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39-641: The Sahelian empires were a series of centralized kingdoms or empires that were centered on the Sahel , the area of grasslands south of the Sahara , from the 8th century to the 19th. The wealth of the states came from controlling the trade routes across the desert. Their power came from having large pack animals like camels and horses that were fast enough to keep a large empire under central control and were also useful in such kind of battle. All of these empires were also quite decentralized with member cities having

78-518: A 2018 study, his rule "rested on repression, patronage, and a bizarre leadership cult." Usually Eyadéma is said to have been born on 26 December 1935 in the northern quartiers of Pya, a village in the prefecture of Kozah in the Kara Region , to a peasant family of the Kabye ethnic group. But this date has been disputed. According to Comi M. Toulabor, Eyadéma's official date of birth is "based on

117-508: A bronze statue in the capital city, Lomé ; wristwatches with his portrait, which disappeared and re-appeared every fifteen seconds; and a comic book that depicted him as a superhero with powers of invulnerability and super strength . In addition, the date of a failed attempt on President Eyadéma's life was annually commemorated as "the Feast of Victory Over Forces of Evil." Eyadéma even changed his first name from Étienne to Gnassingbé to note

156-544: A ceremonial president. Although Eyadéma attempted to suspend the conference, surrounding the venue with soldiers, he subsequently accepted the outcome. Despite this, Eyadéma managed to remain in power with the backing of the army. In March 1993, an unsuccessful attack was made on the Tokoin military camp, where Eyadéma was living; several people were killed in the attack, including Eyadéma's personal chief of staff, General Mawulikplimi Ameji. He attempted to legitimize his rule with

195-476: A dialogue between the state and the opposition. The team was supposed to meet with many politicians from other parties than Eyadéma's party, Rally of the Togolese People. But because of the criteria imposed by the government, politicians such as Gilchrist Olympio , Yawovi Agboyibo , and Professor Leopold Gnininvi boycotted the meeting. The European Union team cancelled the meeting since discussions with

234-650: A fertile imagination" and it would be more accurate to say that he was born around 1930. His mother was later known as Maman N'Danida, or Maman N'Danidaha. In 1953, Eyadéma joined the French Army after completing primary school. He participated in the French Indochina War and the Algerian War . Following nearly 10 years in the French army, Eyadéma returned to Togo in 1962. He was a leader in

273-776: A great deal of autonomy. The Sahel states were limited from expanding south into the forest zone of the Bono and Yoruba as mounted warriors were all but useless in the forests and the horses and camels could not survive the diseases of the region. There were integrated kingdoms and empires, with substantial cities and significant towns; and less organised territories with large scattered populations. People practised agriculture, stock-rearing, hunting, fishing, and crafts (metalworking, textiles, ceramics). They navigated along rivers and across lakes, traded over short and long distances, and used their own currencies. African empires There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of

312-685: A multiparty presidential election in August 1993 , which was boycotted by the opposition; facing only two minor challengers, he won 96.42% of the vote, although turnout was reportedly low outside of his native Kara Region. Eyadéma officially won re-election in the June 1998 presidential election , defeating Gilchrist Olympio of the Union of the Forces of Change (UFC) with 52.13% of the vote according to official results, amid allegations of fraud and accusations of

351-502: Is a wealth of oral traditions referring to the modern period that offer important and often crucial information for modern historians. There were high levels of scepticism regarding oral histories among historians of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries leading to their obscurity, and whilst valid criticisms remain about their limitations, modern attitudes towards oral traditions as historical sources continue to improve. Increased trade with Europe and an influx of Catholic missions from

390-613: The 1963 Togolese coup d'état against President Sylvanus Olympio , who was assassinated during the attack; it has often been stated that Eyadéma himself committed the murder. On this occasion he helped establish Nicolas Grunitzky as the nation's new president. Four years on, Eyadéma, having fallen out with Grunitzky, led a second military coup against the latter. This time there was no bloodshed (the deposed Grunitzky managed to escape to exile in Paris) and Eyadéma installed himself as president on 14 April 1967, in addition to awarding himself

429-475: The Great Lakes region that existed from around the 10th century to 15th century CE. Following the spread of Islam to Africa in the 7th century CE, there were many more written histories, most notably from Ibn Khaldun , but also from al–Masudi , al–Bakri , al–Idrisi , Yaqut , Abulfeda , al–Umari , and Ibn Battuta . Ge'ez literature also began covering history from the 14th to 16th century. There

