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102-510: Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Basil of Caesarea , also called Saint Basil the Great ( Koinē Greek : Ἅγιος Βασίλειος ὁ Μέγας , Hágios Basíleios ho Mégas ; Coptic : Ⲡⲓⲁⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲓⲟⲥ , Piagios Basílios ; 330 – 1 or 2 January 378),

204-469: A soup kitchen and distributed food to the poor during a famine following a drought. His letters show that he actively worked to reform thieves and prostitutes. They also show him encouraging his clergy not to be tempted by wealth or the comparatively easy life of a priest, and that he personally took care in selecting worthy candidates for holy orders . He also had the courage to criticize public officials who failed in their duty of administering justice. At

306-623: A stress accent system , and the monophthongization of several diphthongs: The Koine-period Greek in the table is taken from a reconstruction by Benjamin Kantor of New Testament Judeo-Palestinian Koine Greek. The realizations of most phonemes reflect general changes around the Greek-speaking world, including vowel isochrony and monophthongization, but certain sound values differ from other Koine varieties such as Attic, Egyptian and Anatolian. More general Koine phonological developments include

408-471: A Trinitarian debate. Basil recognizes that no human is "a slave by nature". This principle countered Aristotle 's conviction and was consistent with Gregory of Nyssa view and with that of many other patristic thinkers; even Augustine and Theodoret conceded this. Basil, indeed, viewed slavery as a result of the Fall, a principle that was shared by Augustine, Theodoret, and many other Fathers. Sometimes slavery

510-617: A bishop." Modestus reported back to Valens that he believed nothing short of violence would avail against Basil. Valens was apparently unwilling to engage in violence. He did however issue orders banishing Basil repeatedly, none of which succeeded. Valens came himself to attend when Basil celebrated the Divine Liturgy on the Feast of the Theophany (Epiphany), and at that time was so impressed by Basil that he donated to him some land for

612-512: A fellow student who would become the emperor Julian the Apostate . Basil left Athens in 356, and after travels in Egypt and Syria, he returned to Caesarea . For around a year he practiced law and taught rhetoric. Basil's life changed radically after he encountered Eustathius of Sebaste , a charismatic bishop and ascetic. Abandoning his legal and teaching career, Basil devoted his life to God. In

714-577: A letter he described his spiritual awakening: I had wasted much time on follies and spent nearly all of my youth in vain labours, and devotion to the teachings of a wisdom that God had made foolish. Suddenly, I awoke as out of a deep sleep. I beheld the wonderful light of the Gospel truth, and I recognized the nothingness of the wisdom of the princes of this world. After his baptism, Basil traveled in 357 to Palestine, Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia to study ascetics and monasticism. He distributed his fortunes among

816-607: A liturgy, or rather reformed an existing liturgy, is beyond doubt, since besides the constant tradition of the Byzantine Church there are many testimonies in ancient writings to establish the fact. Basil's liturgical influence is well attested in early sources. Most of the liturgies bearing the name of Basil are not entirely his work in their present form, but they nevertheless preserve a recollection of Basil's activity in this field in formularizing liturgical prayers and promoting church-song. Patristics scholars conclude that

918-450: A more open pronunciation than other Koine dialects, distinguished as open-mid /ɛ/ vs. close-mid /e/ , rather than as true-mid /e̞/ vs. close-mid /e̝/ as has been suggested for other varieties such as Egyptian. This is evidenced on the basis of Hebrew transcriptions of ε with pataḥ/qamets /a/ and not tsere/segol /e/ . Additionally, it is posited that α perhaps had a back vowel pronunciation as /ɑ/ , dragged backwards due to

1020-443: A noteworthy moderation in the austere practices which were previously characteristic of monastic life. He is also credited with coordinating the duties of work and prayer to ensure a proper balance between the two. Basil is remembered as one of the most influential figures in the development of Christian monasticism . Not only is Basil recognized as the father of Eastern monasticism; historians recognize that his legacy extends also to

1122-460: A very important source of information on the ancient Koine is the modern Greek language with all its dialects and its own Koine form, which have preserved some of the ancient language's oral linguistic details which the written tradition has lost. For example, Pontic and Cappadocian Greek preserved the ancient pronunciation of η as ε ( νύφε, συνέλικος, τίμεσον, πεγάδι for standard Modern Greek νύφη, συνήλικος, τίμησον, πηγάδι etc.), while

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1224-706: Is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, but also from other dialects. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic world. In that respect, the varieties of Koine spoken in the Ionian colonies of Anatolia (e.g. Pontus , cf. Pontic Greek ) would have more intense Ionic characteristics than others and those of Laconia and Cyprus would preserve some Doric and Arcadocypriot characteristics, respectively. The literary Koine of

