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112-643: Saint-Simon created a political and economic ideology known as Saint-Simonianism that claimed that the needs of an industrial class , which he also referred to as the working class , needed to be recognized and fulfilled to have an effective society and an efficient economy. Unlike conceptions within industrializing societies of a working class being manual laborers alone, Saint-Simon's late-18th-century conception of this class included all people engaged in what he saw as productive work that contributed to society, such as businesspeople, managers, scientists, bankers, and manual labourers, amongst others. Saint-Simon believed

224-514: A belief in God ; his object in the treatise is to reduce Christianity to its simple and essential elements. He does this by clearing it of what he thought to be the dogmas and other defects that had come to define the Catholic and Protestant forms of Christianity. Saint-Simon posited a comprehensive formula for a "new Christianity": "The whole of society ought to strive towards the amelioration of

336-440: A literary salon . After a year, the marriage was dissolved by mutual consent. The result of his experiments was that he found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury for the remainder of his life. The first of his numerous writings, mostly scientific and political, was Lettres d'un habitant de Genève , which appeared in 1802. In this first work, he called for the creation of a religion of science with Isaac Newton as

448-540: A "deliberate reconstruction of society" which was "comprehensively planed" and which, which by necessity, required mass compulsion to achieve its goals. According to Fr. Cyril Martindale , Robert Hugh Benson got the idea of his dystopian science fiction novel about the Antichrist , published in 1908 as Lord of the World , from his friend and literary mentor Frederick Rolfe , who also introduced Monsignor Benson to

560-449: A "slum of hope" from the 1920s and 1930s, members of this class are given hardly any chances of attaining membership of the formal economic structures. Diane Reay stresses the challenges that working-class students can face during the transition to and within higher education, and research intensive universities in particular. One factor can be the university community being perceived as a predominately middle-class social space, creating

672-591: A North Vietnamese flag at the top the flèche, and sabotaged the stairway leading to it. The flag was cut from the flèche by Paris Fire Brigade Sergeant Raymond Belle in a daring helicopter mission, the first of its kind in France. The Requiem Mass of Charles de Gaulle was held in Notre-Dame on 12 November 1970. The next year, on 26 June 1971, Philippe Petit walked across a tight-rope strung between Notre-Dame's two bell towers entertaining spectators. After

784-522: A car containing seven gasoline canisters was found near Notre-Dame . On 10 February 2017, French police arrested four persons in Montpellier already known by authorities to have ties to radical Islamist organizations on charges of plotting to travel to Paris and attack the cathedral. Later that year, on 6 June, visitors were shut inside Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris after a man with a hammer attacked

896-399: A gabled portal to the north transept topped by a spectacular rose window. Shortly afterward (from 1258) Pierre de Montreuil executed a similar scheme on the southern transept. Both these transept portals were richly embellished with sculpture; the south portal depicts scenes from the lives of Saint Stephen and of various local saints, while the north portal featured the infancy of Christ and

1008-501: A group otherwise referred to as the proletariat . In this sense, the working class includes white and blue-collar workers, manual and menial workers of all types, excluding individuals who derive their livelihood from business ownership or the labour of others. The term, which is primarily used to evoke images of laborers suffering "class disadvantage in spite of their individual effort", can also have racial connotations, applying diverse themes of poverty and implications about whether one

1120-470: A key change in these Soviet-style societies has been a new type of proletarianization , often effected by the administratively achieved forced displacement of peasants and rural workers. Since then, four major industrial states have turned towards semi-market-based governance ( China , Laos , Vietnam , Cuba ), and one state has turned inwards into an increasing cycle of poverty and brutalization ( North Korea ). Other states of this sort have collapsed (such as

1232-467: A large team of sculptors, glass makers and other craftsmen, and working from drawings or engravings, Viollet-le-Duc remade or added decorations if he felt they were in the spirit of the original style. One of the latter items was a taller and more ornate flèche , to replace the original 13th-century flèche, which had been removed in 1786. The decoration of the restoration included a bronze roof statue of Saint Thomas that resembles Viollet-le-Duc, as well as

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1344-453: A multipartite arrangement of so many lateral vaults, above and below? Where, I ask, would they find such light-filled amenities as the many surrounding chapels? Furthermore, let them tell me in what church I may see such a large cross, of which one arm separates the choir from the nave. Finally, I would willingly learn where [there are] two such circles, situated opposite each other in a straight line, which on account of their appearance are given

1456-564: A new and much larger church. He summarily demolished the earlier cathedral and recycled its materials. Sully decided that the new church should be built in the Gothic style , which had been inaugurated at the royal abbey of Saint Denis in the late 1130s. The chronicler Jean de Saint-Victor  [ fr ] recorded in the Memorial Historiarum that the construction of Notre-Dame began between 24 March and 25 April 1163 with

