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67-710: The prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg was an ecclesiastical state within the Holy Roman Empire . The official religion was Roman Catholicism , and the state was ruled by a Prince-Archbishop . However, Lutheranism had gained a toehold in Salzburg, mostly in the Alpine mountains and valleys outside the city. In the early 16th century, Lutheran ideas quickly spread throughout the Salzburg lands along with miners recruited from Saxony by Archbishop Matthias Lang von Wellenburg (d. 1540). The mountain peasants were also in

134-403: A fine soldier. As a small child, Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon. At the age of 6, he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets, and a year later, he was given a miniature arsenal. The love and affection Frederick William had for his heir initially was soon soured due to their increasingly different personalities. Frederick William ordered Fritz to undergo

201-480: A minimal education, live a simple Protestant lifestyle, and focus on the Army and statesmanship as he had. However, the intellectual Fritz was more interested in music, books and French culture, which were forbidden by his father as decadent and unmanly. As Fritz's defiance for his father's rules increased, Frederick William would frequently beat or humiliate Fritz (he preferred his younger sibling Augustus William ). Fritz

268-609: A period of tax exemption, as laid out in the 1724 proclamation of colonization. However, the Patent did not mention the three-year grace period, as the king wished to complete the population transfer as quickly as possible. Anticipating the arrival of the Salzburgers, Frederick William expelled Mennonites already living in the area who refused military service. The king also threatened to retaliate against Catholics living in Prussia if

335-604: A role in Katte receiving a death sentence. In any case, the court declared itself not competent in the case of the crown prince. Whether it was the king's intention to have his son executed as well (as Voltaire claims ) is not clear. However, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI intervened, claiming that a prince could only be tried by the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire itself. Frederick

402-545: A sensation in the Protestant states of Europe. At least 300 different books and pamphlets were written about the migration in 1732–1733, celebrating the faith and perseverance of the Salzburgers. Later, Goethe's poem Hermann and Dorothea would adapt a story from the Salzburg migration to the contemporary setting of the French Revolution. Prussia dispatched Baron Erich Christoph von Plotho to Salzburg to sell

469-666: A single vote each. Imperial Knights had immediate status but were not represented in the Diet . Imperial Estates could be either ecclesiastic or secular. The ecclesiastical Estates were led by: The secular Estates, most notably: Until 1582 the votes of the Free and Imperial Cities were only advisory. None of the rulers below the Holy Roman Emperor ranked as kings, with the exception of the Kings of Bohemia . The status of Estate

536-790: A stud farm in East Prussia, and Rheinsberg Palace . By the time of Frederick William's death in 1740, he and Frederick were on at least reasonable terms with each other. Although the relationship between Frederick William and Frederick was clearly hostile, Frederick wrote in his memoirs that his father "penetrated and understood great objectives and knew the best interests of his country better than any minister or general." Frederick William married his first cousin Sophia Dorothea of Hanover , George II 's younger sister (daughter of his uncle, King George I of Great Britain and Sophia Dorothea of Celle ) on 28 November 1706. Frederick William

603-669: Is likely that this system was first introduced under Emperor Sigismund , who is assumed to have commissioned the frescoes in Frankfurt city hall in 1414. As has been noted from an early time, this representation of the "imperial constitution" does not in fact represent the actual constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, as some imperial cities appear as "villages" or even "peasants". E.g. the four "peasants" are Cologne, Constance, Regensburg and Salzburg. The Burggrave of Stramberg (or Stromberg, Straburg, Strandeck, and variants)

670-702: The Berlin Palace and the City Palace, Potsdam . His children also had to spend their holidays here regularly. Frederick the Great had a strong dislike for the place, but the two youngest sons, in old age, after Frederick's death, returned together a few times out of sentimental memories to where they spent so much time growing up. Today the castle, southeast of the Berlin city limits not far from Berlin Airport,

737-720: The Dutch West India Company in exchange for 7,200 ducats and 12 enslaved African boys wearing gold chains. In 1732, the king invited the Salzburg Protestants to settle in East Prussia , which had been depopulated by plague in 1709. Under the terms of the Peace of Augsburg , the prince-archbishop of Salzburg could require his subjects to practice the Catholic faith, but Protestants had

