empirical self-help philosophy. "[T]he role of positive psychology is to become a bridge between the ivory tower and the main street—between

305-437: A feminist (e.g., she is said to be concerned about discrimination and social justice issues). They were then asked whether they thought Linda was more likely to be (a) a "bank teller" or (b) a "bank teller and active in the feminist movement." A majority chose answer (b). Independent of the information given about Linda, though, the more restrictive answer (b) is under any circumstance statistically less likely than answer (a). This

366-841: A great brain?... The design industry is something done to us. I'm proposing we each become designers. But I suppose 'I love the way she thinks' could take on new meaning." Both self-talk—the propensity to engage in verbal or mental self-directed conversation and thought—and social support can be used as instruments of self-improvement, often via empowering action-promoting messages. Psychologists designed experiments to shed light on how self-talk can result in self-improvement. Research has shown that people prefer second-person pronouns over first-person pronouns when engaging in self-talk to achieve goals, regulate their behavior, thoughts, or emotions, and facilitate performance. Self-talk also plays an important role in regulating emotions under social stress . People who use non-first-person language tend to exhibit

427-531: A higher level of visual distance during the process of introspection, indicating that using non-first-person pronouns and one's own name may result in enhanced self-distancing. This form of self-help can enhance people's ability to regulate their thoughts, feelings, and behavior under social stress, which would lead them to appraise social-anxiety-provoking events in more challenging and less threatening terms. Scholars have targeted many self-help claims as misleading and incorrect. In 2005, Steve Salerno portrayed

488-849: A person would eat. They found that the participants who ate more of the unhealthy snack food, tended to have less inhibitory control and more reliance on approach bias. Others have also hypothesized that cognitive biases could be linked to various eating disorders and how people view their bodies and their body image. It has also been argued that cognitive biases can be used in destructive ways. Some believe that there are people in authority who use cognitive biases and heuristics in order to manipulate others so that they can reach their end goals. Some medications and other health care treatments rely on cognitive biases in order to persuade others who are susceptible to cognitive biases to use their products. Many see this as taking advantage of one's natural struggle of judgement and decision-making. They also believe that it

549-463: A profession and a science". Its practitioners thus function as "part of the personal service industry rather than as mental health professionals." While "there is no proof that twelve-step programs 'are superior to any other intervention in reducing alcohol dependence or alcohol-related problems'," at the same time it is clear that "there is something about 'groupishness' itself which is curative." Thus for example "smoking increases mortality risk by

610-407: A secular cognate of Biblical wisdom literature. Proverbs from many periods, collected and uncollected, embody traditional moral and practical advice of diverse cultures. The hyphenated compound word "self-help" often appeared in the 1800s in a legal context, referring to the doctrine that a party in a dispute has the right to use lawful means on their initiative to remedy a wrong. Some consider

671-414: A self-esteem tape (even though half the labels were wrong), they felt that their self-esteem had gone up. No wonder people keep buying subliminal tapes: even though the tapes don't work, people think they do." Much of the self-help industry may be thought of as part of the "skin trades. People need haircuts, massage, dentistry, wigs and glasses, sociology and surgery, love and advice." —a skin trade, "not

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732-556: A self-help book is to write one". Gerald Rosen raised concerns that psychologists were promoting untested self-help books with exaggerated claims rather than conducting studies that could advance the effectiveness of these programs to help the public. Rosen noted the potential benefits of self-help but cautioned that good intentions were not sufficient to assure the efficacy and safety of self-administered instructional programs. Rosen and colleagues observed that many psychologists promote untested self-help programs rather than contributing to

793-530: A substantial psychological basis . When engaged in self-help, people often use publicly available information, or support groups —on the Internet as well as in person—in which people in similar situations work together. From early examples in pro se legal practice and home-spun advice, the connotations of the word have spread and often apply particularly to education , business , exercise , psychology , and psychotherapy , as commonly distributed through

854-417: A ton of iron bars. The New Community Movement did much to improve infrastructure in rural South Korea , bringing modernized facilities such as irrigation systems , bridges and roads in rural communities. The program also marked the widespread appearance of orange tiled houses throughout the countryside, replacing the traditional thatched or choga-jip houses. Encouraged by the success in rural areas,

915-594: Is a growing area of evidence-based psychological therapy, in which cognitive processes are modified to relieve suffering from serious depression , anxiety , and addiction. CBMT techniques are technology-assisted therapies that are delivered via a computer with or without clinician support. CBM combines evidence and theory from the cognitive model of anxiety, cognitive neuroscience, and attentional models. Cognitive bias modification has also been used to help those with obsessive-compulsive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive disorder. This therapy has shown that it decreases

