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45-534: Salaspils is one of the oldest settlements in Latvia. Archaeological excavations of 1964–1975 (during the construction of Riga HES) in ancient settlements, burial grounds and castle mounds give evidence of very dense population of the region. At this time, the remains of 11,000-year-old reindeer hunters were found (the oldest known human settlement in all of Latvia) and 3500-year-old remains of Baltic hunters, buried in hollowed-out oak -tree trunks, were found as well. There

90-652: A microdistrict's territory were to be located no further than 300 meters (1000 ft) apart. Standards also regulated the accessibility of the public service buildings (excluding schools and pre-school facilities) by imposing a 500-meter (1,500–foot) limit as the farthest distance from any residential dwelling. Unlike Western countries, the Soviet Union did not redevelop existing residential or commercial areas, microdistricts were always built further and further out from old parts of cities, so planning of local services, and transportation to employment in old parts of

135-633: A narrow belt along the Himalayas to cover mainland and island Southeast Asia as far as Sumatra , Java , Borneo , and Palawan . Finally, oaks of multiple sections ( Cyclobalanopsis , Ilex , Cerris , Quercus and related genera like Lithocarpus and Castanopsis ) extend across east Asia including China, Korea, and Japan. Potential records of Quercus have been reported from Late Cretaceous deposits in North America and East Asia. These are not considered definitive, as macrofossils older than

180-453: A number of specialized shops. The exact number of buildings of each type depended on the distance requirement and the microdistrict's population density and was determined by means of certain per capita standards. The history of microdistricts as an urban planning concept dates back to the 1920s, when the Soviet Union underwent rapid urbanization . Under the Soviet urban planning ideologies of

225-508: A single oak tree produces both staminate ('male') flowers in the form of catkins , and small pistillate ('female') flowers, meaning that the trees are monoecious . The fruit is a nut called an acorn , borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule ; each acorn usually contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on the species. The acorns and leaves contain tannic acid , which helps to guard against fungi and insects. There are some 500 extant species of oaks. Trees in

270-557: A small area of the west of Cuba ; in Mesoamerica it occurs mainly above 1000 metres. The genus crossed the isthmus of Panama when the northern and southern continents came together and is present as one species, Q. humboldtii , above 1000 metres in Colombia. The oaks of North America are of many sections ( Protobalanus , Lobatae , Ponticae , Quercus , and Virentes ) along with related genera such as Notholithocarpus . In

315-611: Is a residential complex—a primary structural element of the residential area construction in the Soviet Union and in some post-Soviet and former Socialist states. Residential districts in most of the cities and towns in Russia and the republics of the former Soviet Union were built in accordance with this concept. According to the Construction Rules and Regulations of the Soviet Union, a typical microdistrict covered

360-720: Is also the origin of the name " fir ", another important or sacred tree in Indo-European culture. The word "cork", for the bark of the cork oak , similarly derives from Quercus . The common name "oak" is from Old English ac (seen in placenames such as Acton , from ac + tun , "oak village" ), which in turn is from Proto-Germanic *aiks , "oak". Oaks are hardwood ( dicotyledonous ) trees, deciduous or evergreen, with spirally arranged leaves , often with lobate margins ; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent , not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring,

405-608: Is evidence that both Livs and Balts built hill forts in the region. At the end of the 12th century, German merchants travelled up the Daugava , establishing missionaries among the Livonian settlements. One important centre of Daugava Livonians, the small island Mārtiņsala (German: Kircholm ) had a Christian church as early as 1186. So began the Christianizing and gradual subjection of the local Livonian tribes. In 1206, in

450-515: Is strong and hard, and has found many uses in construction and furniture-making. The bark was traditionally used for tanning leather . Wine barrels are made of oak; these are used for aging alcoholic beverages such as sherry and whisky , giving them a range of flavours, colours, and aromas. The spongy bark of the cork oak is used to make traditional wine bottle corks. Almost a third of oak species are threatened with extinction due to climate change, invasive pests , and habitat loss . In culture,

495-550: Is the subject of ongoing debate, but is nowadays estimated at about 1000. Claims made by Soviet historians that over 100,000 people were killed in Salaspils during the German occupation are nowadays classified as propaganda. According to Latvian historian Aivars Stranga, the controversial 2006 Russian book Latvia Under The Yoke of Nazism revives Soviet-era myths which Holocaust researchers have long since deconstructed. During