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804-777: The Electorate of Hanover and the British colony of Georgia , where, at the instigation of the Augsburg preacher Samuel Urlsperger , several Salzburger emigrants led by Johann Martin Boltzius founded the town of Ebenezer . About 800 Protestants, mainly miners from Dürrnberg , emigrated to the Dutch Republic , where some of them settled around Cadzand . The expulsion of the Salzburg Protestants created

871-613: The Great Northern War , allied with Peter the Great of Russia , in order to gain a small portion of Swedish Pomerania ; this gave Prussia new ports on the Baltic Sea coast. More significantly, aided by his close friend Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau , the "Soldier-King" made considerable reforms to the Prussian army's training, tactics and conscription program—introducing the canton system , and greatly increasing

938-483: The Great Northern War plague outbreak devastated Prussia, the inefficiency and corruption of the king's favorite ministers and senior officials were highlighted. Frederick William with a party that formed at the court brought down the leading minister Johann Kasimir Kolbe von Wartenberg and his cronies, following an official investigation that exposed Wartenberg's huge-scale misappropriation and embezzlement. His close associate August David zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein

1005-485: The Holy Roman Empire with representation and the right to vote in the Imperial Diet ( Reichstag ). Rulers of these Estates were able to exercise significant rights and privileges and were " immediate ", meaning the only authority above them was that of the Holy Roman Emperor . They were thus able to rule their territories with a considerable degree of autonomy . The system of imperial states replaced

1072-516: The Imperial Diet was divided into three collegia : the Council of Electors , the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities. Electoral states belonged to the Council of Electors; other states, whether ecclesiastical or secular, belonged to the Council of Princes. Votes were held in right of the states, rather than personally. Consequently, an individual ruling several states held multiple votes; similarly, multiple individuals ruling parts of

1139-498: The Lithuania Minor region, mainly in the area of Gumbinnen (present-day Gusev, Kaliningrad Oblast ). King Frederick William I personally greeted the first group of immigrants and sang Protestant hymns with them. Over 30,000 Salzburgers emigrated as a result of the expulsion edict, the majority of them settling in East Prussia. Several hundred found refuge in territories ruled by King George II of Great Britain , including

1206-683: The Netherlands and Great Britain . However, the British were reluctant to press too hard, lest the Austrians respond by demanding better treatment for Catholics in Ireland. Between April and August 1732, over 20,000 Protestants left Salzburg for Prussia, traveling in twenty-six columns of about 800 emigrants each. The Salzburg Protestants were assessed an emigration tax of 10% of their belongings, which they paid upon departure. Among these assets

1273-633: The Soldier King ( German : Soldatenkönig ), was King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg from 1713 till his death in 1740, as well as Prince of Neuchâtel . Born in Berlin, he was raised by the Huguenot governess Marthe de Roucoulle . His political awakening occurred during the Great Northern War 's plague outbreak in Prussia , leading to his challenge against corruption and inefficiency in government. He initiated reforms, especially in

1340-770: The Bench of the Rhine and the Bench of Swabia . Each of these had a collective vote. Similarly, Counts were grouped into four comital benches with one collective vote each: the Upper Rhenish Bench of Wetterau , the Swabian Bench, the Franconian Bench and the Westphalian Bench. No elector ever held multiple electorates; nor were electorates ever divided between multiple heirs. Hence, in

1407-525: The Council of Electors, each individual held exactly one vote. An example of this was when Charles Theodore , Elector Palatine, inherited the Electorate of Bavaria in 1777, the vote of the Palatinate was nullified. However, Electors who ruled states in addition to their electorates also voted in the Council of Princes; similarly, princes who also ruled comital territories voted both individually and in

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1474-726: The Estate was limited to one family; a territory inherited by a different family ceased to be an Estate unless the Emperor explicitly allowed otherwise. Finally, a territory could cease to be an Imperial Estate by being subjected to the Imperial ban (the most notable example involved Frederick V, Elector Palatine , who was banned in 1621 for his participation in the Bohemian Revolt ). In the German mediatization between 1803 and 1806,

1541-523: The Imperial Estates represented in the Diet were divided into three chambers, the college of prince-electors ( Kurfürstenkollegium/den Kurfürstenrat ), the college of imperial princes ( Reichsfürstenrat ) and the college of imperial cities . Counts and nobles were not directly represented in the Diet in spite of their immediate status, but were grouped into "benches" ( Grafenbänke ) with

