Illinois Basin
47-482: The Salina Group or Salina Formation is a Late Silurian -age, Stratigraphic unit of sedimentary rock that is found in Northeastern and Midwestern North America . Named for its Halite beds, the phrase "Salina Group" was first used as a descriptive term by James D. Dana in 1863. The Salina is an extensive formation. It ranges from West Virginia up through Pennsylvania into Ohio and then Michigan in
94-488: A strike from its skilled workers, mostly of British origin, in response to disregard by the company to union demands. The company recruited Polish and Czech immigrants to replace striking workers, and reopened on 5 June. The company eventually gained the sympathy of the city when the striking workers turned violent on 13 June. In June 1885 a larger and more violent strike occurred, this time led by Polish and Czech workers in response to wage cuts. The violent tactics used by
141-723: A diverse range of epibionts, including certain hederelloids as aforementioned. Photosymbiotic scleractinians made their first appearance during the Middle Silurian. Reef abundance was patchy; sometimes, fossils are frequent, but at other points, are virtually absent from the rock record. Cleveland Rolling Mill The Cleveland Rolling Mill Company was a rolling steel mill in Cleveland , Ohio. It existed as an independent entity from 1863 to 1899. The company stemmed from developments initiated in 1857, when John and David I. Jones, along with Henry Chisholm , established
188-411: A food web based on as-yet-undiscovered detritivores and grazers on micro-organisms. Millipedes from Cowie Formation such as Cowiedesmus and Pneumodesmus were considered as the oldest millipede from the middle Silurian at 428–430 million years ago, although the age of this formation is later reinterpreted to be from the early Devonian instead by some researchers. Regardless, Pneumodesmus
235-519: A high degree of development in relation to the age of its fossil remains. Fossils of this plant have been recorded in Australia, Canada, and China. Eohostimella heathana is an early, probably terrestrial, "plant" known from compression fossils of Early Silurian (Llandovery) age. The chemistry of its fossils is similar to that of fossilised vascular plants, rather than algae. Fossils that are considered as terrestrial animals are also known from
282-490: A large ocean occupied most of the northern half of the globe. The high sea levels of the Silurian and the relatively flat land (with few significant mountain belts) resulted in a number of island chains, and thus a rich diversity of environmental settings. During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian icecaps were less extensive than those of
329-1310: A mill to process gypsum in 1841; a mill built by Houghton and Hubbard in Alabaster, Michigan became operational in 1862. The Salina serves as an oil reservoir formation along the Findlay Arch from Southwestern Michigan down into Northwest Ohio. Salt in not present along the Arch System. Medusaegraptus graminiformis (Ruedemann 1925) Orbiculoidea bertiensis (Ruedemann) Lingula semina (Ruedemann) Cyathophyllum hydraulicum (Simpson) Eurypterus remipes (DeKay, 1825) Archaeophonus eurypteroides (Kjellesvig-Waering 1966) Proscorpius osborni (Whitfield 1885) Paracarcinosoma scorpionis (Grote & Pitt) Eurypterus lacustris (Harlan, 1834) Erettopterus waylandsmithi (Kjellesvig-Waering & Caster 1955) Waeringopterus cumberlandicus (Leutze, 1961) Waeringopterus apfeli (Leutze, 1961) Dolichopterus herkimerensis (Caster and Kjellesvig-Waering 1956) Leperditia scalaris (Jones 1856) Megalomus canadensis (Hall, 1852) Loyalsburg Formation Late Silurian The Silurian ( / s ɪ ˈ lj ʊər i . ən , s aɪ -/ sih- LURE -ee-ən, sy- )
376-423: A minor mass extinction and associated with rapid sea-level change. Each one leaves a similar signature in the geological record, both geochemically and biologically; pelagic (free-swimming) organisms were particularly hard hit, as were brachiopods , corals , and trilobites , and extinctions rarely occur in a rapid series of fast bursts. The climate fluctuations are best explained by a sequence of glaciations, but
423-533: A rock outcrop along Plaster Creek where it enters Grand River . In 1838, Michigan's first state geologist , Douglass Houghton , arrived to select a site for salt mining and reported an abundance of gypsum in the area. That same year, he and Bela Hubbard discovered an outcrop of gypsum at the mouth of the Au Gres River in Saginaw Bay . In 1841, Daniel Ball and business partner Warren Granger built
470-527: A rolling mill at Newburgh , incorporated as Chisholm, Jones & Company , to reroll worn rails . In 1858, Andros B. Stone (brother of Amasa Stone ) bought into the firm, which became the Stone, Chisholm & Jones Company , and produced iron rails. The first blast furnace in Cleveland was built by the firm in 1861. In November 1863, an investment from Stone led to the expansion and reorganization of
517-525: A second supercontinent known as Euramerica . When the proto-Europe collided with North America, the collision folded coastal sediments that had been accumulating since the Cambrian off the east coast of North America and the west coast of Europe. This event is the Caledonian orogeny , a spate of mountain building that stretched from New York State through conjoined Europe and Greenland to Norway. At