1326-475: Is a boon to the enslaved person, Basil maintained (in Moral Rules 75 he recommended, that Christian slaves work harder than non-Christian slaves). This view is opposed to Gregory of Nyssa, and is reminiscent of Aristotle's argument and of Theodoret's. It is in the ethical manuals and moral sermons that the practical aspects of his theoretical theology are illustrated. So, for example, it is in his Sermon to

1428-823: Is a city in Tokat Province , Turkey . It is the seat of Niksar District . Its population is 37,017 (2022). It was settled by many empires. Niksar is known as " Çukurova of North-Anatolia" due to its production of many kinds of fruits and vegetables. On May 2, 2018, Niksar was included in the World Heritage tentative list. Niksar has been ruled by the Hittite , Persian , Greek , Pontic , Roman , Byzantine , Danishmend , Seljuk and Ottoman Empires. It has always been an important place in Anatolia because of its location, climate and productive farmland. It

1530-520: Is a term used for present tense verbs that are used in some narrative sections of the New Testament to describe events that are in the past with respect to the speaker. This is seen more in works attributed to Mark and John than Luke . It is used 151 times in the Gospel of Mark in passages where a reader might expect a past tense verb. Scholars have presented various explanations for this; in

1632-620: Is derived from the Koine Greek term ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος ( hē koinḕ diálektos ), meaning "the common dialect". The Greek word κοινή ( koinḗ ) itself means "common". The word is pronounced / k ɔɪ ˈ n eɪ / , / ˈ k ɔɪ n eɪ / , or / k iː ˈ n iː / in US English and / ˈ k ɔɪ n iː / in UK English. The pronunciation of the word koine itself gradually changed from [koinéː] (close to

1734-491: Is generally considered doubtful. He was a famous preacher, and many of his homilies, including a series of Lenten lectures on the Hexaemeron (also Hexaëmeros , "Six Days of Creation"; Latin : Hexameron ), and an exposition of the psalter , have been preserved. Some, like that against usury and that on the famine in 368, are valuable for the history of morals; others illustrate the honor paid to martyrs and relics ;

1836-619: Is honoured as the chief architect of monastic life in the Greek Church. Most of his extant works, and a few spuriously attributed to him, are available in the Patrologia Graeca , which includes Latin translations of varying quality. Several of Basil's works have appeared in the late twentieth century in the Sources Chrétiennes collection. A famous quote of Basil is the below: The bread you store belongs to

1938-544: Is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a hypothetical conservative variety of mainland Greek Koiné in the early Roman period. The transcription shows raising of η to /eː/ , partial (pre-consonantal/word-final) raising of ῃ and ει to /iː/ , retention of pitch accent, and retention of word-initial /h/ (the rough breathing ). περὶ peri ὧν hoːn Θισ[β]εῖς tʰizbîːs λόγους lóɡuːs ἐποιήσαντο· epojéːsanto; Niksar Niksar , historically known as Neocaesarea (Νεοκαισάρεια),

2040-886: Is sometimes used for the Greek written by the Greek Church Fathers , the Early Christian theologians in late antiquity. Christian writers in the earliest time tended to use a simple register of Koiné, relatively close to the spoken language of their time, following the model of the Bible. After the 4th century, when Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire , more learned registers of Koiné also came to be used. Koine period Greek differs from Classical Greek in many ways: grammar , word formation , vocabulary and phonology (sound system). During

2142-606: The Cappadocian Fathers . The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches have given him, together with Gregory of Nazianzus and John Chrysostom , the title of Great Hierarch . He is recognized as a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church . He is sometimes referred to by the epithet Ouranophantor (Greek: Οὐρανοφάντωρ ), "revealer of heavenly mysteries". Basil was born into

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2244-577: The Church Fathers . In this context, Koine Greek is also known as "Biblical", "New Testament", "ecclesiastical", or "patristic" Greek. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his private thoughts in Koine Greek in a work that is now known as Meditations . Koine Greek continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church and in some Greek Catholic churches . The English-language name Koine

2346-591: The Classical Attic pronunciation [koi̯.nɛ̌ː] ) to [cyˈni] (close to the Modern Greek [ciˈni] ). In Modern Greek, the language is referred to as Ελληνιστική Κοινή , "Hellenistic Koiné", in the sense of "Hellenistic supraregional language "). Ancient scholars used the term koine in several different senses. Scholars such as Apollonius Dyscolus (second century AD) and Aelius Herodianus (second century AD) maintained

2448-577: The Danishmend , was the next conqueror of Neocaesarea. After the conquest the Gazi made it his capital city, and, under the name Niksar, became a center of science and culture. The Danishmend Gazi's mausoleum stands in a large cemetery just outside the town. In 1100, Bohemond I of Taranto was held prisoner in Niksar castle until 1103. By 1175, during the reign of Kılıç Arslan II , Niksar was dependent on