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540-643: The Paleogene , and possibly from before the Eocene are mostly poorly preserved without critical features for certain identification. Amongst the oldest unequivocal records of Quercus are pollen from Austria, dating to the Paleocene -Eocene boundary, around 55 million years ago. The oldest records of Quercus in North America are from Oregon , dating to the Middle Eocene, around 44 million years ago, with

585-602: The genus Quercus of the beech family . They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn , borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere; it includes some 500 species, both deciduous and evergreen . Fossil oaks date back to the Middle Eocene . Molecular phylogeny shows that the genus is divided into Old World and New World clades , but many oak species hybridise freely, making

630-420: The 1920s , residential complexes—compact territories with residential dwellings, schools, shops, entertainment facilities, and green spaces —started to prevail in urban planning practice, as they allowed for more careful and efficient planning of the rapid urban expansion. These complexes were seen as an opportunity to build a collective society, an environment suitable and necessary for the new way of life. In

675-452: The 1930s, residential complexes grew in size, covering territories of up to five to six hectares. A system of building residential complexes was gradually replaced with a concept of a city block . Such blocks generally comprised residential buildings along the perimeter, and residential buildings intermingled with public service buildings on the interior. However, it proved unfeasible to provide all public services within every city block, due to

720-697: The Daugava – the Swedish rampart. The destroyed church was renovated in 1631, but later – in 1896 and 1923 - rebuilt. In the 17th–19th century the surrounding area of Salaspils was governed by the Salaspils Estate which, was established near the destroyed Order's castle and was a part of Riga since 1630, and the Kurtes Estate which was situated in the territory of present Līvzemes street in Salaspils. The Riga–Daugavpils railway opened in 1861, and

765-689: The Livonian Order built the castle (Neu-Kircholm) on the mainland, with St George's church by it. The castle was an important support-point outside of Riga, and a small town grew up around it. Both the castle and village were destroyed in 1577 during the Livonian War . In 1605 the village was a site of the Battle of Kircholm in which forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth defeated a much more numerous army of Sweden . This

810-706: The Old World, oaks of section Quercus extend across the whole of Europe including European Russia apart from the far north, and north Africa (north of the Sahara) from Morocco to Libya. In Mediterranean Europe, they are joined by oaks of the sections Cerris and Ilex , which extend across Turkey, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan , while section Ponticae is endemic to the western Caucasus in Turkey and Georgia . Oaks of section Cyclobalanopsis extend in

855-575: The area of 10–60  hectares (30–160 acres), up to but not exceeding 80 hectares (200 acres) in some cases, and comprised residential dwellings (usually multi-story apartment buildings ) and public service buildings. As a general rule, major motor roads, greenways , and natural obstacles served as boundaries between microdistricts, allowing an overall reduction in city road construction and maintenance costs and emphasizing public transportation . Major motor roads or through streets were not to cross microdistricts' territories. The entrances to

900-406: The city blocks. However, new construction was based on the same principles as in the previous decades, and could not keep up with the increasing housing demand. Labor-intensive industrialization of the country demanded ever more workers, which was hard to achieve with housing accommodation lacking. Soviet authorities revisited issues of urban planning in the mid-1950s. The new urban planning concept

945-435: The city were critical. One of the city-planners' tasks was to ensure that the public buildings were built to cover the microdistrict's territory in accordance with the norms. Typical public service structures include secondary schools , pre-school establishments (usually combined kindergarten and nursery ), grocery stores, personal service shops, cafeterias , clubs, playgrounds , and building maintenance offices, as well as

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990-473: The concept as known in the Soviet Union, and are considered to be an evolution of the work unit ( Chinese : 单位 ; pinyin : dān wèi ). Xiaoqu similarly promoted a sense of community among the inhabitants. However, after the economy was opened up more for commercial real estate developers, xiaoqu continued to be built in recent decades, but evolved in several ways such as differentiation in luxury, safety and available services. The apartments are owned by

1035-707: The early phases of the Livonian Crusade , the Livonian chieftain Ako organized the first revolt against the German crusaders but suffered defeat. The Latvian name of the Salaspils "island castle" is probably derived from Mārtiņsala Island castle, but the Germanized name Kircholm – from the Mārtiņsala Island church. Both names were used when referring to the territory on the northern bank of the Daugava. In 1380

1080-491: The erection of the rows and rows of faceless grey rectangular apartment buildings which now prevail in every city and town of the countries of the former Soviet Union. Such a drastic reduction in building costs was necessary because, after World War II, there was a significant deficit in housing caused by the destruction of infrastructure in the Soviet Union during the war, with many major cities being completely destroyed and their buildings becoming unusable. Humorous insights into