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468-545: The Muslim world , however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are. Outside of North Africa , most of African political history relating to this time period has been pieced together through archaeological discoveries . There is very little written information about Sub–Saharan Africa at this time, besides that from outsiders such as " Periplus of the Erythraean Sea " , dated to

507-531: The Rally of the Togolese People as the country's sole legal party. He won an uncontested election in 1972. In 1979, the country adopted a new constitution that returned the country (at least nominally) to civilian rule. The RPT was entrenched as the only party; the president of the party was automatically nominated for a seven-year term as president upon election to the party presidency and confirmed in office via an unopposed referendum. Under these provisions, Eyadéma

546-516: The colonial period has been preserved orally, passed down from generation to generation, and served a different function to the academic discipline of history . Perhaps the most famous examples of this is the Griots of West Africa , such as Balla Fasséké in the Mali Empire , who held largely hereditary positions. One of their roles was to study and memorise their people's history and serve in

585-478: The 16th century onwards produced more written information which supplemented the Arabic literature , however African historiography as we view it today didn't take off until the 19th century under increased European interest in the region. These histories have been invaluable to modern historians, however they were often written from the colonial perspective under the pretence of Western superiority , occasionally for

624-542: The 1st century CE, and the accounts of Claudius Ptolemy , dated to the 2nd century CE, both illuminating the East African coast . The delicate threads of oral tradition generally do not go back this far. Sub–Saharan African societies have broadly been labelled " oral civilisations ", contrasted with " literate civilisations ", due to the emphasis placed on oral tradition and the important place it has in their cultures . As such, most of African history predating

663-627: The Togolese army, pronounced Eyadéma's son Faure Gnassingbé as the new president of Togo. Alpha Oumar Konaré , president of the Commission of the African Union, immediately declared this act to be a military coup d'état and against the constitution. ECOWAS also did not approve the designation of Faure Gnassingbé as president. Under heavy pressure from ECOWAS and the international community, Faure Gnassingbé stepped down on 25 February and

702-470: The colonial authorities. Some kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies . The roles, powers, and influence of non–sovereign monarchs throughout Africa vary greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola , the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region. They are often regarded as custodians of tradition and culture, and in some cases, play an important role in local religious activities. On

741-449: The continent of Africa throughout history, despite popular understanding often being that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. Whether rooted in ignorance, Eurocentrism , or racism , famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures . In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across

780-679: The continent, from the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes , to the sacral Congolese empires akin to confederations or commonwealths , and expansive West Sudanic empires . The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution , almost all of the continent came under the control of European powers. Traditional power structures were often utilised by

819-404: The date of the 24 January 1974 plane crash of which he was claimed to be the only survivor. In reality, he was not the sole survivor of the crash. There were other survivors, but he deliberately misrepresented the details of the accident to make himself look like a hero with superhuman strength who miraculously survived the disaster when everyone else was killed. Eyadéma claimed that the crash

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858-501: The early 1990s, when reforms leading to multiparty elections began. Although his rule was seriously challenged by the events of the early 1990s, he ultimately consolidated power again and won multiparty presidential elections in 1993, 1998 and 2003; the opposition boycotted the 1993 election and denounced the 1998 and 2003 election results as fraudulent. At the time of his death, Eyadéma was the longest-serving ruler in Africa. According to

897-570: The flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad , or had their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962, and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda , which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM). There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa ; two of which ( Lesotho and Morocco ) are constitutional monarchies where

936-716: The government were almost impossible. The opposition party UFC wanted the release of 11 men held by the government. Finally, the European Union experts met each political figure individually and in private. The respect of human rights and of the press in Togo were to be investigated by the European Union experts. According to BBC News, Eyadéma claimed that democracy in Africa "moves along at its own pace and in its own way." Eyadéma had an extensive personality cult , including an entourage of 1,000 dancing women who sang and danced in praise of him; portraits which adorned most stores;

975-472: The king's court as an advisor, to represent the past, and to identify lessons. Whilst many oral traditions refer to this particular time period, they often take a mythological and parabolic form, and are over time condensed until eventually crystallising into a cliché, limiting but not eradicating their usefulness to modern historians, as displayed in the oral traditions about the Empire of Kitara , an empire in

1014-463: The king's place and power, particularly in the nucleus, whilst refers to the relationship between king and administration. A list of known kingdoms and empires on the African continent that we have record of. Gnassingb%C3%A9 Eyad%C3%A9ma Gnassingbé Eyadéma ( French pronunciation: [ɲasɛ̃ɡbe ɛjadema] ; born Étienne Eyadéma Gnassingbé , 26 December 1935 – 5 February 2005)