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#1732779753582564-692: Is a geologic period and system spanning 24.6 million years from the end of the Ordovician Period, at 443.8 million years ago ( Mya ), to the beginning of the Devonian Period, 419.2 Mya. The Silurian is the third and shortest period of the Paleozoic Era, and the third of twelve periods of the Phanerozoic Eon. As with other geologic periods , the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but
611-717: Is also part of the Syracuse. Unit F is the youngest and largest salt in the group, also known as the Syracuse Formation . Where thicker, the F has beds of salt separated by rock grading from shale to dolomite, often with anhydrite present especially in the shale. Unit G is the Camillus , which consists of dolomite and anhydrite while unit H is known as the Bertie Formation . In the Michigan Basin,
658-561: Is still an important fossil as the oldest definitive evidence of spiracles to breath in the air. The first bony fish, the Osteichthyes , appeared, represented by the Acanthodians covered with bony scales. Fish reached considerable diversity and developed movable jaws , adapted from the supports of the front two or three gill arches. A diverse fauna of eurypterids (sea scorpions)—some of them several meters in length—prowled
705-628: Is the bottom of the Vernon. Where the formation thickens, there may also be one or two large salt beds within the unit. Anhydrite can be found throughout this unit. Due to unit A having two salt or anhydrite beds, it is often divided into the A1 and A2, with A1 being the basal unit. Unit B is another salt unit and marks the Middle Vernon. The percentage of salt can range from 90% to 100%. Thin dolomite beds run through this unit. In comparison, Unit C marks
752-628: The Bloomsburg Formation . It also underlies the Helderberg Group . Being a thick formation, the Salina has subunits, as well as letter designations for the different formations. The letters originate at the base (oldest) with the A unit to the stratigraphic top H unit (youngest) made up of Anhydrite . During an extensive study in the state of Michigan , each unit was mapped. Unit A consists of dolomite and shaly dolomite, and
799-580: The South Pole until they almost disappeared in the middle of Silurian. Layers of broken shells (called coquina ) provide strong evidence of a climate dominated by violent storms generated then as now by warm sea surfaces. The climate and carbon cycle appear to be rather unsettled during the Silurian, which had a higher frequency of isotopic excursions (indicative of climate fluctuations) than any other period. The Ireviken event , Mulde event , and Lau event each represent isotopic excursions following
846-765: The Bertie is pinched out; the Bass Islands Formation makes up the upper most Salina. Wabash Formation made up of the Liston Creek Member, Kenneth Limestone Member, Kokomo Limestone Member and the Misslssinewa Shale member. The Pleasant Mills Formation is made up of the Louisville Equivalent Member and Waldon Equivalent Member and Limberlost Dolomite Member. The Pleasant Mills Formation is equivalent to
893-683: The Llandovery and Wenlock. Trilobites started to recover in the Rhuddanian, and they continued to enjoy success in the Silurian as they had in the Ordovician despite their reduction in clade diversity as a result of LOME. The Early Silurian was a chaotic time of turnover for crinoids as they rediversified after LOME. Members of Flexibilia, which were minimally impacted by LOME, took on an increasing ecological prominence in Silurian seas. Monobathrid camerates, like flexibles, diversified in
940-490: The Llandovery, whereas cyathocrinids and dendrocrinids diversified later in the Silurian. Scyphocrinoid loboliths suddenly appeared in the terminal Silurian, shortly before the Silurian-Devonian boundary, and disappeared as abruptly as they appeared very shortly after their first appearance. Endobiotic symbionts were common in the corals and stromatoporoids. Rugose corals especially were colonised and encrusted by
987-596: The Order in which the Older Sedimentary Strata Succeed each other in England and Wales, which was the germ of the modern geological time scale . As it was first identified, the "Silurian" series when traced farther afield quickly came to overlap Sedgwick's "Cambrian" sequence, however, provoking furious disagreements that ended the friendship. The English geologist Charles Lapworth resolved
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#17327797535821034-475: The Silures show little correlation ( cf . Geologic map of Wales , Map of pre-Roman tribes of Wales ), Murchison conjectured that their territory included Caer Caradoc and Wenlock Edge exposures - and that if it did not there were plenty of Silurian rocks elsewhere 'to sanction the name proposed'. In 1835 the two men presented a joint paper, under the title On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, Exhibiting
1081-486: The Silurian was the diversification of jawed fish , which include placoderms , acanthodians (which gave rise to cartilaginous fish ) and osteichthyan ( bony fish , further divided into lobe-finned and ray-finned fishes )， although this corresponded to sharp decline of jawless fish such as conodonts and ostracoderms . The Silurian system was first identified by the Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison , who