1608-639: The Protestant body in the Imperial Diet. Another delegation reached Berlin in November 1731, where they were questioned by the Prussian authorities on matters of religious doctrine. The Prussian government subsequently declared that the Salzburgers were bona fide Lutherans who were entitled to the protection of the Peace of Augsburg. King Frederick William I in Prussia saw an opportunity to resettle

1675-623: The Prussian Army from 38,000 men in 1713 to 80,000 in 1740, with an average of 1 out of every 25 Prussian men serving in the military. He expanded military obligations for the peasant class while replacing mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, and he established schools and hospitals. The king encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times. Frederick would also work to expand state income. He increased excise taxes, both on domestic and foreign goods, as well as subjecting

1742-460: The Prussian infantry's rate of fire through the introduction of the iron ramrod. Frederick William's reforms left his son Frederick with the most formidable army in Europe, which Frederick used to increase Prussia's power. Although a highly effective ruler, Frederick William had a perpetually short temper which sometimes drove him to physically attack servants (or even his own children) with a cane at

1809-636: The Prussian nobility to a land tax. He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials, containing 35 chapters and 297 paragraphs in which every public servant in Prussia could find his duties precisely set out: a minister or councillor failing to attend a committee meeting, for example, would lose six months' pay; if he absented himself a second time, he would be discharged from the royal service. In short, Frederick William I concerned himself with every aspect of his country, ruling an absolute monarchy with great energy and skill. The king also took an interest in Prussian colonial affairs . In 1717, he revoked

1876-489: The Salzburg Protestants in his East Prussian territories, which had been depopulated by an outbreak of plague some years before. On 2 February 1732 the King issued a Patent of Invitation, declaring the Salzburg Protestants to be Prussian subjects traveling under his protection. Prussian commissioners were sent to Salzburg to arrange for transportation. Upon arrival in Prussia, the Salzburgers would be given free land, supplies, and

1943-500: The Salzburg archbishop Friedrich Johannes Jacob Celestin von Schwarzenberg urged Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria to expel several hundred Protestants from the Tyrolean Zillertal . In 1966, Archbishop Andreas Rohracher expressed regret about the expulsions. Imperial State An Imperial Estate ( Latin : Status Imperii ; German : Reichsstand , plural: Reichsstände ) was an entity or an individual of

2010-583: The Salzburg example, Emperor Charles VI adopted the policy of expelling Protestants from his adjacent Salzkammergut territories from 1734 onwards. As he had no intention to lose any subjects to the Prussian king, he had about 4,000 refugees resettled in the Habsburg crown lands of Transylvania and Hungary . The 1781 Patent of Toleration , issued by Emperor Joseph II , put an end to the Counter-Reformation measures. Nevertheless, still in 1837,

2077-522: The Salzburgers were mistreated. Emperor Charles VI , who needed the support of the Protestant states to secure the Austrian succession , wrote a personal letter to von Firmian, asking him to comply with the Peace of Augsburg by allowing the Protestants to leave under reasonable terms and even to remain for three years if they wished. Diplomatic pressure was also exerted on the Habsburg emperor by

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2144-635: The age of 15 were forced to remain in Salzburg to be raised as Catholics, and the parents were taxed a portion of their possessions to pay for this Catholic education. In response, the Protestant body in the Reichstag protested that this expulsion violated both the Peace of Augsburg and the 1648 Peace of Westphalia . However, the Prince-Archbishop insisted that the expelees were not true Protestants, but rather heretics who were not entitled to

2211-836: The charter of the Brandenburg Africa Company (BAC), which had been granted said charter by his father to establish a colony in West Africa known as the Brandenburg Gold Coast . The king was unwilling to spend money on maintaining either the colony or the Prussian Navy , preferring to utilise state revenues on enlarging the Royal Prussian Army . In 1721, Frederick William sold the Brandenburg Gold Coast to