2550-703: The Eastern Church . In 358, Basil invited his friend Gregory of Nazianzus to join him in Annesi. When Gregory eventually arrived, they collaborated on Origen's Philocalia , a collection of Origen 's works. Gregory decided to return to his family in Nazianzus. Basil attended the Council of Constantinople (360) . He at first sided with Eustathius and the Homoiousians , a semi-Arian faction who taught that

2652-658: The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates his feast day together with that of the Feast of the Circumcision on that day. This was also the day on which the General Roman Calendar celebrated it at first; but in the 13th-century it was moved to 14 June, a date believed to be that of his ordination as bishop , and it remained on that date until the 1969 revision of the calendar, which moved it to 2 January, rather than 1 January, because

2754-756: The Eastern Roman Empire when the Roman Empire divided into two parts in AD 395. Another earthquake occurred in 499, the 499 Nicopolis earthquake . During the Middle Ages, the Muslims and Christians disputed the possession of Neocaesarea, and in 1068 a Seljuk general, Melik-Ghazi , whose tomb is still visible, captured and pillaged it. When the Seljuqs raided Anatolia in 1067, Neocaesarea

2856-460: The Kelkit River . Forests cover 53% of the plateau, and pasture 12%; 32% of the land is devoted to agriculture, and only 3% is unsuitable for farming. Beech, pine, horn beech, and spruce trees can be found in the higher altitudes to the north of Niksar. In the lowlands there are poplar and willow trees, and fruit trees in the valleys. Polecats, rabbits, wolves, foxes, lynxes, bears, and pigs are

2958-501: The Lesser Asketikon . According to Orosius , Basil taught apocatastasis entailing the restoration of all sinners to Christ after purification. This doctrine is most evident in his Commentary on Isaiah , however there is some scholarly dispute about this commentary and if it should truly be attributed to Basil. On the other hand, he vehemently opposed the view that hell has an end in his short Regulae , even claiming that

3060-693: The Seljuks of Rum . After the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, Niksar was governed by the Eretnids and then the Beylik of Tacettin , a beylik and became the center of the latter principality. After Kadı Burhanettin (who conquered Niksar in 1387) was killed in battle, the people of Niksar sought aid from the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I . The Sultan's son, Süleyman Çelebi , took Niksar for

3162-624: The Synod of Neo-Caesarea was held there. It is now one of the bishoprics listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees and is referred to as Neocaesarea in Ponto to distinguish it from Neocaesarea in Syria. Noted bishops include Saints Gregory Thaumaturgus, Paul of Neocaesarea, and Thomas, a 9th-century martyr. Gregory of Nyssa claimed that about 240, when Gregory Thaumaturgus

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3264-541: The Tsakonian language preserved the long α instead of η ( ἁμέρα, ἀστραπά, λίμνα, χοά etc.) and the other local characteristics of Doric Greek . Dialects from the southern part of the Greek-speaking regions ( Dodecanese , Cyprus , etc.), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants ( ἄλ-λος, Ἑλ-λάδα, θάλασ-σα ), while others pronounce in many words υ as ου or preserve ancient double forms ( κρόμμυον – κρεμ-μυον, ράξ – ρώξ etc.). Linguistic phenomena like

3366-418: The address to young men on the study of classical literature shows that Basil was influenced by his own education, which taught him to appreciate the propaedeutic importance of the classics. In one of his Homilies, he describes, in one of the earliest descriptions of desalination , how sailors in his time obtain fresh water by hanging sponges over a vessel with boiling seawater and collecting and condensing

3468-780: The papyri , for being two kinds of texts which have authentic content and can be studied directly. Other significant sources are the Septuagint , the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible , and the Greek New Testament . The teaching of these texts was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason, they use the most popular language of the era. Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of Attic Greek or even some surviving Greco-Latin glossaries of

3570-659: The Church in the Western Church for his contributions to the debate initiated by the Arian controversy regarding the nature of the Trinity, and especially the question of the divinity of the Holy Spirit . Basil was responsible for defining the terms " ousia " (essence/substance) and " hypostasis " (person/reality), and for defining the classic formulation of three Persons in one Nature. His single greatest contribution

3672-482: The Church. Basil next took on functional administration of the city of Caesarea. Eusebius is reported as becoming jealous of the reputation and influence which Basil quickly developed, and allowed Basil to return to his earlier solitude. Later, however, Gregory persuaded Basil to return. Basil did so, and became the administrator for the Diocese of Caesarea. In 370, Eusebius died, and Basil was chosen to succeed him, and