1128-518: The Silurian. The definitive oldest record of millipede ever known is Kampecaris obanensis and Archidesmus sp. from the late Silurian (425 million years ago) of Kerrera . There are also other millipedes, centipedes , and trigonotarbid arachnoids known from Ludlow (420 million years ago). Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place that included non-predatory prey animals. Extrapolating back from Early Devonian biota, Andrew Jeram et al. in 1990 suggested
1175-650: The Tethys, the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys , the Rheic Ocean , the Iapetus Ocean (a narrow seaway between Avalonia and Laurentia), and the newly formed Ural Ocean . The Silurian period was once believed to have enjoyed relatively stable and warm temperatures, in contrast with the extreme glaciations of the Ordovician before it and the extreme heat of the ensuing Devonian; however, it is now known that
1222-733: The United States, and from Pennsylvania into New York . It is also found in the Canadian province of Ontario . (See Figure 1.) The thickness of the Salina Group varies greatly within the two basins, ranging from 84 feet in the southwestern corner of Michigan to an estimated 5,000 feet in that state's Gladwin County . This formation is of economic importance for salt mining , oil reservoir creation, gypsum mining, and potential natural gas storage. Research has also been done on
1269-547: The company, which then became the Cleveland Rolling Mill Company. In 1868 the company installed a pair of Bessemer converters , and started using them to produce steel. During the 1870s, various types of wire products were produced at the mill. In 1881 the company built Central Furnaces plant, near the Cuyahoga River , for the production of pig iron. In May 1882 the mill was faced with
1316-497: The conflict by defining a new Ordovician system including the contested beds. An alternative name for the Silurian was "Gotlandian" after the strata of the Baltic island of Gotland . The French geologist Joachim Barrande , building on Murchison's work, used the term Silurian in a more comprehensive sense than was justified by subsequent knowledge. He divided the Silurian rocks of Bohemia into eight stages. His interpretation
1363-459: The edge of the continental shelf) can be identified, and the highest Silurian sea level was probably around 140 metres (459 ft) higher than the lowest level reached. During this period, the Earth entered a warm greenhouse phase, supported by high CO 2 levels of 4500 ppm, and warm shallow seas covered much of the equatorial land masses. Early in the Silurian, glaciers retreated back into
1410-461: The end of the Silurian, sea levels dropped again, leaving telltale basins of evaporites extending from Michigan to West Virginia, and the new mountain ranges were rapidly eroded. The Teays River , flowing into the shallow mid-continental sea, eroded Ordovician Period strata, forming deposits of Silurian strata in northern Ohio and Indiana. The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include two phases of
1457-538: The entire "A Unit" in the Appalachian Basin. Salt mines and brine wells are located in Western New York, Northeast Ohio and Detroit, Michigan with Ohio's salt production predating European settlement of the area as Native Americans collected and processed brine from springs in several locations, including "salt licks" where minerals were deposited by brine seeping out of the ground. Licking County
Salina Group - Misplaced Pages Continue
1504-752: The exact dates are uncertain by a few million years. The base of the Silurian is set at a series of major Ordovician–Silurian extinction events when up to 60% of marine genera were wiped out. One important event in this period was the initial establishment of terrestrial life in what is known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution : vascular plants emerged from more primitive land plants, dikaryan fungi started expanding and diversifying along with glomeromycotan fungi, and three groups of arthropods ( myriapods , arachnids and hexapods ) became fully terrestrialized. Another significant evolutionary milestone during
1551-509: The first deep-boring bivalves are known from this period. Chitons saw a peak in diversity during the middle of the Silurian. Hederelloids enjoyed significant success in the Silurian, with some developing symbioses with the colonial rugose coral Entelophyllum . The Silurian was a heyday for tentaculitoids , which experienced an evolutionary radiation focused mainly in Baltoscandia, along with an expansion of their geographic range in
1598-695: The first period to see megafossils of extensive terrestrial biota in the form of moss -like miniature forests along lakes and streams and networks of large, mycorrhizal nematophytes , heralding the beginning of the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. However, the land fauna did not have a major impact on the Earth until it diversified in the Devonian. The first fossil records of vascular plants , that is, land plants with tissues that carry water and food, appeared in
1645-451: The global climate underwent many drastic fluctuations throughout the Silurian, evidenced by numerous major carbon and oxygen isotope excursions during this geologic period. Sea levels rose from their Hirnantian low throughout the first half of the Silurian; they subsequently fell throughout the rest of the period, although smaller scale patterns are superimposed on this general trend; fifteen high-stands (periods when sea levels were above