976-481: Is a method for systematically debiasing estimates and decisions, based on what Daniel Kahneman has dubbed the outside view . Similar to Gigerenzer (1996), Haselton et al. (2005) state the content and direction of cognitive biases are not "arbitrary" (p. 730). Moreover, cognitive biases can be controlled. One debiasing technique aims to decrease biases by encouraging individuals to use controlled processing compared to automatic processing. In relation to reducing

1037-631: Is an example of the " conjunction fallacy ". Tversky and Kahneman argued that respondents chose (b) because it seemed more "representative" or typical of persons who might fit the description of Linda. The representativeness heuristic may lead to errors such as activating stereotypes and inaccurate judgments of others (Haselton et al., 2005, p. 726). Critics of Kahneman and Tversky, such as Gerd Gigerenzer , alternatively argued that heuristics should not lead us to conceive of human thinking as riddled with irrational cognitive biases. They should rather conceive rationality as an adaptive tool, not identical to

1098-490: Is another individual difference that has an effect on one's ability to be susceptible to cognitive bias. Older individuals tend to be more susceptible to cognitive biases and have less cognitive flexibility . However, older individuals were able to decrease their susceptibility to cognitive biases throughout ongoing trials. These experiments had both young and older adults complete a framing task. Younger adults had more cognitive flexibility than older adults. Cognitive flexibility

1159-495: Is linked to helping overcome pre-existing biases. The list of cognitive biases has long been a topic of critique. In psychology a "rationality war" unfolded between Gerd Gigerenzer and the Kahneman and Tversky school, which pivoted on whether biases are primarily defects of human cognition or the result of behavioural patterns that are actually adaptive or " ecologically rational " . Gerd Gigerenzer has historically been one of

1220-422: Is literally what he thinks, his character being the complete sum of all his thoughts." Noble thoughts, the book maintains, make for a noble person, while lowly thoughts make for a miserable person. Napoleon Hill 's Think and Grow Rich (1937) described the use of repeated positive thoughts to attract happiness and wealth by tapping into an " Infinite Intelligence". In 1936, Dale Carnegie further developed

1281-721: Is more valuable than accuracy, as illustrated in heuristics . Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations, resulting from a lack of appropriate mental mechanisms ( bounded rationality ), the impact of an individual's constitution and biological state (see embodied cognition ), or simply from a limited capacity for information processing. Research suggests that cognitive biases can make individuals more inclined to endorsing pseudoscientific beliefs by requiring less evidence for claims that confirm their preconceptions. This can potentially distort their perceptions and lead to inaccurate judgments. A continually evolving list of cognitive biases has been identified over

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1342-439: Is the government's responsibility to regulate these misleading ads. Cognitive biases also seem to play a role in property sale price and value. Participants in the experiment were shown a residential property. Afterwards, they were shown another property that was completely unrelated to the first property. They were asked to say what they believed the value and the sale price of the second property would be. They found that showing

1403-557: The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) developed by Shane Frederick (2005). The following is a list of the more commonly studied cognitive biases: Many social institutions rely on individuals to make rational judgments. The securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. A fair jury trial , for example, requires that

1464-627: The FAE , monetary incentives and informing participants they will be held accountable for their attributions have been linked to the increase of accurate attributions. Training has also shown to reduce cognitive bias. Carey K. Morewedge and colleagues (2015) found that research participants exposed to one-shot training interventions, such as educational videos and debiasing games that taught mitigating strategies, exhibited significant reductions in their commission of six cognitive biases immediately and up to 3 months later. Cognitive bias modification refers to

1525-536: The Saemaul Undong period. Old zelkova trees that had stood at village entrances and have traditionally served as guardian figures were cut down in order to erase "superstition". Practitioners of Korean shamanism were harassed, essentially destroying centuries old Korean traditions. In addition, Saemaul Undong meetings were often used to identify political dissidents and reinforce dedication to Park's military regime. Under The Presidential Trust Commission, it

1586-449: The objective input, may dictate their behavior in the world. Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, and irrationality . While cognitive biases may initially appear to be negative, some are adaptive. They may lead to more effective actions in a given context. Furthermore, allowing cognitive biases enables faster decisions which can be desirable when timeliness

1647-446: The 1970s and early 1980s, but it became less effective after South Korea entered into a more developed and industrialized stage, which diminished the momentum of the movement. The relatively low income levels in rural areas compared to urban areas became a major political issue in the late 1980s – one that no government intervention was able to fully solve during the first phase – and the movement proved ultimately inadequate in addressing