3774-692: The Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period , most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, " ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα " (the composition of the Four). This view was supported in the early twentieth century by Paul Kretschmer in his book Die Entstehung der Koine (1901), while Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Antoine Meillet , based on

3876-570: The Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is often mentioned as Common Attic . The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and Early Modern times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary Attic Greek of the Classical period and frowned upon any other variety of Ancient Greek . Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek which was not worthy of attention. The reconsideration on

3978-645: The Holy Spirit , an appeal to Scripture and early Christian tradition to prove the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and his Refutation of the Apology of the Impious Eunomius , which was written about in 364 and comprised three books against Eunomius of Cyzicus , the chief exponent of Anomoian Arianism . The first three books of the Refutation are his work; his authorship of the fourth and fifth books

4080-757: The Homoiousians, and emerged instead as a strong supporter of the Nicene Creed . His ability to balance his theological convictions with his political connections made Basil a powerful advocate for the Nicene position. In 362, Bishop Meletius of Antioch ordained Basil as a deacon . Eusebius then summoned Basil to Caesarea and ordained him as presbyter of the Church there in 365. Eusebius needed him as an assistant because of his intellectual gifts. Ecclesiastical entreaties rather than Basil's desires thus altered his career path. Basil and Gregory Nazianzus spent

4182-464: The Lazicans that we find Basil explaining how it is our common nature that obliges us to treat our neighbor's natural needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) as our own, even though he is a separate individual. Basil's three hundred letters reveal his character. They show his observant nature, which, despite the troubles of ill-health and ecclesiastical unrest, remained optimistic, tender and even playful. Basil

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4284-461: The Liturgy of Saint Basil "bears, unmistakably, the personal hand, pen, mind and heart of St. Basil the Great". One liturgy that can be attributed to him is The Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great , a liturgy that is somewhat longer than the more commonly used Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom . The difference between the two is primarily in the silent prayers said by the priest, and in

4386-496: The New Testament , W.F. Howard argues that the heavy use of the historical present in Herodotus and Thucydides , compared with the relatively infrequent usage by Polybius and Xenophon was evidence that heavy use of this verb tense is a feature of vernacular Koine, but other scholars have argued that the historical present can be a literary form to "denote semantic shifts to more prominent material." The term patristic Greek

4488-573: The Ottomans. In the later Ottoman period, Niksar became part of Tokat Province . Fatih Mehmet launched a raid on Trabzon from Niksar, and Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent raided the east from there. The town was predominantly Muslim in the mid 17th century. Neocaesarea was an episcopal see in the late Roman province of Pontus Polemoniacus . At first called Cabira, it became the civil and religious metropolis of Pontus. In around 315,

4590-501: The Roman period, e.g.: Καλήμερον, ἦλθες; Bono die, venisti? Good day, you came? Ἐὰν θέλεις, ἐλθὲ μεθ' ἡμῶν. Si vis, veni mecum . If you want, come with us. Ποῦ; Ubi? Where? Πρὸς φίλον ἡμέτερον Λύκιον. Ad amicum nostrum Lucium. To our friend Lucius. Τί γὰρ ἔχει; Quid enim habet? Indeed, what does he have? What is it with him? Ἀρρωστεῖ. Aegrotat. He's sick. Finally,

4692-519: The Roman period. Pompey made it a city and gave it the name of Diopolis, while Pythodoris , widow of Polemon, made it her capital and called it Sebaste. It is not known precisely when it assumed the name of Neocaesarea, mentioned for the first time in Pliny , "Hist. Nat.", VI, III, 1, but judging from its coins, one might suppose that it was during the reign of Tiberius . In 344 the city was completely destroyed by an earthquake Neocaesarea became part of

4794-602: The Son was of like substance with the Father, neither the same ( one substance) nor different from him. The Homoiousians opposed the Arianism of Eunomius but refused to join with the supporters of the Nicene Creed , who professed that the members of the Trinity were of one substance (" homoousios "). However, Basil's bishop, Dianius of Caesarea, had subscribed only to the earlier Nicene form of agreement. Basil eventually abandoned

4896-556: The West, and with the help of Athanasius , he tried to overcome its distrustful attitude toward the Homoiousians. The difficulties had been enhanced by bringing in the question as to the essence of the Holy Spirit . Although Basil advocated objectively the consubstantiality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and the Son , he belonged to those, who, faithful to Eastern tradition, would not allow

4998-444: The Western church, largely due to his influence on Saint Benedict . Patristic scholars such as Meredith assert that Benedict himself recognized this when he wrote in the epilogue to his Rule that his monks, in addition to the Bible, should read "the confessions of the Fathers and their institutes and their lives and the Rule of our Holy Father, Basil. Basil's teachings on monasticism, as encoded in works such as his Small Asketikon ,

