Misplaced Pages

#269730

45-749: [REDACTED] Look up said in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Said can refer to: Speech , or the act of speaking Saʽid , a male Arabic given name Said (honorific) , a honorific in Islamic culture Said, Iran (disambiguation) , multiple places in Iran Port Said , a city in Egypt Saïd Business School at the University of Oxford Topics referred to by

90-604: A change in VOT from -10 ( perceived as /b/ ) to 0 ( perceived as /p/ ) than a change in VOT from +10 to +20, or -10 to -20, despite this being an equally large change on the VOT spectrum. Most human children develop proto-speech babbling behaviors when they are four to six months old. Most will begin saying their first words at some point during the first year of life. Typical children progress through two or three word phrases before three years of age followed by short sentences by four years of age. In speech repetition, speech being heard

135-609: A chimps' ability to use sentences, Terrace criticized Project Washoe as well. Drawing on public film clips of Washoe, Terrace questioned Washoe's proported ability to create novel expressions and statements. He and Thomas Sebeok argued that the apparently impressive results may have amounted to nothing more than a " Clever Hans " effect. Washoe's advocates responded by pointing out a number of methodological problems with Terrace's Nim study, issues later documented in Elizabeth Hess's Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human and

180-412: A couch, drawers, a refrigerator, and a bed with sheets and blankets. She had access to clothing, combs, toys, books, and a toothbrush. Much like a human child, she underwent a regular routine with chores, outdoor play, and rides in the family car. Upon seeing a swan, Washoe signed "water" and "bird". Harvard psychologist Roger Brown said that "was like getting an S.O.S. from outer space". When Washoe

225-466: A human language. Several species or groups of animals have developed forms of communication which superficially resemble verbal language, however, these usually are not considered a language because they lack one or more of the defining characteristics , e.g. grammar , syntax , recursion , and displacement . Researchers have been successful in teaching some animals to make gestures similar to sign language , although whether this should be considered

270-584: A humbling effect on many of them. (In this section double quotes are signed by Washoe, single by someone else.) Washoe was moved to Central Washington University in 1980. On October 30, 2007, officials from the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute on the CWU campus announced that she had died at the age of 42. Some believe that the fact that Washoe not only communicated, but also formed close and personal relationships with humans indicates that she

315-504: A language has been disputed. Washoe (chimpanzee) Washoe (c. September 1965 – October 30, 2007) was a female common chimpanzee who was the first non-human to learn to communicate using signs adapted from American Sign Language (ASL) as part of an animal research experiment on animal language acquisition . Washoe learned approximately 350 signs of ASL, also teaching her adopted son Loulis some signs. She spent most of her life at Central Washington University . Washoe

360-455: A larger lexicon later in development. Speech repetition could help facilitate the acquisition of this larger lexicon. There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech. Among these are: Speech and language disorders can also result from stroke, brain injury, hearing loss, developmental delay, a cleft palate, cerebral palsy, or emotional issues. Speech-related diseases, disorders, and conditions can be treated by

405-413: A single item but rather represented three individual signs. Taking the thermos example, rather than METAL CUP DRINK being a composite meaning thermos, it could be that Washoe was indicating there was an item of metal (METAL), one shaped like a cup (CUP), and that could be drunk out of (DRINK). One of Washoe's caretakers was pregnant and missed work for many weeks after she miscarried. Roger Fouts recounts

450-427: A speech-language pathologist (SLP) or speech therapist. SLPs assess levels of speech needs, make diagnoses based on the assessments, and then treat the diagnoses or address the needs. The classical or Wernicke-Geschwind model of the language system in the brain focuses on Broca's area in the inferior prefrontal cortex , and Wernicke's area in the posterior superior temporal gyrus on the dominant hemisphere of

495-745: A word are not individually stored in the lexicon, but produced from affixation to the base form. Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language . Research into speech perception also has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech , as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners. Speech perception