1708-527: The American self-help movement—he uses the acronym SHAM: the Self-Help and Actualization Movement —not only as ineffective in achieving its goals but also as socially harmful. "Salerno says that 80 percent of self-help and motivational customers are repeat customers and they keep coming back whether the program worked for them or not." Another critic pointed out that with self-help books "supply increases

1769-519: The Cognitive Reflection Test to understand ability. However, there does seem to be a correlation; those who gain a higher score on the Cognitive Reflection Test, have higher cognitive ability and rational-thinking skills. This in turn helps predict the performance on cognitive bias and heuristic tests. Those with higher CRT scores tend to be able to answer more correctly on different heuristic and cognitive bias tests and tasks. Age

1830-571: The Project Step 5: Feedback at National Level During the late 1960s and 1970s when the policy started being implemented under the regime of President Park, local traditions and beliefs were suppressed, akin to the Cultural Revolution in communist China which happened at the same time. The movement Misin tapa undong ("to defeat the worship of gods"), also described as "movement to destroy superstition") reached its peak during

1891-726: The Saemaul Movement has entered into the second phase, focusing on new issues such as enhancing voluntary services in the community and international cooperation with developing countries . Many developing countries in Africa are paying attention to the implications of the Saemaul Undong. Through the program such as Yonsei-KOICA Master's Degree Program , the Korean government is helping officials working in developing countries to design and implement new policies and programs in

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1952-739: The brain perceives, forms memories and makes judgments. This distinction is sometimes described as " hot cognition " versus "cold cognition", as motivated reasoning can involve a state of arousal . Among the "cold" biases, As some biases reflect motivation specifically the motivation to have positive attitudes to oneself. It accounts for the fact that many biases are self-motivated or self-directed (e.g., illusion of asymmetric insight , self-serving bias ). There are also biases in how subjects evaluate in-groups or out-groups; evaluating in-groups as more diverse and "better" in many respects, even when those groups are arbitrarily defined ( ingroup bias , outgroup homogeneity bias ). Some cognitive biases belong to

2013-453: The brain to compute but sometimes introduce "severe and systematic errors." For example, the representativeness heuristic is defined as "The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood" of an occurrence by the extent of which the event "resembles the typical case." The "Linda Problem" illustrates the representativeness heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1983 ). Participants were given a description of "Linda" that suggests Linda might well be

2074-656: The context of national development policies. A 2022 study attributed the initiative with shoring up support for Park Chung Hee 's authoritarian regime. The initiative had persistent effects, leading to greater support for the dictator's daughter when she was democratically elected in 2012. The Korea Saemaul Undong Center explains how Saemaul Undong was practiced in the 1970s in South Korea in five steps: Step 1. Basic Arrangements Step 2: Operation of Projects Step 3: Main Stage of Project Operation Step 4: Final Stage of

2135-440: The demand… The more people read them, the more they think they need them… more like an addiction than an alliance." Self-help writers have been described as working "in the area of the ideological, the imagined, the narrativized… although a veneer of scientism permeates the[ir] work, there is also an underlying armature of moralizing." Christopher Buckley in his book God Is My Broker asserts: "The only way to get rich from

2196-506: The extent to which they exhibited susceptibility to six cognitive biases: anchoring , bias blind spot, confirmation bias , fundamental attribution error , projection bias , and representativeness . Individual differences in cognitive bias have also been linked to varying levels of cognitive abilities and functions. The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) has been used to help understand the connection between cognitive biases and cognitive ability. There have been inconclusive results when using

2257-491: The first explicitly "self-help" book, titled Self-Help , in 1859. Its opening sentence: "Heaven helps those who help themselves", provides a variation of "God helps them that help themselves", the oft-quoted maxim that had also appeared previously in Benjamin Franklin 's Poor Richard's Almanack (1733–1758). In 1902, James Allen published As a Man Thinketh , which proceeds from the conviction that "a man

2318-615: The genre with How to Win Friends and Influence People . Having failed in several careers, Carnegie became fascinated with success and its link to self-confidence , and his books have since sold over 50 million copies. Group and corporate attempts to help people help themselves have created a self-help marketplace, with Large Group Awareness Trainings (LGATs) and psychotherapy systems represented. These offer more-or-less prepackaged solutions to instruct people seeking their betterment, just as "the literature of self-improvement directs

2379-430: The greater orders of magnitude . Tversky, Kahneman, and colleagues demonstrated several replicable ways in which human judgments and decisions differ from rational choice theory . Tversky and Kahneman explained human differences in judgment and decision-making in terms of heuristics. Heuristics involve mental shortcuts which provide swift estimates about the possibility of uncertain occurrences. Heuristics are simple for