5100-418: The Younger , Naucratius , Peter of Sebaste , and Gregory of Nyssa . Basil received more formal education in Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (modern Kayseri ) around 350–51. There he met Gregory of Nazianzus . Gregory went to Alexandria, while Basil went to Constantinople for further studies, including the lectures of Libanius . The two later met again in Athens and became fast friends. There they met

5202-509: The above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless variations in the Greek-speaking world. Biblical Koine refers to the varieties of Koine Greek used in Bible translations into Greek and related texts. Its main sources are: There has been some debate to what degree Biblical Greek represents the mainstream of contemporary spoken Koine and to what extent it contains specifically Semitic substratum features. These could have been induced either through

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5304-446: The building of the Basiliad. This interaction helped to define the limits of governmental power over the church. Basil then had to face the growing spread of Arianism . This belief system, which denied that Christ was consubstantial with the Father, was quickly gaining adherents and was seen by many, particularly those in Alexandria most familiar with it, as posing a threat to the unity of the church. Basil entered into connections with

5406-404: The complete equality of both genders, deriving from the same human 'lump' (φύραμα), both in the image of God, endowed with the same honour and dignity (ὁμοτίμως), in perfect equality (ἐξ ἴσου). Men even risk being inferior in piety (Homily on Julitta 241B). Likewise, in Homilies on Psalms 1, PG 29.216–17, he insists on the Socratic and Stoic tenet, here Christianized, that man and woman have 'one and

5508-401: The day-to-day vernacular . Others chose to refer to Koine as "the dialect of Alexandria " or "Alexandrian dialect" ( ἡ Ἀλεξανδρέων διάλεκτος ), or even the universal dialect of its time. Modern classicists have often used the former sense. Koine Greek arose as a common dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great . Under the leadership of Macedon , their newly formed common variety

5610-420: The early 20th century some scholars argued that the use of the historical present tense in Mark was due to the influence of Aramaic , but this theory fell out of favor in the 1960s. Another group of scholars believed the historical present tense was used to heighten the dramatic effect, and this interpretation was favored in the New American Bible translation. In Volume II of the 1929 edition of A Grammar of

5712-426: The exact date Basil died. The great institute before the gates of Caesarea, the Ptochoptopheion, or "Basileiad", which was used as poorhouse, hospital, and hospice became a lasting monument of Basil's episcopal care for the poor. Many of St. Basil's writings and sermons, specifically on the topics of money and possessions, continue to influence modern Christianity. The principal theological writings of Basil are his On

5814-437: The families in cutting the bread were pleasantly surprised to find the coins. It is customary on his feast day to visit the homes of friends and relatives, to sing New Year's carols , and to set an extra place at the table for Saint Basil. Basil, being born into a wealthy family, gave away all his possessions to the poor, the underprivileged, those in need, and children. According to some sources, Basil died on 1 January, and

5916-407: The historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in the early 19th century, where renowned scholars conducted a series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire Hellenistic period and Roman Empire . The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones are the inscriptions of the post-Classical periods and

6018-442: The hungry. The clothes you accumulate belong to the naked. The shoes that you have in your closet are for the barefoot. The money you bury deep into the ground to keep it safe, belongs to the poor. You were unfair to as many people as you could have helped and you did not. Basil of Caesarea holds a very important place in the history of Christian liturgy , coming as he did at the end of the age of persecution . That St. Basil composed

6120-404: The initial stage in the fortition of the second element in the αυ/ευ diphthongs) and the loss of vowel-timing distinctions are carried through. On the other hand, Kantor argues for certain vowel qualities differing from the rest of the Koine in the Judean dialect. Although it is impossible to know the exact realizations of vowels, it is tentatively argued that the mid-vowels ε / αι and η had

6222-426: The intense Ionic elements of the Koine – σσ instead of ττ and ρσ instead of ρρ ( θάλασσα – θάλαττα , 'sea'; ἀρσενικός – ἀρρενικός , 'potent, virile') – considered Koine to be a simplified form of Ionic . The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis , who showed that despite the "composition of the Four", the "stable nucleus" of Koine Greek

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6324-407: The interpreters of dreams who explain visions in sleep to make them serve their own end." His ascetic tendencies are exhibited in the Moralia and Asketika (sometimes mistranslated as Rules of St. Basil ), ethical manuals for use in the world and the cloister, respectively. There has been a good deal of discussion concerning the authenticity of the two works known as the Greater Asketikon and

6426-437: The language. The passage into the next period, known as Medieval Greek , is sometimes dated from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 330 AD, but often only from the end of late antiquity . The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman eras of history until the start of the Middle Ages. The linguistic roots of