1125-536: The first Republic of Latvia there were three parishes in Salaspils territory – Stopiņi, Salaspils (Ķesterciems) and Dole. In 1941, during World War II , German Nazi authorities established the largest civilian concentration camp in the Baltic states 2 km northwest of the town of Salaspils. The Latvian historian Heinrihs Strods and the German Holocaust historians Andrej Angrick and Peter Klein estimate

1170-404: The genus Quercus consisted of Old World and New World clades. The entire genome of Quercus robur (the pedunculate oak) has been sequenced , revealing an array of mutations that may underlie the evolution of longevity and disease resistance in oaks. In addition, hundreds of oak species have been compared (at RAD-seq loci), allowing a detailed phylogeny to be constructed. However,

1215-641: The genus are often large and slow-growing; Q. alba can reach an age of 600 years, a diameter of 13 feet (4.0 m) and a height of 145 feet (44 m). The Granit oak in Bulgaria, a Q. robur specimen, has an estimated age of 1637 years, making it the oldest oak in Europe. The Wi'aaSal tree, a live oak in the reservation of the Pechanga Band of Indians , California, is at least 1000 years old, and might be as much as 2000 years old, which would make it

1260-551: The genus's history difficult to resolve. Ecologically, oaks are keystone species in habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical rainforest . They live in association with many kinds of fungi including truffles . Oaks support more than 950 species of caterpillar , many kinds of gall wasp which form distinctive galls , roundish woody lumps such as the oak apple , and a large number of pests and diseases. Oak leaves and acorns contain enough tannin to be toxic to cattle, but pigs are able to digest them safely. Oak timber

1305-1268: The high signal of introgressive hybridization (the transfer of genetic material by repeated backcrossing with hybrid offspring) in the genus has made it difficult to resolve an unambiguous, unitary history of oaks. The phylogeny from Hipp et al. 2019 is: CTB lineage [REDACTED] Cyclobalanoides Glauca [REDACTED] Acuta [REDACTED] Semiserrata East Asian Cerris [REDACTED] West Eurasian Cerris [REDACTED] Early-diverging Ilex [REDACTED] East Asian Ilex [REDACTED] Himalaya-Mediterranean [REDACTED] Himalayan subalpine [REDACTED] Agrifoliae [REDACTED] Palustres [REDACTED] Coccineae (Rubrae) [REDACTED] Phellos (Laurifoliae) [REDACTED] Texas red oaks [REDACTED] Erythromexicana [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Dumosae [REDACTED] Prinoids [REDACTED] Albae [REDACTED] Roburoids [REDACTED] Stellatae [REDACTED] Texas white oaks [REDACTED] Leucomexicana [REDACTED] Mikroraion Microdistrict , or micro raion ( Russian : микрорайо́н , romanized :  mikrorayon ; Ukrainian : мікрорайо́н , romanized :  mikroraion ),

1350-535: The inhabitants, and the xiaoqu is often enclosed by a wall, with the entrance gate being guarded. The xiaoqu often also have their own government representatives and property managers. The number of residents can vary greatly depending on the kind of xiaoqu, with Beijing's Tiantongyuan suburb having 420,000 residents, whereas other xiaoqu only consist of one building housing a few hundred residents. 2016 State Council guidelines called for opening up private roads in xiaoqu, and building smaller scale xiaoqu, to allow

1395-582: The largest number of oak species, with approximately 160 species in Mexico, of which 109 are endemic, and about 90 in the United States. The second greatest area of oak diversity is China, with approximately 100 species. In the Americas, Quercus is widespread from Vancouver and Nova Scotia in the south of Canada, south to Mexico and across the whole of the eastern United States. It is present in

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1440-467: The late 1950s and early 1960s, various industrial enterprises and governmental institutions developed in Salaspils, such as the nuclear plant and four branches of the Academy of Science. Large multi-storied housing blocks appeared to house incoming power plant workers, many of whom were Russians. In a few decades Salaspils transformed from a very peaceful rural settlement to a mikroraion -style town. Due to

1485-442: The latter's relatively compact size; it was not unusual to have a school, a kindergarten, or a store serving the population of several blocks, which were often separated by major motor roads. The system of the city block also required a developed network of roads, thus increasing the maintenance and construction costs and complicating the organization of public transportation. The 1940s and 1950s saw further enlargement and grouping of