1692-464: The lack of tillites in the middle to late Silurian make this explanation problematic. The Silurian period has been viewed by some palaeontologists as an extended recovery interval following the Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME), which interrupted the cascading increase in biodiversity that had continuously gone on throughout the Cambrian and most of the Ordovician. The Silurian was
1739-402: The late-Ordovician glaciation. The southern continents remained united during this period. The melting of icecaps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea level, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity . The continents of Avalonia , Baltica , and Laurentia drifted together near the equator , starting the formation of
1786-561: The mass extinction's aftermath, but expanded their range afterwards. The most abundant brachiopods were atrypids and pentamerides; atrypids were the first to recover and rediversify in the Rhuddanian after LOME, while pentameride recovery was delayed until the Aeronian. Bryozoans exhibited significant degrees of endemism to a particular shelf. They also developed symbiotic relationships with cnidarians and stromatolites. Many bivalve fossils have also been found in Silurian deposits, and
1833-495: The second half of the Silurian Period. The earliest-known representatives of this group are Cooksonia . Most of the sediments containing Cooksonia are marine in nature. Preferred habitats were likely along rivers and streams. Baragwanathia appears to be almost as old, dating to the early Ludlow (420 million years) and has branching stems and needle-like leaves of 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in). The plant shows
1880-516: The shallow Silurian seas and lakes of North America; many of their fossils have been found in New York state . Brachiopods were abundant and diverse, with the taxonomic composition, ecology, and biodiversity of Silurian brachiopods mirroring Ordovician ones. Brachiopods that survived the LOME developed novel adaptations for environmental stress, and they tended to be endemic to a single palaeoplate in
1927-572: The strikers made the union unable to sustain support by the English-speaking skilled workers, who eventually returned to work in September. To prevent further riots by the unskilled workers, Mayor George Gardner ordered the company's president (William Chisholm, the oldest son of Henry Chisholm) to revert the wage cuts, which ended the strike, although many of the striking workers were denied their jobs back. The company reached its peak in
Salina Group - Misplaced Pages Continue
1974-561: The top of the Vernon Formation . It is a shaly dolomite; however, it can range from pure shale to pure dolomite beds within the unit. Anhydrite can be prevalent within this unit as well. Unit D, the bottom of the Syracuse formation, is almost pure salt. Some dolomite may also occur within this unit. It is the thinnest unit of the Salina, and is not always present. Unit E consists of shale, but can include dolomitic shale and dolomite. Anhydrite may also be present within this unit and
2021-596: The viability of storing radioactive waste in the salt beds of the Salina. The Salina Formation is composed chiefly of dolomite and shale , interbedded with anhydrite , gypsum , and salt . Stratigraphically , the Salina is placed in the Late Silurian age and is the lower member of the Cayugan Series. It overlies predominantly the Lockport ; in parts central to northeast Pennsylvania it overlies
2068-656: Was examining fossil-bearing sedimentary rock strata in south Wales in the early 1830s. He named the sequences for a Celtic tribe of Wales, the Silures , inspired by his friend Adam Sedgwick , who had named the period of his study the Cambrian , from a Latin name for Wales. Whilst the British rocks now identified as belonging to the Silurian System and the lands now thought to have been inhabited in antiquity by
2115-591: Was located at a depth of approximately 1,900 feet. By the 1890s, brine wells were drilled and operating in Cleveland. During this period, five salt-producing companies operated in Northeast Ohio. Sterling Morton built a salt mine at a depth of 1800 feet on Cleveland's east side and Clarence Foster examined drilling records from Standard Oil along Lake Erie . In 1827, Gypsum was first identified in Michigan, near Grand Rapids. An Odawa man discovered it in
2162-521: Was named for this natural phenomenon. Mahoning County's name is derived from a Native American term "ma-hon-ink" meaning "at the lick." Throughout the early 1800s, Ohio's salt demand exceeded its production from brine wells and licks. Oil and gas exploration facilitated the discovery of salt during the 1860s; however, it was not until 1886 when the Cleveland Rolling Mill was drilling its second natural gas well that it hit brine. The salt
2209-409: Was questioned in 1854 by Edward Forbes , and the later stages of Barrande; F, G and H have since been shown to be Devonian. Despite these modifications in the original groupings of the strata, it is recognized that Barrande established Bohemia as a classic ground for the study of the earliest Silurian fossils. With the supercontinent Gondwana covering the equator and much of the southern hemisphere,
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