6528-415: The latter date is occupied by the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God . On 2 January Saint Basil is celebrated together with Saint Gregory Nazianzen . Novus Ordo services use the revised calendar while traditionalist Catholic communities continue to observe pre-1970 calendars. Koin%C4%93 Greek language Koine Greek included styles ranging from conservative literary forms to the spoken vernaculars of

6630-402: The local dialect, the kitchen is usually the largest room of the house and serves as a sort of lounge for the family. The typical kitchen has a fireplace on one side used for cooking or washing and a storeroom on the other in which dried foods, preserves, sauces, cheese and grape leaves are kept. Beside the storeroom is a wooden granary with partitions for storing cereals and legumes. In Turkey, it

6732-408: The main hunting animals that live in the mountains and forests. Partridges, quail and ducks are among the more important game birds found here. Niksar has a transitional oceanic climate and continental climate . It is generally cold and snowy in winter, and hot and moderately dry in summer. The most remarkable feature of traditional Tokat -Niksar houses is the kitchen. Called Aşevi or Aşgana in

6834-407: The main of the Greek language. S. J. Thackeray, in A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint (1909), wrote that only the five books of the Pentateuch , parts of the Book of Joshua and the Book of Isaiah may be considered "good Koine". One issue debated by scholars is whether and how much the translation of the Pentateuch influenced the rest of the Septuagint, including

6936-417: The many people who hold it are deceived by the devil . However, the notion of a finite hell was also espoused by his siblings Macrina and Gregory of Nyssa and potentially by his dear friend Gregory of Nazianzus. It is probable that the relevant passage in Regulae was interpolated. The passage also seems to include ideas that could be considered in opposition to ideas in Basil's undisputed writings, for example

7038-425: The most noted are Saints Gregory Thaumaturgus, Paul of Neocaesarea , and Thomas, a 9th-century martyr. Niksar is approximately 9,555 km (3,689 sq mi). It is located at 40°35' north latitude and 36°58' east longitude. Its average altitude is 350 m above sea level. It is surrounded by Erbaa on the northwest, Tokat on the southwest, Almus on the south, Başçiftlik on the southeast and Akkuş on

7140-428: The next few years combatting the Arian heresy , which threatened to divide Cappadocia's Christians. In close fraternal co-operation, they agreed to a great rhetorical contest with accomplished Arian theologians and rhetors. In the subsequent public debates, presided over by agents of Valens , Gregory and Basil emerged triumphant. This success confirmed for both Gregory and Basil that their futures lay in administration of

7242-479: The north. It is one of the five largest counties of Tokat. The Canik Mountains are to the north, Dönek Mountain to the south, and the Niksar Lowland is situated between these mountains. The Niksar Lowland is one of the most important lowlands of the Black Sea Region. The Canik Mountains are covered with plateaus that lie parallel to the Black Sea. Çamiçi High Plateau is one of the most important ones. Niksar lands are irrigated by large and small tributaries of

7344-548: The notion of meeting and gathering of men, without any particular character. Therefore, etymologizing this word could be needless, or even misleading, when it could guide to false meanings, for example that ἐκκλησία is a name used for the people of God, Israel. The authors of the New Testament follow the Septuagint translations for over half their quotations from the Old Testament. The " historical present " tense

7446-504: The notion of physical punishments in hell and of hell itself as a physical place with different locations. As well as potentially being in contradiction to most of Basil's linguistic use. In his book De Spiritu Sancto , Basil lists some who for him are illustrious men of the church and quotes them; these are Irenaeus of Lyon , Clement of Rome , Dionysius of Rome , Dionysius of Alexandria , Eusebius , Julius Africanus , Gregory Thaumaturgus , Firmilian and Origen . Basil also stresses

7548-457: The opening of ε . Influence of the Aramaic substrate could have also caused confusion between α and ο , providing further evidence for the back vowel realization. The following texts show differences from Attic Greek in all aspects – grammar, morphology, vocabulary and can be inferred to show differences in phonology. The following comments illustrate the phonological development within

7650-399: The period generally designated as Koine Greek, a great deal of phonological change occurred. At the start of the period, the pronunciation was virtually identical to Ancient Greek phonology , whereas in the end, it had much more in common with Modern Greek phonology . The three most significant changes were the loss of vowel length distinction, the replacement of the pitch accent system by

7752-534: The period of Koine. The phonetic transcriptions are tentative and are intended to illustrate two different stages in the reconstructed development, an early conservative variety still relatively close to Classical Attic, and a somewhat later, more progressive variety approaching Modern Greek in some respects. The following excerpt, from a decree of the Roman Senate to the town of Thisbae in Boeotia in 170 BC,

7854-539: The poor and underprivileged. Basil established guidelines for monastic life which focus on community life, liturgical prayer, and manual labor. Together with Pachomius , he is remembered as a father of communal monasticism in Eastern Christianity. He is considered a saint by the traditions of both Eastern and Western Christianity . Basil, together with his brother Gregory of Nyssa and his friend Gregory of Nazianzus , are collectively referred to as