SECTION 10

#1732765847270

540-440: Is categorical , in that people put the sounds they hear into categories rather than perceiving them as a spectrum. People are more likely to be able to hear differences in sounds across categorical boundaries than within them. A good example of this is voice onset time (VOT), one aspect of the phonetic production of consonant sounds. For example, Hebrew speakers, who distinguish voiced /b/ from voiceless /p/, will more easily detect

585-411: Is a complex activity, and as a consequence errors are common, especially in children. Speech errors come in many forms and are used to provide evidence to support hypotheses about the nature of speech. As a result, speech errors are often used in the construction of models for language production and child language acquisition . For example, the fact that children often make the error of over-regularizing

630-468: Is characterized by relatively normal syntax and prosody but severe impairment in lexical access, resulting in poor comprehension and nonsensical or jargon speech . Modern models of the neurological systems behind linguistic comprehension and production recognize the importance of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, but are not limited to them nor solely to the left hemisphere. Instead, multiple streams are involved in speech production and comprehension. Damage to

675-432: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Speech While normally used to facilitate communication with others, people may also use speech without the intent to communicate. Speech may nevertheless express emotions or desires; people talk to themselves sometimes in acts that are a development of what some psychologists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky ) have maintained

720-419: Is generally less affected except in the comprehension of grammatically complex sentences. Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke , who in 1874 proposed a connection between damage to the posterior area of the left superior temporal gyrus and aphasia, as he noted that not all aphasic patients had had damage to the prefrontal cortex. Damage to Wernicke's area produces Wernicke's or receptive aphasia , which

765-450: Is pulmonic, produced with pressure from the lungs , which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx , which is then modified by the vocal tract and mouth into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech , of which there are three types: esophageal speech , pharyngeal speech and buccal speech (better known as Donald Duck talk ). Speech production

810-449: Is quickly turned from sensory input into motor instructions needed for its immediate or delayed vocal imitation (in phonological memory ). This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary. Masur (1995) found that how often children repeat novel words versus those they already have in their lexicon is related to the size of their lexicon later on, with young children who repeat more novel words having

855-421: Is the use of silent speech in an interior monologue to vivify and organize cognition , sometimes in the momentary adoption of a dual persona as self addressing self as though addressing another person. Solo speech can be used to memorize or to test one's memorization of things, and in prayer or in meditation . Researchers study many different aspects of speech: speech production and speech perception of

900-528: The origin of language , the evolution of distinctively human speech capacities has become a distinct and in many ways separate area of scientific research. The topic is a separate one because language is not necessarily spoken: it can equally be written or signed . Speech is in this sense optional, although it is the default modality for language. Monkeys , non-human apes and humans, like many other animals, have evolved specialised mechanisms for producing sound for purposes of social communication. On

945-629: The sounds used in a language, speech repetition , speech errors , the ability to map heard spoken words onto the vocalizations needed to recreate them, which plays a key role in children 's enlargement of their vocabulary , and what different areas of the human brain, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area , underlie speech. Speech is the subject of study for linguistics , cognitive science , communication studies , psychology , computer science , speech pathology , otolaryngology , and acoustics . Speech compares with written language , which may differ in its vocabulary, syntax, and phonetics from

SECTION 20

#1732765847270

990-457: The voiced sounds required for oral language. Their solution was to utilize the chimpanzee's ability to communicate through gesture, which is how they communicate in the wild, by starting a project based on American Sign Language. The Gardners raised Washoe as one would raise a child. She frequently wore clothes and sat with them at the dinner table. Washoe had her own 8-foot-by-24-foot trailer complete with living and cooking areas. The trailer had

1035-565: The -ed past tense suffix in English (e.g. saying 'singed' instead of 'sang') shows that the regular forms are acquired earlier. Speech errors associated with certain kinds of aphasia have been used to map certain components of speech onto the brain and see the relation between different aspects of production; for example, the difficulty of expressive aphasia patients in producing regular past-tense verbs, but not irregulars like 'sing-sang' has been used to demonstrate that regular inflected forms of