2440-438: The jury ignore irrelevant features of the case, weigh the relevant features appropriately, consider different possibilities open-mindedly and resist fallacies such as appeal to emotion . The various biases demonstrated in these psychological experiments suggest that people will frequently fail to do all these things. However, they fail to do so in systematic, directional ways that are predictable. In some academic disciplines,

2501-472: The larger problem of migration from the villages to the cities by the country's younger demographic. Moreover, the government-led centralized system caused corruption , such as misuse of funding, and changed South Korea's environment. Recognizing these problems, the South Korean government changed the centralized structure of the movement by empowering civil society to lead the movement. Since 1998,

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2562-482: The last six decades of research on human judgment and decision-making in cognitive science , social psychology , and behavioral economics . The study of cognitive biases has practical implications for areas including clinical judgment, entrepreneurship, finance, and management. The notion of cognitive biases was introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972 and grew out of their experience of people's innumeracy , or inability to reason intuitively with

2623-410: The main opponents to cognitive biases and heuristics. Gigerenzer believes that cognitive biases are not biases, but rules of thumb , or as he would put it " gut feelings " that can actually help us make accurate decisions in our lives. This debate has recently reignited, with critiques arguing there has been an overemphasis on biases in human cognition. A key criticism is the continuous expansion of

2684-600: The meaningful advancement of self-help. Kathryn Schulz suggests that "the underlying theory of the self-help industry is contradicted by the self-help industry’s existence". The self-help world has become the target of parodies . Walker Percy 's odd genre-busting Lost in the Cosmos has been described as "a parody of self-help books, a philosophy textbook, and a collection of short stories, quizzes, diagrams, thought experiments, mathematical formulas, made-up dialogue". Al Franken 's self-help guru persona Stuart Smalley

2745-495: The movement spread through factories and urban areas as well, and became a nationwide modernization movement. However, despite the Saemaul Movement's great success in reducing poverty and improving living conditions in rural areas during its first phase, income levels in urban areas were still higher than income levels in rural areas after the rapid industrialization of South Korea. The government-led movement with its highly centralized organization proved to be efficient in

2806-527: The notion of eudaimonia —of well-being, welfare, flourishing." The Discourses of Epictetus can be read as a sort of early self-help advice column, and the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius as the journal of someone engaged on a deliberate self-help program. The genre of mirror-of-princes writing , which has a long history in Greco-Roman and Western Renaissance literature, represents

2867-566: The obsessive-compulsive beliefs and behaviors. Bias arises from various processes that are sometimes difficult to distinguish. These include: People do appear to have stable individual differences in their susceptibility to decision biases such as overconfidence , temporal discounting , and bias blind spot . That said, these stable levels of bias within individuals are possible to change. Participants in experiments who watched training videos and played debiasing games showed medium to large reductions both immediately and up to three months later in

2928-417: The participants an unrelated property did have an effect on how they valued the second property. Cognitive biases can be used in non-destructive ways. In team science and collective problem-solving, the superiority bias can be beneficial. It leads to a diversity of solutions within a group, especially in complex problems, by preventing premature consensus on suboptimal solutions. This example demonstrates how

2989-454: The point that the protagonist, Snowman, is instructed to write his thesis on self-help books as literature; more revealing of the authors and of the society that produced them than genuinely helpful. Cognitive bias A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Individuals create their own "subjective reality" from their perception of the input. An individual's construction of reality, not

3050-1327: The popular genre of self-help books . According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology , potential benefits of self-help groups that professionals may not be able to provide include friendship, emotional support, experiential knowledge , identity , meaningful roles, and a sense of belonging. Many different self-help group programs exist, each with its own focus, techniques, associated beliefs, proponents, and in some cases leaders . Concepts and terms originating in self-help culture and Twelve-Step culture, such as recovery , dysfunctional families , and codependency have become integrated into mainstream language. Self-help groups associated with health conditions may consist of patients and caregivers . As well as featuring long-time members sharing experiences , these health groups can become support groups and clearinghouses for educational material. Those who help themselves by learning and identifying health problems can be said to exemplify self-help, while self-help groups can be seen more as peer-to-peer or mutual-support groups. In classical antiquity , Hesiod 's Works and Days "opens with moral remonstrances, hammered home in every way that Hesiod can think of." The Stoics offered ethical advice "on