7956-497: The poor, and went briefly into solitude near Neocaesarea of Pontus (modern Niksar ) on the Iris River . Basil eventually realized that while he respected the ascetics' piety and prayerfulness, the solitary life did not call him. Eustathius of Sebaste , a prominent anchorite near Pontus, had mentored Basil. However, they also eventually differed over dogma . Basil instead felt drawn toward communal religious life, and by 358 he

8058-505: The practice of translating closely from Biblical Hebrew or Aramaic originals, or through the influence of the regional non-standard Greek spoken by originally Aramaic-speaking Hellenized Jews . Some of the features discussed in this context are the Septuagint's normative absence of the particles μέν and δέ , and the use of ἐγένετο to denote "it came to pass". Some features of Biblical Greek which are thought to have originally been non-standard elements eventually found their way into

8160-666: The predicate homoousios to the former; for this he was reproached as early as 371 by the Orthodox zealots among the monks, and Athanasius defended him. Basil corresponded with Pope Damasus in the hope of having his aid and encouragement against triumphant Arianism; the pope, however, cherished some degree of suspicion against the Cappadocian Doctor. Basil died before the factional disturbances ended. He suffered from liver disease; excessive ascetic practices also contributed to his early demise. Historians disagree about

8262-471: The sake of peace and charity he was content to waive the use of orthodox terminology when it could be surrendered without a sacrifice of truth. The Emperor Valens , who was an adherent of the Arian philosophy, sent his prefect Modestus to at least agree to a compromise with the Arian faction. Basil's adamant negative response prompted Modestus to say that no one had ever spoken to him in that way before. Basil replied, "Perhaps you have never yet had to deal with

8364-512: The same time he was against the wild allegories of some contemporaries. Concerning this, he wrote: "I know the laws of allegory, though less by myself than from the works of others. There are those, truly, who do not admit the common sense of the Scriptures, for whom water is not water, but some other nature, who see in a plant, in a fish, what their fancy wishes, who change the nature of reptiles and of wild beasts to suit their allegories, like

8466-459: The same time, he preached every morning and evening in his own church to large congregations. In addition to all the above, he built a large complex just outside Caesarea, called the Basiliad , which included a poorhouse, hospice, and hospital, and was compared by Gregory of Nazianzus to the wonders of the world . His zeal for orthodoxy did not blind him to what was good in an opponent; and for

8568-519: The same virtue' and 'one and the same nature' (φύσις). Their common creation was of equal honour and dignity (ὁμότιμος); they have the same capacity and activity (ἐνέργεια), and will be given the same reward. Similarly, in Letter to Amphilochius 188, Basil again uses ἐξ ἴσου in reference to the equality of women and men. Basil faced the slavery issue in De Spiritu Sancto 20 in the context of

8670-429: The spirantization of Γ , with palatal allophone before front-vowels and a plosive allophone after nasals, and β . φ, θ and χ still preserve their ancient aspirated plosive values, while the unaspirated stops π, τ, κ have perhaps begun to develop voiced allophones after nasals. Initial aspiration has also likely become an optional sound for many speakers of the popular variety. Monophthongization (including

8772-472: The tenth century, when Trebizond obtained its independence and, by degrees, the other three suffragans were suppressed. In 1391 the Archdiocese of Neocaesarea was confided to the metropolitan of Trebizond (Miklosich and Müller, "Acta", II, 154). About 1400 there was, however, a regular metropolitan (op. cit., II, 312), residing at Ordu . Among the twenty-seven bishops of this city mentioned by Le Quien ,

8874-460: The term koine to refer to the Proto-Greek language , while others used it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which differed somewhat from the literary language. When Koine Greek became a language of literature by the first century BC, some people distinguished two forms: written as the literary post-classical form (which should not be confused with Atticism ), and vernacular as

8976-622: The time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek , which then turned into Modern Greek . Literary Koine was the medium of much post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch and Polybius . Koine is also the language of the Septuagint (the 3rd century BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible ), the Christian New Testament , and of most early Christian theological writing by

9078-480: The translation of Isaiah. Another point that scholars have debated is the use of ἐκκλησία ekklēsía as a translation for the Hebrew קָהָל qāhāl . Old Testament scholar James Barr has been critical of etymological arguments that ekklēsía refers to "the community called by God to constitute his People". Kyriakoula Papademetriou explains: He maintains that ἐκκλησία is merely used for designating