1568-413: A police officer outside . On 15 April 2019 the cathedral caught fire, destroying the flèche and the "forest" of oak roof beams supporting the lead roof. It was speculated that the fire was linked to ongoing renovation work. The fire broke out in the attic of the cathedral at 18:18, investigators concluded. The smoke detectors immediately signaled the fire to a cathedral employee, who did not summon

1680-558: A productive society. Saint-Simon believed that Europeans were superior. In the work De la réorganization de la société européenne , written with Augustin Thierry and published in 1814, Saint-Simon advocated that the united Europe which he envisioned should try to colonize the rest of the world: "To colonize the world with the European race, which is superior to every other race: to make the world accessible and habitable like Europe—such

1792-455: A saint. Saint-Simon's earliest publications, such as his Introduction aux travaux scientifiques du XIXe siècle (Introduction to scientific discoveries of the 19th century (1803) and his Mémoire sur la science de l'homme (Notes on the study of man) (1813), (the latter of which is a eulogy to Napoleon ), demonstrate his faith in science as a means to regenerate society. A few years into his writing career, Saint-Simon found himself ruined and

1904-408: A school established to train young men in the arts of sciences and industry and funded by the state, Saint-Simon became involved with the new school. When he was nearly 40 he went through a varied course of study and experiment to enlarge and clarify his view of things. One of these experiments was an unhappy marriage in 1801 to Alexandrine-Sophie Goury de Champgrand , undertaken so that he might have

2016-401: A self-identification with the working class group. This subjective approach allows individuals, rather than researchers, to define their own "subjective" and "perceived" social class. Karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as those individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production . He argued that they were responsible for creating

2128-420: A sense of otherness due to class differences in social norms and knowledge of navigating academia. Working classes in different countries Notre-Dame de Paris Notre-Dame de Paris ( French: [nɔtʁ(ə) dam də paʁi] ; meaning " Our Lady of Paris "), often referred to simply as Notre-Dame , is a medieval Catholic cathedral on the Île de la Cité (an island in

2240-455: A solution to capitalist societal problems, nor did he adhere to the Marxist definition of the working class as excluded by fundamental private property law from control over the means of production. Unlike Marx, Saint-Simon did not regard class relations, with respect to the means of production, to be an engine of socio-economic dynamics but rather the form of management. Furthermore, Saint-Simon

2352-490: A special Mass was held in the cathedral to celebrate the liberation of Paris from the Germans; it was attended by General Charles De Gaulle and General Philippe Leclerc . In 1963, on the initiative of culture minister André Malraux and to mark the 800th anniversary of the cathedral, the façade was cleaned of the centuries of soot and grime, restoring it to its original off-white colour. On 19 January 1969, vandals placed

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2464-495: Is a subset of employees who are compensated with wage or salary -based contracts, whose exact membership varies from definition to definition. Members of the working class rely primarily upon earnings from wage labour . Most common definitions of "working class" in use in the United States limit its membership to workers who hold blue-collar and pink-collar jobs, or whose income is insufficiently high to place them in

2576-490: Is a widely recognized symbol of the city of Paris and the French nation . In 1805, it was awarded honorary status as a minor basilica . As the cathedral of the archdiocese of Paris , Notre-Dame contains the cathedra of the archbishop of Paris (currently Laurent Ulrich ). In the early 21st century, approximately 12 million people visited Notre-Dame annually, making it the most visited monument in Paris. The cathedral

2688-477: Is also exceptional for its three pipe organs (one historic) and its immense church bells . Built during the medieval era , construction of the cathedral began in 1163 under Bishop Maurice de Sully and was largely completed by 1260, though it was modified in succeeding centuries. In the 1790s, during the French Revolution , Notre-Dame suffered extensive desecration ; much of its religious imagery

2800-484: Is deserving of aid. In other contexts the term working class refers to a section of society dependent on physical labour , especially when compensated with an hourly wage (for certain types of science, as well as journalistic or political analysis). Working-class occupations can be categorized into four groups: unskilled labourers, artisans, outworkers , and factory workers. Common alternative definitions of Working Class include definition by income level, whereby

2912-551: Is renowned for its Lent sermons, a tradition founded in the 1830s by the Dominican Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire . These sermons have increasingly been given by leading public figures or government-employed academics. Over time, the cathedral has gradually been stripped of many decorations and artworks. However, the cathedral still contains Gothic, Baroque , and 19th-century sculptures, 17th- and early 18th-century altarpieces, and some of

3024-632: Is the sort of enterprise by which the European Parliament should continually keep Europe active and happy". Writing in Introduction aux œuvres scientifiques du XIXe siècle , Saint-Simon states that he does not believe negroes to be equal to the Europeans for physiological reasons. In Lettres , he writes "The revolutionaries applied the principles of equality to negroes. If they had consulted the physiologists they would have learned that

3136-509: The Cathedral of Saint Étienne , was built on the site, close to the royal palace. The entrance was situated about 40 metres (130 ft) west of the present west front of Notre-Dame, and the apse was located about where the west façade is today. It was roughly half the size of the later Notre-Dame, 70 metres (230 ft) long—and separated into nave and four aisles by marble columns, then decorated with mosaics . The last church before