2278-576: The coffin was moved to Hohenzollern Castle , where it remained until 1991, when it was finally laid to rest on the steps of the altar in the Kaiser Friedrich Mausoleum in the Church of Peace on the palace grounds of Sanssouci . The original black marble sarcophagus collapsed at Burg Hohenzollern—the current one is a copper copy. His eldest surviving son was Frederick II (Fritz), born in 1712. Frederick William wanted him to become

2345-731: The comital benches. In the Reichstag in 1792 , for instance, the Elector of Brandenburg held eight individual votes in the Council of Princes and one vote in the Bench of Westphalia. Similarly, among ecclesiastics, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order held one individual vote in the Council of Princes and two in the Bench of the Rhine. The so-called imperial quaternions (German: Quaternionen der Reichsverfassung "quaternions of

2412-742: The dissolution of the empire itself, in 1806. Rulers of Imperial States enjoyed precedence over other subjects in the Empire. Electors were originally styled Durchlaucht (Serene Highness), princes Hochgeboren (high-born) and counts Hoch- und Wohlgeboren (high and well-born). In the eighteenth century, the electors were upgraded to Durchläuchtigste (Most Serene Highness), princes to Durchlaucht (Serene Highness) and counts to Erlaucht (Illustrious Highness). Imperial States enjoyed several rights and privileges. Rulers had autonomy inasmuch as their families were concerned; in particular, they were permitted to make rules regarding

2479-556: The foundation of the Canton system , as well as the conquest of the port of Stettin . His death in 1740 marked the end of a reign characterized by military and administrative reform. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick the Great . Frederick William was born in Berlin to King Frederick I of Prussia and Princess Sophia Charlotte of Hanover . During his first years, he was raised by the Huguenot governess Marthe de Roucoulle . When

2546-545: The habit of seeking seasonal work elsewhere in Germany, where they came into contact with the ideas of the Protestant Reformation . Literacy was widespread, and many Salzburgers owned Protestant books that had been brought in by travelers. Counter-Reformation measures were already taken by Wellenburg himself, but also by his successors, such as Wolf Dietrich Raitenau and Mark Sittich von Hohenems . Under

2613-502: The imperial constitution"; from Latin quaterniō "group of four soldiers") were a conventional representation of the Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire which first became current in the 15th century and was extremely popular during the 16th century. Apart from the highest tiers of the emperor , kings , prince-bishops and the prince electors , the estates are represented in groups of four . The number of quaternions

2680-412: The inheritance of their states without imperial interference. They were permitted to make treaties and enter into alliances with other Imperial States as well as with foreign nations. The electors, but not the other rulers, were permitted to exercise certain regalian powers, including the power to mint money, the power to collect tolls and a monopoly over gold and silver mines. From 1489 onwards,

2747-477: The lands that the Protestants had left behind, valued at about 2.5 million Prussian thalers . He was able to sell the properties only at severely depressed prices of one-quarter to one-half the assessed value. Only a small portion of the sales price was paid in cash, and a 10% emigration tax was paid to the Archbishopric. In total, about 300,000 thalers were recovered from the Salzburg properties. Following

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2814-658: The military, growing the Prussian Army significantly. A believer in absolute monarchy, he focused on state development and financial reorganization, imposing taxes and stringent regulations on public servants. He made efforts to reduce crime and centralized his authority during his 27 years' reign, cementing Prussia as a regional power. Despite his effective rule, he had a harsh nature, exacerbated by his health issues. He engaged in colonial affairs, but prioritized military expansion over colonial investments. His notable decisions included selling Prussian overseas colonies and

2881-433: The more regular division of Germany into stem duchies in the early medieval period. The old Carolingian stem duchies were retained as the major divisions of Germany under the Salian dynasty , but they became increasingly obsolete during the early high medieval period under the Hohenstaufen , and they were finally abolished in 1180 by Frederick Barbarossa in favour of more numerous territorial divisions. From 1489,

2948-554: The protections given to Protestants under the treaty. Contemporary documents capture the expulsion of 621 adults and 289 children from the Defereggen Valley. After five years of wrangling, Emperor Leopold I intervened and instructed Kuenburg's successor, Archbishop Johann Ernst von Thun , to give the children the choice of joining their parents in exile. However, only fourteen of them accepted this offer. In 1731, Prince-Archbishop Leopold Anton von Firmian decided to expel all remaining Protestants living in Salzburg. The expulsion edict