1080-490: The assumption that this would create a less confusing learning environment for Washoe. This technique was said to resemble that used when teaching human children language. After the first couple of years of the language project, the Gardners and Roger Fouts discovered that Washoe could pick up ASL gestures without direct instruction; she learned by observing humans around her who were signing amongst themselves. For example,

1125-536: The brain (typically the left hemisphere for language). In this model, a linguistic auditory signal is first sent from the auditory cortex to Wernicke's area. The lexicon is accessed in Wernicke's area, and these words are sent via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area, where morphology, syntax, and instructions for articulation are generated. This is then sent from Broca's area to the motor cortex for articulation. Paul Broca identified an approximate region of

1170-453: The brain in 1861 which, when damaged in two of his patients, caused severe deficits in speech production, where his patients were unable to speak beyond a few monosyllabic words. This deficit, known as Broca's or expressive aphasia , is characterized by difficulty in speech production where speech is slow and labored, function words are absent, and syntax is severely impaired, as in telegraphic speech . In expressive aphasia, speech comprehension

1215-455: The chimpanzee subjects could communicate information under conditions in which the only source of information available to a human observer was the signing of the chimpanzee;" 2) "that independent observers agreed with each other;" and 3) "that the chimpanzees used the signs to refer to natural language categories—that the sign DOG could refer to any dog, FLOWER to any flower, SHOE to any shoe." Washoe and her mates were allegedly able to combine

1260-512: The following situation: People who should be there for her and aren't are often given the cold shoulder—her way of informing them that she's miffed at them. Washoe greeted Kat [the caretaker] in just this way when she finally returned to work with the chimps. Kat made her apologies to Washoe, then decided to tell her the truth, signing "MY BABY DIED". Washoe stared at her, then looked down. She finally peered into Kat's eyes again and carefully signed "CRY", touching her cheek and drawing her finger down

1305-411: The fossil record. The human vocal tract does not fossilize, and indirect evidence of vocal tract changes in hominid fossils has proven inconclusive. Speech production is an unconscious multi-step process by which thoughts are generated into spoken utterances. Production involves the unconscious mind selecting appropriate words and the appropriate form of those words from the lexicon and morphology, and

1350-412: The hundreds of signs that they learned into novel combinations (that they had never been taught, but rather created themselves) with different meanings. For instance, when Washoe's mate Moja did not know the word for " thermos ", Moja referred to it as a "METAL CUP DRINK." However, Washoe's combinations were open to interpretation. Herbert S. Terrace contended that seeming sign combinations did not stand for

1395-440: The learning process. Instead, they set up a conversational environment that evoked communication, without the use of rewards for specific actions. Washoe learned approximately 350 signs. For researchers to consider that Washoe had learned a sign, she had to use it spontaneously and appropriately for 14 consecutive days. These signs were then further tested using a double-blind vocabulary test. This test demonstrated 1) "that

Said - Misplaced Pages Continue

1440-504: The left lateral sulcus has been connected with difficulty in processing and producing morphology and syntax, while lexical access and comprehension of irregular forms (e.g. eat-ate) remain unaffected. Moreover, the circuits involved in human speech comprehension dynamically adapt with learning, for example, by becoming more efficient in terms of processing time when listening to familiar messages such as learned verses. Some non-human animals can produce sounds or gestures resembling those of

1485-530: The moral category of "persons" rather than private property . The publication of the Washoe experiments spurred a revival in the scholarly study of sign language, due to widespread interest in questions it raised about the biological roots of language. This included additional experiments which attempted to teach great apes to communicate in a more controlled environment. In 1979, after Herbert Terrace and Thomas Bever's Nim Chimpsky project failed to demonstrate