3248-617: The Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée . Following Saint-Simon's death in 1825, his followers began to differ as to how to promulgate his ideas. The most acclaimed disciple of Saint-Simon was Auguste Comte . In 1831 Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin and Amand Bazard purchased the newspaper Le Globe as the official organ for their revolutionary fraternity Friends of the Truth . Initially both men were supposed to be co-leaders naming themselves Supreme Fathers . However, Bazard left

3360-588: The Concordat of 1801 , Napoleon Bonaparte restored Notre-Dame to the Catholic Church, though this was only finalized on 18 April 1802. Napoleon also named Paris's new bishop, Jean-Baptiste de Belloy , who restored the cathedral's interior. Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine made quasi-Gothic modifications to Notre-Dame for the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French within

3472-482: The Ecole de Mézières . At the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, Saint-Simon quickly endorsed the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity . In the early years of the revolution, Saint-Simon devoted himself to organizing a large industrial structure in order to found a scientific school of improvement. He needed to raise some funds to achieve his objectives, which he did by land speculation. This

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3584-595: The Liberation of Paris from German occupation was celebrated in Notre-Dame with the singing of the Magnificat . Beginning in 1963, the cathedral's façade was cleaned of soot and grime. Another cleaning and restoration project was carried out between 1991 and 2000. A fire in April 2019 caused serious damage and forced the cathedral to close for five years; it is planned to reopen on 7-8 December 2024. The cathedral

3696-425: The Magnificat of 30 May 1980, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass on the parvis of the cathedral. The Requiem Mass of François Mitterrand was held at the cathedral, as with past French heads of state, on 11 January 1996. The stone masonry of the cathedral's exterior had deteriorated in the 19th and 20th century due to increased air pollution in Paris, which accelerated erosion of decorations and discoloured

3808-640: The Musée de Cluny . For a time the Goddess of Liberty replaced the Virgin Mary on several altars. The cathedral's great bells escaped being melted down. All of the other large statues on the façade, with the exception of the statue of the Virgin Mary on the portal of the cloister, were destroyed. The cathedral came to be used as a warehouse for the storage of food and other non-religious purposes. With

3920-735: The Paris Commune of March through May 1871, the cathedral and other churches were closed, and some two hundred priests and the Archbishop of Paris were taken as hostages. In May, during the Semaine sanglante of "Bloody Week", as the army recaptured the city, the Communards targeted the cathedral, along with the Tuileries Palace and other landmarks, for destruction; the Communards piled the furniture together in order to burn

4032-532: The Soviet Union ). Since 1960, large-scale proletarianization and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world , generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, expanding the size of the urban working class. The informal working class is a sociological term coined by Mike Davis for a class of over a billion predominantly young urban people who are in no way formally connected to

4144-546: The Virgin Mary for the choir. At this same time, Charles de La Fosse painted his Adoration of the Magi , now in the Louvre . Louis Antoine de Noailles , archbishop of Paris , extensively modified the roof of Notre-Dame in 1726, renovating its framing and removing the gargoyles with lead gutters. Noailles also strengthened the buttresses, galleries, terraces, and vaults. In 1756, the cathedral's canons decided that its interior

4256-418: The fire brigade but instead sent a cathedral guard to investigate. The guard was sent to the wrong location, to the attic of the adjoining sacristy, and reported there was no fire. The guard telephoned his supervisor, who did not immediately answer. About 15 minutes later the error was discovered, whereupon the guard's supervisor told him to go to the correct location. The fire brigade was still not notified. By

4368-408: The global economy and who try to survive primarily in slums . According to Davis, this class no longer corresponds to the socio-theoretical concepts of a class, from Marx, Max Weber or the theory of modernization . Thereafter, this class developed worldwide from the 1960s, especially in the southern hemisphere. In contrast to previous notions of a class of the lumpen proletariat or the notions of

4480-429: The merit of the individual and the need for hierarchy of merit in society and in the economy, such as society having hierarchical merit-based organizations of managers and scientists to be the decision-makers in government. His views were radical for his time. He built on Enlightenment ideas which challenged church doctrine and the older regime with the idea of progress from industry and science Heavily influenced by

4592-457: The middle class , or both. However, socialists define "working class" to include all workers who fall into this category; thus, this definition can include almost all of the working population of industrialized economies . As with many terms describing social class , working class is defined and used in different ways. One definition used by many socialists is that the working class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labour,

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4704-664: The relics of the passion of Christ , which included the Crown of thorns , a nail from the Cross and a sliver of the Cross, which he had purchased at great expense from the Latin Emperor Baldwin II , in the cathedral during the construction of the Sainte-Chapelle . An under-shirt , believed to have belonged to Louis, was added to the collection of relics at some time after his death. Transepts were added at

4816-454: The wealth of a society, asserting that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land or factories . A sub-section of the proletariat, the lumpenproletariat ( rag-proletariat ), are the extremely poor and unemployed, such as day labourers and homeless people. Marx considered them to be devoid of class consciousness. In Marxist terms wage labourers and those dependent on