3015-481: The relationship between father and son she frequently spurred Frederick on in his defiance. They had fourteen children, including: He was the godfather of the Prussian envoy Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer and of his grand-nephew, Prince Edward Augustus of Great Britain. Königs Wusterhausen Castle, the king's hunting lodge and garden, were his favourite place to stay and to indulge in hunting when he wanted to relax from his state duties, which he performed at

3082-410: The right to emigrate to a Protestant state. Prussian commissioners accompanied 20,000 Protestants to their new homes on the other side of Germany. Frederick William I personally welcomed the first group of migrants and sang Protestant hymns with them. In 1733 he began building the Dutch Quarter in Potsdam , where he invited talented Dutch craftsmen to settle. Frederick William intervened briefly in

3149-441: The same state shared a single vote. These rules were not formalized until 1582; before then, when multiple individuals inherited parts of the same state, they sometimes received a vote each. Votes were either individual or collective. Princes and senior clerics generally held individual votes (but such votes, as noted above, were sometimes shared). Prelates (abbots and priors) without individual votes were classified into two benches:

3216-467: The slightest perceived provocation. His violent, harsh nature was further exacerbated by his inherited porphyritic disease , which gave him gout , obesity and frequent crippling stomach pains. He also had a notable contempt for France , and would sometimes fly into a rage at the mere mention of that country, although this did not stop him from encouraging the immigration of French Huguenot refugees to Prussia. Frederick William died in 1740 at age 51 and

3283-408: The state's finances. On ascending the throne in 1713, Frederick William therefore dismissed his father's corrupt " Cabinet of Three Counts ". He worked persistently to reorganize the finances that had been shattered by his father, furthermore to enhance the economic development of his far-flung countries and to build up one of the largest and best equipped and trained armies in Europe. He would expand

3350-401: The terms of the 1555 Peace of Augsburg signed by Emperor Charles V , the principle of Cuius regio, eius religio applied within the Empire. The ruler of each state could determine which religion could be practiced publicly in his territory. Dissenters only had the right to practice their religion privately or move to another state where it was the official religion. A three-year grace period

3417-437: The terms of the Peace of Westphalia. Bowing to pressure from the Protestant estates, the archbishop modified the order to allow families to stay until 23 April 1732 and to retain their property for three years. Before the expulsion order had been issued, the Salzburg Protestants had dispatched delegations to seek help from Protestant princes within the Empire. In August 1731, a delegation set out for Regensburg to seek help from

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3484-526: The title of king for the Duchy of Prussia for which he had paid the high price of 2 million ducats to Emperor Leopold I , 600,000 ducats to the German clergy and 20,000 thalers to the Jesuit order . In addition, Frederick was obligated to provide Leopold with 8,000 soldiers for the War of the Spanish Succession . To demonstrate his new status, he had the Berlin Palace , Charlottenburg Palace , and Königsberg Castle doubled in size and furnished at considerable expense. However, in doing so, he had largely ruined

3551-407: The vast majority of the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire were mediatised. They lost their Imperial immediacy and became part of other Estates. The number of Estates was reduced from about three hundred to about thirty. Mediatisation went along with secularisation: the abolition of most of the ecclesiastical Estates. This dissolution of the constitution of the structure of the empire was soon followed by

3618-494: Was about 800,000 Prussian thalers in cash. The emigrants were received by Prussian commissioners, who supplied them with travel money. The migration became a spectacle in the Protestant towns of Germany, whose residents plied the Salzburgers with food and money as they passed through. Several hundred Salzburgers died in the trek across Germany. The first Salzburg Protestants reached Königsberg on 28 May 1732. About 16,000 to 17,000 arrived in East Prussia, where they were settled in

3685-403: Was an unknown entity even at the time. The representation of imperial subjects is also far from complete. The "imperial quaternions" are, rather, a more or less random selection intended to represent pars pro toto the structure of the imperial constitution. Frederick William I of Prussia Frederick William I ( German : Friedrich Wilhelm I. ; 14 August 1688 – 31 May 1740), known as