1530-651: The neck or mouth the airstream is constricted. Manner of articulation refers to the manner in which the speech organs interact, such as how closely the air is restricted, what form of airstream is used (e.g. pulmonic , implosive, ejectives, and clicks), whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, and whether the nasal cavity is opened to the airstream. The concept is primarily used for the production of consonants , but can be used for vowels in qualities such as voicing and nasalization . For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, and therefore several homorganic consonants. Normal human speech

1575-419: The only chimpanzee. She gradually came to enjoy associating with other chimpanzees. Washoe enjoyed playing pretend with her dolls, which she would bathe and talk to and would act out imaginary scenarios. She also spent time brushing her teeth, painting and taking tea parties . When new students came to work with Washoe, she would slow down her rate of signing for novice speakers of sign language, which had

1620-488: The organization of those words through the syntax. Then, the phonetic properties of the words are retrieved and the sentence is articulated through the articulations associated with those phonetic properties. In linguistics , articulatory phonetics is the study of how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs are used to make sounds. Speech sounds are categorized by manner of articulation and place of articulation . Place of articulation refers to where in

1665-415: The other hand, no monkey or ape uses its tongue for such purposes. The human species' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and other moveable parts seems to place speech in a quite separate category, making its evolutionary emergence an intriguing theoretical challenge in the eyes of many scholars. Determining the timeline of human speech evolution is made additionally challenging by the lack of data in

1710-403: The path a tear would make on a human (Chimpanzees don't shed tears). Kat later remarked that one sign told her more about Washoe and her mental capabilities than all her longer, grammatically perfect sentences. Washoe herself lost two children. One baby chimpanzee died of a heart defect shortly after birth; the other baby, Sequoyah, died of a staph infection at two months of age. When Washoe

1755-405: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Said . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Said&oldid=1240272972 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

1800-414: The scientists signed "toothbrush" to each other while they brushed their teeth near her. At the time of observation, Washoe showed no signs of having learned the sign, but later reacted to the sight of a toothbrush by spontaneously producing the correct sign. Moreover, the Gardners began to realize that rewarding particular signs with food and tickles—the approach used in operant conditioning —interfered with

1845-414: The spoken language, a situation called diglossia . The evolutionary origin of speech is subject to debate and speculation. While animals also communicate using vocalizations, and trained apes such as Washoe and Kanzi can use simple sign language , no animals' vocalizations are articulated phonemically and syntactically, and do not constitute speech. Although related to the more general problem of

Said - Misplaced Pages Continue

1890-847: Was born in West Africa in 1965. She was captured for use by the US Air Force for research for the US space program . Washoe was named after Washoe County , Nevada, where she was raised and taught to use ASL. In 1967, R. Allen Gardner and Beatrix Gardner established a project to teach Washoe ASL at the University of Nevada, Reno . At the time, previous attempts to teach chimpanzees to imitate vocal languages (the Gua and Viki projects) had failed. The Gardners believed that these projects were flawed because chimpanzees are physically unable to produce

1935-471: Was emotionally sensitive and deserving of moral status . Work with Washoe and other signing primates motivated the foundation of the Great Ape Project , which hopes to "include the non-human great apes : chimpanzees , orangutans and gorillas within the community of equals by granting them the basic moral and legal protections that only humans currently enjoy", in order to place them in

1980-581: Was five, the Gardners moved on to other chimp projects, and returned her to the University of Oklahoma 's Institute of Primate Studies in Norman , Oklahoma, under the care of Roger Fouts and Deborah Fouts . Washoe was raised in an environment as close as possible to that of a human child, in an attempt to satisfy her psychological need for companionship. While with Washoe, the Gardners and Foutses communicated exclusively in ASL, avoiding vocal communication, on

2025-404: Was shown an image of herself in the mirror, and asked what she was seeing, she replied: "Me, Washoe." Primate expert Jane Goodall , who has studied and lived with chimpanzees for decades, believes that this might indicate some level of self-awareness . Washoe appeared to experience an identity crisis when she was first introduced to other chimpanzees, seeming shocked to learn that she was not

#269730