4928-403: The welfare state are working class, and those who live on accumulated capital are not, and this broad dichotomy defines the class struggle . In The Communist Manifesto , Marx and Friedrich Engels argue that it is the destiny of the working class to displace the capitalist system, with the dictatorship of the proletariat (as opposed to the " dictatorship of the bourgeoisie ") abolishing

5040-463: The 15-metre (49 ft) flying buttresses of the choir. Jean le Bouteiller, Ravy's nephew, succeeded him in 1344 and was himself replaced on his death in 1363 by his deputy, Raymond du Temple. Philip the Fair opened the first Estates General in the cathedral in 1302. An important innovation in the 13th century was the introduction of the flying buttress . Before the buttresses, all of the weight of

5152-403: The 19th-century restorers. Today, thirteen of the grands mays hang in Notre-Dame although these paintings suffered water damage during the fire of 2019 and were removed for conservation. An altarpiece depicting The Visitation , painted by Jean Jouvenet in 1707, was also located in the cathedral. The canon Antoine de La Porte commissioned for Louis XIV six paintings depicting the life of

5264-471: The April 2019 fire. Notre-Dame began a year-long celebration of the 850th anniversary of the laying of the first building block for the cathedral on 12 December 2012. During that anniversary year, on 21 May 2013, Dominique Venner , a historian and white nationalist, placed a letter on the church altar and shot himself, dying instantly. Around 1,500 visitors were evacuated from the cathedral. French police arrested two people on 8 September 2016 after

5376-464: The Declaration, Saint-Simon strongly criticized any expansion of government intervention into the economy beyond these two principal economic roles, saying that when the government goes beyond these roles, it becomes a "tyrannical enemy of industry" and that the industrial economy will decline as a consequence of such excessive government intervention. Saint-Simon stressed the need for recognition of

5488-548: The English Working Class , E. P. Thompson argues that the English working class was present at its own creation, and seeks to describe the transformation of pre-modern labouring classes into a modern, politically self-conscious, working class. Starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class (see Soviet working class ). Some historians have noted that

5600-528: The French Revolution and regarded it as an upheaval driven by economic change and class conflict . In his analysis, he believed that the solution to the problems that led to the French Revolution would be the creation of an industrial society, where a hierarchy of merit and respect for productive work would be the basis of society, while ranks of hereditary and military hierarchy would lessen in importance in society because they were not capable to lead

5712-633: The Pereire brothers who had been members of the Saint-Simonian movement. It has also been noted that Saint-Simonian ideas exerted a significant influence on new religious movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism since the 1850s. Karl Marx considered the Saint-Simonians to be the "patriarchs of socialism." French feminist and socialist writer Flora Tristan (1803–1844) claimed that Mary Wollstonecraft , author of A Vindication of

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5824-583: The Rights of Woman , anticipated Saint-Simon's ideas by a generation. Karl Marx identified Saint-Simon as being among whom he called the " utopian socialists ", though historian Alan Ryan regards certain followers of Saint-Simon, rather than Saint-Simon himself, as being responsible for the rise of utopian socialism that based itself upon Saint-Simon's ideas. Ryan also distinguishes between Saint-Simon's conceptions and Marxism's, as Saint-Simon did not promote independent working-class organization and leadership as

5936-530: The River Seine), in the 4th arrondissement of Paris , France. The cathedral, dedicated in honour of the Virgin Mary (Our Lady), is considered one of the finest examples of French Gothic architecture . Several attributes set it apart from the earlier Romanesque style , particularly its pioneering use of the rib vault and flying buttress , its enormous and colourful rose windows , and the naturalism and abundance of its sculptural decoration. Notre-Dame

6048-508: The Seine by ferry. The first phase began with the construction of the choir and its two ambulatories . According to Robert of Torigni , the choir was completed in 1177 and the high altar consecrated on 19 May 1182 by Cardinal Henri de Château-Marçay , the Papal legate in Paris, and Maurice de Sully. The second phase, from 1182 to 1190, concerned the construction of the four sections of

6160-454: The absence of social privilege he saw in the early United States, Saint-Simon renounced his aristocratic title and came to favor a form of meritocracy , becoming convinced that science was the key to progress and that it would be possible to develop a society based on objective scientific principles. He claimed that feudal society in France and elsewhere needed to be dissolved and transformed into an industrial society . As such, he invented

6272-595: The boy-king Henry VI of England was crowned king of France in Notre-Dame, aged ten, the traditional coronation church of Reims Cathedral being under French control. During the Renaissance , the Gothic style fell out of style, and the internal pillars and walls of Notre-Dame were covered with tapestries. In 1548, rioting Huguenots damaged some of the statues of Notre-Dame, considering them idolatrous . The fountain  [ fr ] in Notre-Dame's parvis