3111-588: The process of modifying cognitive biases in healthy people and also refers to a growing area of psychological (non-pharmaceutical) therapies for anxiety, depression and addiction called cognitive bias modification therapy (CBMT). CBMT is sub-group of therapies within a growing area of psychological therapies based on modifying cognitive processes with or without accompanying medication and talk therapy, sometimes referred to as applied cognitive processing therapies (ACPT). Although cognitive bias modification can refer to modifying cognitive processes in healthy individuals, CBMT

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3172-537: The reader to familiar frameworks... what the French fin de siècle social theorist Gabriel Tarde called 'the grooves of borrowed thought'." A subgenre of self-help book series exists, such as the for Dummies guides and The Complete Idiot's Guide to... , that are varieties of how-to books . At the start of the 21st century, "the self-improvement industry, inclusive of books, seminars, audio and video products, and personal coaching, [was] said to constitute

3233-689: The rigor of academe and the fun of the self-help movement." They aim to refine the self-improvement field by intentionally increasing scientifically sound research and well-engineered models. The division of focus and methodologies has produced several sub-fields, in particular: general positive psychology, focusing primarily on studying psychological phenomenon and effects; and personal effectiveness , focusing primarily on analysis, design, and implementation of qualitative personal growth. The latter of these includes intentionally training new patterns of thought and feeling. As business strategy communicator Don Tapscott puts it, "Why not courses that emphasize designing

3294-412: The rules of formal logic or the probability calculus . Nevertheless, experiments such as the "Linda problem" grew into heuristics and biases research programs, which spread beyond academic psychology into other disciplines including medicine and political science . Biases can be distinguished on a number of dimensions. Examples of cognitive biases include - Other biases are due to the particular way

3355-520: The self-help movement to have been inaugurated by George Combe 's Constitution (1828), from the way that it advocated personal responsibility and the possibility of naturally sanctioned self-improvement through education or proper self-control. In 1841, an essay by Ralph Waldo Emerson , entitled Compensation , was published suggesting "every man in his lifetime needs to thank his faults" and "acquire habits of self-help " as "our strength grows out of our weakness." Samuel Smiles (1812–1904) published

3416-463: The self-help role of her books" to maintain her academic credibility, aware of the danger that "writing a book that becomes a popular success...all but ensures that one's work will lose its long-term legitimacy." Placebo effects can never be wholly discounted. Careful studies of "the power of subliminal self-help tapes... showed that their content had no real effect... But that's not what the participants thought." "If they thought they'd listened to

3477-418: The study of bias is very popular. For instance, bias is a wide spread and well studied phenomenon because most decisions that concern the minds and hearts of entrepreneurs are computationally intractable. Cognitive biases can create other issues that arise in everyday life. One study showed the connection between cognitive bias, specifically approach bias, and inhibitory control on how much unhealthy snack food

3538-460: The subgroup of attentional biases , which refers to paying increased attention to certain stimuli. It has been shown, for example, that people addicted to alcohol and other drugs pay more attention to drug-related stimuli. Common psychological tests to measure those biases are the Stroop task and the dot probe task . Individuals' susceptibility to some types of cognitive biases can be measured by

3599-762: The total market size would grow to over US$ 11 billion by 2008. In 2013 Kathryn Schulz examined "an $ 11 billion industry". Self-help and mutual-help are very different from—though they may complement—aid by professionals. Conflicts can and do arise on that interface, however, with some professionals considering that, for example, "the twelve-step approach encourages a kind of contemporary version of 19th-century amateurism or enthusiasm in which self-examination and very general social observations are enough to draw rather large conclusions." The rise of self-help culture led to boundary disputes with other approaches and disciplines. Some would object to their classification as "self-help" literature, as with " Deborah Tannen 's denial of

3660-685: Was a ridiculous recurring feature on Saturday Night Live in the early 1990s. In their 2006 book Secrets of The SuperOptimist , authors W.R. Morton and Nathaniel Whitten revealed the concept of "super optimism" as a humorous antidote to the overblown self-help book category. In his comedy special Complaints and Grievances (2001), George Carlin observes that there is "no such thing" as self-help: anyone looking for help from someone else does not technically get "self" help; and one who accomplishes something without help did not need help to begin with. In Margaret Atwood 's semi-satiric dystopia Oryx and Crake , university literary studies have declined to

3721-415: Was found that 334 individuals were killed, 1,744 were killed, and 7,328 people were falsely incarcerated largely due to expressing anti-government beliefs in connection to Saemaul Udong. Self-help Self-help or self-improvement is "a focus on self-guided, in contrast to professionally guided, efforts to cope with life problems" —economically, physically, intellectually, or emotionally—often with

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