1530-542: The new center of the town developed near Salaspils station just opposite the Kurtes Estate. In the second part of the 19th century, military summer camps were organized in the territory of Salaspils and an Orthodox church was built into a garrison. During the World War I, the front line was at Salaspils for two years, and many of the buildings and farmsteads, especially along the river, were destroyed. The infamous battles at Nāves Sala and Mazā Jugla were fought nearby. During

1575-483: The number of deaths at Salaspils at 2,000–3,000 in total, including children. At the site of the camp, a major monument complex in remembrance of the Soviet victims of Nazism was opened on 31 October 1967. In addition, the Wehrmacht operated two sub-camps for Soviet prisoners of war near Salaspils ( Zweiglager-1 and Zweiglager-2 ), both part of Stalag 350 . The exact numbers of those who died at these two camps

1620-749: The oak tree is a symbol of strength and serves as the national tree of many countries. In Indo-European and related religions, the oak is associated with thunder gods . Individual oak trees of cultural significance include the Royal Oak in Britain, the Charter Oak in the United States, and the Guernica Oak in the Basque Country . The generic name Quercus is Latin for "oak", derived from Proto-Indo-European *kwerkwu- , "oak", which

1665-560: The oldest oak in the US. Among the smallest oaks is Q. acuta , the Japanese evergreen oak. It forms a bush or small tree to a height of some 30 feet (9.1 m). The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas , Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America has

1710-877: The oldest records in Asia from the Middle Eocene of Japan; both forms have affinities to the Cyclobalanopsis group. Quercus forms part, or rather two parts, of the Quercoideae subfamily of the Fagaceae , the beech family. Modern molecular phylogenetics suggests the following relationships: Fagus (beeches) Trigonobalanus (3 evergreen species) Lithocarpus (stone oaks) Chrysolepis (chinquapins) Quercus pro parte Notholithocarpus (tan oak) Quercus pro parte Castanopsis (also called chinquapins) Castanea (chestnuts) Molecular techniques for phylogenetic analysis show that

1755-514: The people with facilities needed on a daily basis, whereas services in lesser demand were available on the residential-district level. This concept was backed up with the reorganization of the Soviet construction industry— panel-block apartment buildings became widespread as they allowed for fast, although often low-quality, construction, reduced costs, and economies of scale . The whole construction process became simplified and standardized, leading to

1800-504: The potential consequences of living in such a bland and repetitive atmosphere appear in the hugely popular Mosfilm production The Irony of Fate (1976). In China, this type of neighbourhood unit is known as xiaoqu ( Chinese : 小区 ; pinyin : xiǎo qū ). First built in the 1980s in Jinan , Tianjin , and Wuxi , preceding the Chinese economic reform , they were very similar to

1845-466: The rapid development, Soviet authorities ordered construction of the Riga HES and Riga TEC-2. The dam created a massive reservoir that flooded monuments of Salaspils ancient history. The last unsubmerged sections of old Salaspils have been preserved near the Salaspils railway station. Due to the industrial development of Salaspils, the population has reached 21,000. At the 2000 census, 42% of population

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1890-469: The west of the Institute of Physics, in the northeastern part of the town. The reactor was operational from 1969 to 1998. The plant partook in neutron activation analysis and gamma irradiation for various materials. It was a swimming pool reactor . It is now being demolished. Salaspils is twinned with: Oak See also List of Quercus species . An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in

1935-470: Was Latvian, 42% was Russian and 16% belonged to other ethnic groups. The National Botanic Garden of Latvia occupy circa 130 ha in the northern part of Salaspils. The National Botanical Garden is famous for having the richest plant collection in the Baltic States. The gardens are open to visitors, and used for recreation by the inhabitants of Salaspils. The reactor site is located in the forest, to

1980-408: Was built on the idea of residential districts (with 10,000–30,000 inhabitants each), consisting of several microdistricts (with 8,000–12,000 inhabitants each), which in their turn comprised several residential complexes (with 1,000–1,500 inhabitants each). In larger cities, residential districts were grouped into urban zones, the population of which could reach one million. Each microdistrict provided

2025-530: Was the biggest battle of the Polish–Swedish War . The battle took place near St George's church and about 9000 Swedish soldiers were buried there. Two memorial stones in Salaspils commemorate of one of the biggest battles in Europe in the 17th century – in memory of the victory of the Polish–Lithuanian forces. Up to the second part of the 20th century a magnificent 17th century military fortification near

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