6384-604: The cathedral of Notre-Dame was a Romanesque remodeling of Saint-Étienne that, although enlarged and remodeled, was found to be unfit for the growing population of Paris. A baptistery , the Church of Saint-John-le-Rond , built about 452, was located on the north side of the west front of Notre-Dame until the work of Jacques-Germain Soufflot in the 18th century. In 1160, the Bishop of Paris , Maurice de Sully , decided to build

6496-512: The cathedral. The arson was halted when the Communard government realised that the fire would also destroy the neighbouring Hôtel-Dieu hospital, filled with hundreds of patients. During the liberation of Paris in August 1944, the cathedral suffered some minor damage from stray bullets. Some of the medieval glass was damaged, and was replaced by glass with modern abstract designs. On 26 August,

6608-564: The cathedral. The building's exterior was whitewashed and the interior decorated in Neoclassical style, then in vogue. In the decades after the Napoleonic Wars , Notre-Dame fell into such a state of disrepair that Paris officials considered its demolition. Victor Hugo , who admired the cathedral, wrote the novel Notre-Dame de Paris (published in English as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame ) in 1831 to save Notre-Dame. The book

6720-427: The ceiling of the cathedral had several holes but was otherwise intact. The Great Organ, which has over 8,000 pipes and was built by François Thierry in the 18th century was also saved but damaged by water. An ornate tapestry woven in the early 1800s, on public display for only the third time in recent decades, was saved from the fire. Because of the renovation, the copper statues on the flèche had been removed before

6832-402: The choir, where the altar was located, in order to bring more light into the centre of the church. The use of simpler four-part rather than six-part rib vaults meant that the roofs were stronger and could be higher. After Bishop Maurice de Sully's death in 1196, his successor, Eudes de Sully oversaw the completion of the transepts, and continued work on the nave , which was nearing completion at

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6944-418: The conception of the industrial society. Saint-Simon's economic views and ideas were influenced by Adam Smith whom Saint-Simon deeply admired, and referred to him in praise as "the immortal Adam Smith". He shared with Smith the belief that taxes needed to be much reduced from what they were then in order to have a more just industrial system. Saint-Simon desired the minimization of government intervention into

7056-536: The creation of the Suez Canal . Gustave d'Eichthal was a sympathiser of the Saint-Simonian movement who developed Saint-Simonian notions practically and involved himself in the development of the French economy, founding a number of leading concerns including the Suez Canal Company, founded by Saint-Simonian sympathiser Ferdinand de Lesseps , and the bank Crédit Mobilier , which was established by

7168-511: The economy to prevent disruption of productive work. He emphasized more emphatically than Smith that state administration of the economy was generally parasitic and hostile to the needs of production. Like Adam Smith, Saint-Simon's model of society emulated the scientific methods of astronomy, and said "The astronomers only accepted those facts which were verified by observation; they chose the system which linked them best, and since that time, they have never led science astray.". Saint-Simon reviewed

7280-619: The essay "On Reconstruction of the European Community" and sent it to the Congress of Vienna . He proposed a European kingdom, building on France and the United Kingdom. For his last decade, Saint-Simon concentrated on themes of political economy . Together with Auguste Comte , (then only a teenager), Saint-Simon projected a society bypassing the changes of the French Revolution , in which science and industry would take

7392-410: The fire had spread to the north tower, where the eight bells were located. The firefighters concentrated their efforts in the tower. They feared that, if the bells fell, they could wreck the tower, and endanger the structure of the other tower and the whole cathedral. They had to ascend a stairway threatened by fire, and to contend with low water pressure for their hoses. As others watered the stairway and

7504-448: The fire. Since 1905, France's cathedrals (including Notre-Dame) have been owned by the state, which is self-insured. Some costs might be recovered through insurance coverage if the fire is found to have been caused by contractors working on the site. The French insurer AXA provided insurance coverage for two of the contracting firms working on Notre-Dame's restoration before the blaze. AXA also provided insurance coverage for some of

7616-535: The first buttresses is not known with precision beyond an installation date in the 13th century. Art historian Andrew Tallon , however, has argued, based on detailed laser scans of the entire structure, that the buttresses were part of the original design. According to Tallon, the scans indicate that "the upper part of the building has not moved one smidgen in 800 years," whereas if they were added later some movement from prior to their addition would be expected. Tallon thus concluded that flying buttresses were present from

7728-414: The group as it became increasingly ritualistic and religiously minded with Enfantin founding a community at Ménilmontant where he decried marriage as tyranny, promoted free love , declared himself "chosen by God", and began predicting that a "female Messiah" would soon save humanity. Enfantin would go on to organize an expedition of the disciples to Constantinople , and then to Egypt , where he influenced

7840-537: The head six times without succeeding, losing his sight in one eye. He died on 19 May 1825 and was buried in Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, France. In 1817 Saint-Simon published a manifesto called the "Declaration of Principles" in his work titled L'Industrie ("Industry"). The declaration was about the principles of an ideology called industrialism that called for the creation of an industrial society led by people within what he defined as