9180-633: The use of the hymn to the Theotokos , All of Creation , instead of the Axion Estin of John Chrysostom's Liturgy. The Eastern Churches preserve numerous other prayers attributed to Basil, including three prayers of exorcism , several morning and evening prayers, and the "Prayer of the Hours" which is read at each service of the Daily Office . Through his examples and teachings, Basil effected

9282-414: The water vapor. In his exegesis Basil was an admirer of Origen and the need for the spiritual interpretation of Scripture. In his work on the Holy Spirit , he asserts that "to take the literal sense and stop there, is to have the heart covered by the veil of Jewish literalism. Lamps are useless when the sun is shining." He frequently stresses the need for Reserve in doctrinal and sacramental matters. At

9384-629: The wealthy Cappadocian Greek family of Basil the Elder , and Emmelia of Caesarea , in Cappadocia , around 330. He was one of ten children, and his parents were known for their piety. His maternal grandfather was a Christian martyr , executed in the years prior to Constantine I 's conversion. His pious paternal grandmother, Macrina , a follower of Gregory Thaumaturgus (who had founded the nearby church of Neocaesarea ), raised Basil and four of his siblings who also are now venerated as saints: Macrina

9486-400: Was an early Roman Christian prelate who served as Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia from 370 until his death in 378. He was an influential theologian who supported the Nicene Creed and opposed the heresies of the early Christian church, fighting against both Arianism and the followers of Apollinaris of Laodicea . In addition to his work as a theologian, Basil was known for his care of

9588-627: Was conquered by Afşın Bey , one of the commanders of Alp Arslan . The Byzantines retook the area in 1068. Conquered by Artuk Bey after the Battle of Manzikert , Neocæsarea once again returned to Byzantium in 1073. The city became part of the domain of Roussel de Bailleul , a Norman mercenary who had rebelled against the Byzantine empire, and who held the town until 1075. Melik Gümüştekin Ahmet Gazi (better known as Danishmend Gazi ), founder of

9690-404: Was consecrated as a bishop on 14 June 370. His new post as Bishop of Caesarea also gave him the powers of exarch of Pontus and metropolitan of five suffragan bishops , many of whom had opposed him in the election for Eusebius's successor. It was then that his great powers were called into action. Hot-blooded and somewhat imperious, Basil was also generous and sympathetic. He personally organized

9792-436: Was consecrated bishop of his native city, Neocæsarea had only seventeen Christians and that at his death (270) it counted only seventeen pagans. In 315 a great council was held there, the acts of which are still extant. In the early church baptism was generally by immersion. Baptism by perfusion, that is by pouring the water over the candidate, was permitted in the case of the seriously ill and where sufficient water for immersion

9894-609: Was gathering around him a group of like-minded disciples , including his brother Peter. Together they founded a monastic settlement on his family's estate near Annesi (modern Sonusa or Uluköy, near the confluence of the Iris and Lycos rivers). His widowed mother Emmelia, sister Macrina, and several other women, joined Basil and devoted themselves to pious lives of prayer and charitable works (some claim Macrina founded this community). Here Basil wrote about monastic communal life. His writings became pivotal in developing monastic traditions of

9996-495: Was his insistence on the divinity and consubstantiality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and the Son. In Greek tradition, Basil brings gifts to children every 1 January (St Basil's Day). It is traditional on St Basil's Day to serve vasilopita , a rich bread baked with a coin inside. The tradition is attributed to St. Basil, who when a bishop, wanted to distribute money to the poor and commissioned some women to bake sweetened bread, in which he arranged to place gold coins. Thus

10098-597: Was known as Cabira in the Hellenistic period ( Κάβειρα in Greek ). It was one of the favourite residences of Mithridates the Great , who built a palace there, and later of King Polemon I and his successors. In 72 or 71 BCE, the Battle of Cabira during the Third Mithridatic War took place at Cabira, and the city passed to the Romans. Niksar was called Diospolis , Sebaste , and Neokaisareia during

10200-628: Was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia . It replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. Though elements of Koine Greek took shape in Classical Greece , the post-Classical period of Greek is defined as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when cultures under Greek sway in turn began to influence

10302-605: Was transmitted to the west via Rufinus during the late 4th century. As a result of Basil's influence, numerous religious orders in Eastern Christianity bear his name. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Basilian Fathers, also known as the Congregation of St. Basil , an international order of priests and students studying for the priesthood, is named after him. Basil was given the title Doctor of

10404-476: Was unobtainable or impractical, as in, for example, prisons. The Council of Neocaesarea ruled that individuals baptized by perfusion were disqualified from being presbyters. This became an issue in the case of Novatian , who had received baptism by perfusion when dangerously ill. Being early placed at the head of an ecclesiastical province, Neocæsarea had four suffragan sees about 640 ("Ecthesis" of pseudo-Epiphanius, ed. Heinrich Gelzer , 539), retaining them until

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