1053-482: The massacre of hundreds of government opponents. The European Union suspended aid in 1993 in protest of alleged voting irregularities and human rights violations. In late December 2002, the Constitution was changed to remove term limits on the office of president. Previously, presidents had been limited to two five-year terms, and Eyadéma would have therefore been forced to step down after the 2003 election . With

1092-500: The nature of the Islamic version of kingship . For this reason, and in the interest of highlighting differences, classifications for sultanates will only reference the relationship between the sultan and their administration. Classifications not given as examples by Vansina are open to scrutiny ( here ). Ones where two classifications are given and joined by an " and " mean that the kingdom had elements from both present; refers to

1131-646: The post of Defence Minister. He held both offices for almost 38 years. According to Comi M Toulabor (researcher at the Centre d'études d'Afrique noire), Eyadéma "had been a personal friend of the French president, Jacques Chirac . He had remained in power for 38 years thanks to a couple of coups, systematic electoral fraud, the faithful allegiance of an army packed with supporters and members of his Kabye ethnic group, solid foreign support (especially from France), and adroit management of access to Togo's meagre economic resources." Three years after taking power, Eyadéma created

1170-503: The purpose of disseminating colonial narratives . This has provided the fuel for anti–African bias , particularly regarding their history, which still persists in many countries today. Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power: Almost all sultanates embody (R) due to

1209-451: The removal of these limitations, however, Eyadéma was free to stand again and did so, winning the election on 1 June with 57.78% of the vote. He was sworn in for another term on 20 June. Another constitutional change was to reduce the minimum age of the president to 35 years, rather than 45. Eyadéma constructed a large palace near his family home in Pya a few kilometers north of Lama-Kara . He

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1248-491: The rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one ( Eswatini ) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM). There have been a number of autocrats in Africa who invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes , such as the Bongos of Gabon , Gnassingbés of Togo , or Aptidon – Guelleh of Djibouti , generating

1287-447: The same year. Eyadéma was not on board at the time. On 5 February 2005, Eyadéma died on board a plane 250 kilometres (160 mi) south of Tunis , Tunisia . He died "as he was being evacuated for emergency treatment abroad", according to a government statement. Officials have stated that the cause of death was a heart attack . At the time of his death he was the longest-serving head of state in Africa. Zakari Nandja , chief of

1326-669: The term monarchical republic . These have been tentatively included due to their similarities to, and possibly even taking inspiration from, the institution of monarchy and are labelled (MR). Only kingdoms and tribal kingdoms as per Elman Service's classifications that were once independent are included, excluding bands , tribes , and most chiefdoms . Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries. The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of

1365-524: Was a Togolese military officer and politician who was the president of Togo from 1967 until his death in 2005, after which he was immediately succeeded by his son, Faure Gnassingbé . Eyadéma participated in two successful military coups , in January 1963 and January 1967, and became president on 14 April 1967. As president, he created a political party, the Rally of the Togolese People ( RPT ), and headed an anti-communist single-party regime until

1404-469: Was not an accident and was in fact a conspiracy to kill him, plotted by imperialists who did not like his plan (announced two weeks before the crash) to nationalize the important phosphate mining company, the Compagnie Togolaise des Mines du Bénin (CTMB or Cotomib). His C-47 was replaced by a new presidential jet, Gulfstream II , which was again damaged beyond repair in a fatal accident in

1443-482: Was re-elected unopposed in 1979 and 1986. During his rule he escaped several assassination attempts; in 1974 he survived a plane crash in the northern part of the country near Sarakawa. After another unsuccessful assassination attempt by a bodyguard, he carried the bullet removed by the surgeon as an amulet . President of Togo Government A national conference was held in August 1991, electing Joseph Kokou Koffigoh as Prime Minister and leaving Eyadéma as merely

1482-486: Was replaced by Bonfoh Abass , the first deputy parliament speaker, until after the presidential elections on 24 April 2005, when Faure Gnassingbé was elected president with 60% of the vote. Eyadéma's funeral was held on 13 March 2005, in the presence of a number of presidents and other international dignitaries; Presidents Mathieu Kérékou of Benin, John Kufuor of Ghana, Laurent Gbagbo of Ivory Coast, Mamadou Tandja of Niger and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria attended

1521-560: Was the chairman of the Organisation of African Unity from 2000 to 2001, and he attempted, unsuccessfully, to mediate between the government and rebels of Ivory Coast in the First Ivorian Civil War , that began in that country in 2002. The European Union sent a mission on 1 June 2004, to evaluate the state of democracy in Togo and to start a procedure of democratization of Togo. The expedition intended to open

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