7952-422: The idling class, which included able people who preferred to be parasitic and benefit from the work of others while seeking to avoid doing work. He saw the origins of this parasitic activity by idlers in what he regarded as the natural laziness of humanity. He believed the principal economic roles of government were to ensure that productive activity in the economy is unhindered and to reduce idleness in society. In

8064-416: The industrial class. The industrial class, also referred to as the working class, was defined as including all people engaged in productive work that contributed to society, emphasizing scientists and industrialists, but including engineers, businesspeople, managers, bankers, manual workers, and others. Saint-Simon said the primary threat to the needs of the industrial class was another class he referred to as

8176-514: The late 18th century, under the influence of the Enlightenment , European society was in a state of change, and this change could not be reconciled with the idea of a changeless God-created social order. Wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics (i.e. excessive consumption of alcohol, perceived laziness and inability to save money). In The Making of

8288-411: The late 2010s. The entire renovation was estimated to cost €100 million, which the archbishop of Paris planned to raise through funds from the national government and private donations. A €6 million renovation of the cathedral's flèche began in late 2018 and continued into the following year, requiring the temporary removal of copper statues on the roof and other decorative elements days before

8400-463: The laying of the cornerstone in the presence of King Louis VII and Pope Alexander III . Four phases of construction took place under bishops Maurice de Sully and Eudes de Sully (not related to Maurice), according to masters whose names have been lost. Analysis of vault stones that fell in the 2019 fire shows that they were quarried in Vexin , a county northwest of Paris, and presumably brought up

8512-698: The merits of broad socioeconomic contribution and Enlightenment-era valorization of scientific knowledge inspired and influenced utopian socialism , liberal political theorist John Stuart Mill , anarchism (through its founder, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ), and Marxism — Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels identified Saint-Simon as an inspiration for their ideas and classified him among the utopian socialists. Saint-Simon's views also influenced 20th-century sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen , including Veblen's creation of institutional economics that has included prominent economists as adherents. Henri de Saint-Simon

8624-544: The moral and physical existence of the poorest class; society ought to organize itself in the way best adapted for attaining this end." Saint-Simon's thought exerted significant influence upon French and European technocratic thought, the development of technocratic internationalism , as well as major industrial and financial projects including the Suez Canal , the Channel Tunnel , the Crédit Mobilier , and

8736-486: The moral and temporal power of medieval theocracy . In his last work however, Le Nouveau Christianisme (The New Christianity) (1825), Saint-Simon reverted to more traditional ideas of renewing society through Christian brotherly love . He died shortly after its publication. On March 9, 1823, disappointed by the lack of results of his writing (he had hoped they would guide society towards social improvement), he attempted suicide in despair. Remarkably, he shot himself in

8848-652: The most important relics in Christendom – including the Crown of Thorns , and a sliver and nail from the True Cross . It is believed that before the arrival of Christianity in France , a Gallo-Roman temple dedicated to Jupiter stood on the site of Notre-Dame. Evidence for this includes the Pillar of the Boatmen , discovered beneath the cathedral in 1710. In the 4th or 5th century, a large early Christian church,

8960-416: The name of the fourth vowel [O]; among which smaller orbs and circles, with wondrous artifice, so that some arranged circularly, others angularly, surround windows ruddy with precious colours and beautiful with the most subtle figures of the pictures. In fact, I believe that this church offers the carefully discerning such cause for admiration that its inspection can scarcely sate the soul. On 16 December 1431,

9072-478: The nave behind the choir and its aisles to the height of the clerestories . It began after the completion of the choir but ended before the final allotted section of the nave was finished. Beginning in 1190, the bases of the façade were put in place, and the first traverses were completed. Heraclius of Caesarea called for the Third Crusade in 1185 from the still-incomplete cathedral. Louis IX deposited

9184-562: The negro, because of his basic physical structure, is not susceptible, even with the same education, of rising to the intellectual level of Europeans". Jan Eijking writes that "Saint-Simon’s understanding of a neutral, technocratic international sphere took existing social, economic, and racial hierarchies for granted". Prior to the publication of the Nouveau Christianisme , Saint-Simon had not concerned himself with theology . In Nouveau Christianisme , Saint-Simon presupposes

9296-561: The outset. The first buttresses were replaced by larger and stronger ones in the 14th century; these had a reach of fifteen metres (50 ft) between the walls and counter-supports. John of Jandun recognized the cathedral as one of Paris's three most important buildings [prominent structures] in his 1323 Treatise on the Praises of Paris : That most glorious church of the most glorious Virgin Mary, mother of God, deservedly shines out, like

9408-502: The primary threat to the needs of the industrial class was what he defined as the idling class : a tier of society that included able-bodied persons who, instead of using their labor to benefit the social and economic orders, preferred what he perceived as a parasitic life of work avoidance. Saint-Simon stressed a three-pronged recognition of the merits of the individual, social hierarchy, and the wider economy, such as hierarchical, merit-based organizations of managers and scientists; those at