3752-403: Was beaten for being thrown off a bolting horse and wearing gloves in cold weather. At age 16, Frederick seems to have embarked upon a youthful affair with Peter Karl Christoph von Keith , a 17-year-old page of his father. Rumors of the liaison spread in the court, and the "intimacy" between the two boys provoked the comments of his sister, Wilhelmine , who wrote, "Though I had noticed that he

3819-402: Was faithful and loving to his wife but they did not have a happy relationship: Sophia Dorothea feared his unpredictable temper and resented him, both for allowing her no influence or independence at court, and for refusing to marry her children to their English cousins. She also abhorred his cruelty towards their son and heir Frederick (with whom she was close), although rather than trying to mend

3886-446: Was granted to sell off property and wind up one's financial affairs before emigrating. In 1684, Prince-Archbishop Max Gandolph von Küenburg decided to expel the Protestants living in the remote Defereggen Valley , after receiving complaints from Matrei that a seller of Catholic tokens had been mistreated. The Deferegger Protestants were forced to leave during winter, without the stipulated three-year grace period. All children under

3953-428: Was imprisoned at Spandau Citadel , fined 70,000 thalers and banished subsequently. The incident exerted great influence on Frederick William, making him resent crime, corruption, wastage and inefficiency and realize the necessity of institutional reform. It also became the first time he actively participated in politics. From then on, Frederick I began to let his son take more power. His father had successfully acquired

4020-472: Was imprisoned in the Fortress of Küstrin from 2 September to 19 November 1731 and exiled from court until February 1732, during which time he was rigorously schooled in matters of state. After achieving a measure of reconciliation, Frederick William had his son married to Princess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern , whom Frederick despised, but then grudgingly allowed him to indulge in his musical and literary interests again. He also gifted him

4087-454: Was interred at the Garrison Church in Potsdam . During World War II, in order to protect it from advancing allied forces, Hitler ordered the king's coffin, as well as those of Frederick the Great and Paul von Hindenburg , into hiding, first to Berlin and later to a salt mine outside of Bernterode . The coffins were later discovered by occupying American forces, who re-interred the bodies in St. Elizabeth's Church, Marburg in 1946. In 1953

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4154-419: Was issued on 31 October 1731, the 214th anniversary of the start of the Protestant Reformation . Modeled after the Deferegger expulsion, von Firmian's edict ordered Protestants to leave Salzburg within eight days, leaving behind all children under the age of 12. Single men and women without land holdings were rounded up in November by Austrian troops and escorted out of Salzburg. Firmian's edict clearly defeated

4221-439: Was normally attached to a particular territory within the Empire, but there were some reichsständische Personalisten , or "persons with Imperial statehood". Originally, the Emperor alone could grant that status, but in 1653, several restrictions on the Emperor's power were introduced. The creation of a new Estate required the assent of the College of Electors and of the College of Princes (see Reichstag below). The ruler

4288-414: Was on more familiar terms with this page than was proper in his position, I did not know how intimate the friendship was." Rumors finally reached King Frederick William, who cultivated an ideal of ultramasculinity in his court, and derided his son's supposedly effeminate tendencies . As a result, Keith was dismissed from his service to the king and sent away to a regiment by the Dutch border, while Frederick

4355-473: Was required to agree to accept Imperial taxation and military obligations. Furthermore, the Estate was required to obtain admittance into one of the Imperial Circles . Theoretically, personalist Estates were forbidden after 1653, but exceptions were often made. Once a territory attained the status of an Estate, it could only lose that status under very few circumstances. A territory ceded to a foreign power ceased to be an Estate. From 1648 onwards, inheritance of

4422-407: Was sent to the king's hunting lodge at Königs Wusterhausen in order to "repent of his sin". After the prince attempted to flee to England with his tutor, Hans Hermann von Katte , the enraged king had Katte beheaded before the eyes of the prince, who himself was court-martialled. The king may have thought that Frederick's relationship with Katte was also romantic, a suspicion that may have played

4489-399: Was usually ten, in descending order of precedence Dukes ( Duces ), Margraves ( Marchiones ), Landgraves ( Comites Provinciales ), Burggraves ( Comites Castrenses ), Counts ( Comites ), Knights ( Milites ), Noblemen ( Liberi ), Cities ( Metropoles ), Villages ( Villae ) and Peasants ( Rustici ). The list could be shortened or expanded, by the mid-16th century to as many as 45. It

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