9520-442: The restoration of the nearby Sainte-Chapelle , were appointed in 1844. The next year, Viollet-le-Duc submitted a budget of 3,888,500 francs , which was reduced to 2,650,000 francs, for the restoration of Notre-Dame and the construction of a new sacristy building. This budget was exhausted in 1850, and work stopped as Viollet-le-Duc made proposals for more money. In totality, the restoration cost over 12 million francs. Supervising

9632-399: The roof pressed outward and down to the walls, and the abutments supporting them. With the flying buttress, the weight was carried by the ribs of the vault entirely outside the structure to a series of counter-supports, which were topped with stone pinnacles which gave them greater weight. The buttresses meant that the walls could be higher and thinner, and could have larger windows. The date of

9744-425: The roof, a team of 20 firefighters climbed the narrow stairway of the south tower, crossed to the north tower, lowered hoses to be connected to fire engines outside the cathedral, and sprayed water on the fire beneath the bells. By 21:45, they brought the fire under control. The main structure was intact; firefighters saved the façade, towers, walls, buttresses, and stained-glass windows. The stone vaulting that forms

9856-478: The same social unit , a third estate of people who were neither aristocrats nor church officials. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies . The social position of these labouring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants' War . In

9968-461: The sculpture of mythical creatures on the Galerie des Chimères . The construction of the sacristy was especially financially costly. To secure a firm foundation, it was necessary for Viollet-le-Duc's labourers to dig nine metres (thirty feet). Master glassworkers meticulously copied styles of the 13th century, as written about by art historians Antoine Lusson and Adolphe Napoléon Didron . During

10080-658: The sea. During the American Revolution , Saint-Simon joined the Americans, believing that their revolution signaled the beginning of a new era. He fought alongside the Marquis de Lafayette between 1779 and 1783, and took part in the siege of Yorktown under the command of General George Washington . Saint-Simon was captured and imprisoned by British forces during the end of his service, and upon his release, returned to France to study engineering and hydraulics at

10192-461: The social relationships underpinning the class system before then developing into a communist society in which "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all." In feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the labouring class, a group made up of different professions, trades and occupations. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of

10304-408: The stone. By the late 1980s, several gargoyles and turrets had also fallen or become too loose to remain safely in place. A decade-long renovation programme began in 1991 and replaced much of the exterior, with care given to retain the authentic architectural elements of the cathedral, including rigorous inspection of new limestone blocks. A discreet system of electrical wires, not visible from below,

10416-479: The story of Theophilus in the tympanum , with a highly influential statue of the Virgin and Child in the trumeau . Master builders Pierre de Chelles , Jean Ravy  [ fr ] , Jean le Bouteiller, and Raymond du Temple  [ fr ] succeeded de Chelles and de Montreuil and then each other in the construction of the cathedral. Ravy completed de Chelles's rood screen and chevet chapels, then began

10528-528: The sun among stars. And although some speakers, by their own free judgment, because [they are] able to see only a few things easily, may say that some other is more beautiful, I believe, however, respectfully, that, if they attend more diligently to the whole and the parts, they will quickly retract this opinion. Where indeed, I ask, would they find two towers of such magnificence and perfection, so high, so large, so strong, clothed round about with such multiple varieties of ornaments? Where, I ask, would they find such

10640-431: The time of his death in 1208. By this time, the western façade was already largely built, though it was not completed until around the mid-1240s. Between 1225 and 1250 the upper gallery of the nave was constructed, along with the two towers on the west façade. Another significant change came in the mid-13th century, when the transepts were remodelled in the latest Rayonnant style; in the late 1240s Jean de Chelles added

10752-557: The time the guard had climbed the 300 steps to the cathedral attic, the fire was well advanced. The alarm system was not designed to automatically notify the fire brigade, which was finally summoned at 18:51 after the guard had returned from the attic and reported a now-raging fire, and more than half an hour after the fire alarm had begun sounding. Firefighters arrived in less than ten minutes. The cathedral's flèche collapsed at 19:50, bringing down some 750 tonnes of stone and lead. The firefighters inside were ordered back down. By this time

10864-531: The top of the hierarchies would be decision-makers in government. Saint-Simon strongly criticized any expansion of government intervention into the economy beyond ensuring productive working conditions and reducing idleness in society; he regarded intervention beyond these as too intrusive. Saint-Simon endorsed what critics have described as authoritarian or totalitarian means to achieve his goals, such as saying those who opposed his proposed reforms should be "treated like cattle." Saint-Simon's conceptual recognition of

10976-416: The top of the northern towers at Notre-Dame were melted down and recast into new bronze bells in 2013, to celebrate the building's 850th anniversary. They were designed to recreate the sound of the cathedral's original bells from the 17th century. Despite the 1990s renovation, the cathedral had continued to show signs of deterioration that prompted the national government to propose a new renovation program in

11088-524: The working class is contrasted with a middle class on the basis of access to economic resources, education , cultural interests, and other goods and services, and the "white working class" has been "loosely defined" by the New York Times as comprising white people without college degrees. Researchers in Australia have suggested that working class status should be defined subjectively as

11200-399: The writings of Saint-Simon. According to Fr. Martindale, as Benson read Saint-Simon's writings, "A vision of a dechristianised civilisation, sprung from the wrecking of the french Ancien régime , arose before him and he listened to Mr. Rolfe's suggestion that he should write a book on Antichrist." Saint-Simon wrote various accounts of his views: Working class The working class

11312-569: Was added in 1625 to provide nearby Parisians with running water. Since 1449, the Parisian goldsmith guild had made regular donations to the cathedral chapter. In 1630, the guild began donating a large altarpiece every year on the first of May. These works came to be known as the grands mays . The subject matter was restricted to episodes from the Acts of the Apostles . The prestigious commission

11424-524: Was also installed on the roof to deter pigeons. The cathedral's pipe organ was upgraded with a computerized system to control the mechanical connections to the pipes . The west face was cleaned and restored in time for millennium celebrations in December 1999. The Requiem Mass of Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger , former archbishop of Paris and Jewish convert to Catholicism, was held in Notre-Dame on 10 August 2007. The set of four 19th-century bells at

11536-469: Was an enormous success, raising awareness of the cathedral's decaying state. The same year as Hugo's novel was published, anti- Legitimists plundered Notre-Dame's sacristy . In 1844 King Louis Philippe ordered that the church be restored. The architect who had hitherto been in charge of Notre-Dame's maintenance, Étienne-Hippolyte Godde , was dismissed. In his stead, Jean-Baptiste Lassus and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc , who had distinguished themselves with

11648-465: Was awarded to the most prominent painters and, after 1648, members of the Académie Royale . Seventy-six paintings had been donated by 1708, when the custom was discontinued for financial reasons. Those works were confiscated in 1793 and the majority were subsequently dispersed among regional museums in France. Those that remained in the cathedral were removed or relocated within the building by

11760-575: Was born in Paris as a French aristocrat. His grandfather's cousin had been the Duke of Saint-Simon . From his youth, Saint-Simon was highly ambitious. He ordered his valet to wake him every morning with, "Remember, monsieur le comte, that you have great things to do." Among his early schemes was one to connect the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans by a canal, and another to construct a canal from Madrid to

11872-544: Was damaged or destroyed. In the 19th century, the coronation of Napoleon and the funerals of many of the French Republic's presidents took place at the cathedral. The 1831 publication of Victor Hugo 's novel Notre-Dame de Paris (in English: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame ) inspired interest which led to restoration between 1844 and 1864, supervised by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc . On 26 August 1944,

11984-696: Was forced to work for a living. After a few attempts to recover his money from his former partner, he received financial support from Diard, a former employee, and was able to publish in 1807 his second book, Introduction aux travaux scientifiques du XIX siècle . Diard died in 1810 and Saint-Simon found himself poor again, and this time also in poor health. He was sent to a sanatorium in 1813, but with financial help from relatives, he had time to recover his health and gain some intellectual recognition in Europe. In February 1821 Du système industriel appeared, and in 1823–1824 Catéchisme des industriels . Around 1814 he wrote

12096-555: Was imprisoned on suspicion of engaging in counter-revolutionary activities. He was released in 1794 at the end of the Terror. After he recovered his freedom, Saint-Simon found himself immensely rich due to currency depreciation, but his fortune was subsequently stolen by his business partner. Thenceforth he decided to devote himself to political studies and research. After the establishment of the Ecole Polytechnique in 1794,

12208-435: Was not critical of capitalists as exclusive owners, collaborators, controllers, and decision-makers. Rather, he regarded capitalists as an important component of the "industrial class." Ryan further suggests that by the 1950s it was clear that Saint-Simon had presaged the "modern" understanding of industrial society. Economist Don Lavoie described Saint-Simon as part of an authoritarian current in socialist thought, by promoting

12320-410: Was only possible in the first few years of the revolution because of the growing instability of the political situation in France, which prevented him from continuing his financial activities and indeed put his life at risk. Saint-Simon and Talleyrand planned to profiteer during the Terror by buying the Cathedral of Notre-Dame , stripping its roof of metal, and selling the metal for scrap. Saint-Simon

12432-518: Was rededicated in 1793 to the Cult of Reason , and then to the Cult of the Supreme Being in 1794. During this time, many of the treasures of the cathedral were either destroyed or plundered. The twenty-eight statues of biblical kings located at the west façade, mistaken for statues of French kings, were beheaded. Many of the heads were found during a 1977 excavation nearby, and are on display at

12544-436: Was too dark. The medieval stained glass windows, except the rosettes, were removed and replaced with plain, white glass panes. Lastly, Jacques-Germain Soufflot was tasked with the modification of the portals at the front of the cathedral to allow processions to enter more easily. After the French Revolution in 1789, Notre-Dame and the rest of the church's property in France was seized and made public property. The cathedral

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