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117-524: The board's responsibilities include: Board members are paid around $ 6,000 a year. In October 1849, John C. Pelton opened a school in a Baptist church in San Francisco. It was funded by voluntary donations and tuition, with poor children able to attend for free. In 1850, the city council adopted an ordinance making it free public school for all children, a first in California. In September 1851,

234-636: A Republican-majority Congress , in "by far the largest act of executive clemency in American history", according to historian James McPherson . Historian Harold Holzer argued that Lincoln's stance on Indian affairs was considered progressive for the time. According to the video of its meeting, the renaming committee's internal discussion on Lincoln took only five seconds. President of the renaming committee, Jeremiah Jeffries, later added that Lincoln "did not show through policy or rhetoric that black lives ever mattered" to him "outside human capital". This assertion

351-524: A "response mural" at the school, which depicted the historical struggles of Black, Native, and Latin Americans. In June 2019, the board unanimously voted to paint over the mural, with a provision that allowed the mural to be obfuscated instead if painting over it resulted in delays or other legal issues. After a national outcry, the board reversed its decision in August 2019 by voting 4 to 3 to instead cover

468-620: A 54/44 split in California , a 58/40 split in New York , and a 48/51 split in America as a whole on Election Day itself. In the 2012 presidential election , 81% of Chinese American voters selected Barack Obama over Mitt Romney . Chinese American cuisine originated with this ethnic group. Many immigrants in the mid-20th century used Chinese restaurants as a way of having employment. By 2019, many such establishments were closing because

585-663: A book in 1916 on this "New Profession" and emphasized the role of superintendent as chief executive of schools. In 1914, the US Commissioner of Education wrote that the US was moving "unmistakably in the direction of a profession of educational administration as distinct from teaching." By 1925, journals and books on educational administration had adopted a view of superintendents as executives, as Cubberley had advocated. Chinese Americans Chinese Americans are Americans of Chinese ancestry. Chinese Americans constitute

702-514: A dead Native American . He also suggested that the school be renamed after a San Francisco native such as Maya Angelou , who is an alumna, because George Washington was a slave owner. The mural had previously been the subject of controversy in the 1960s and 1970s when student activists demanded that it be taken down. In a compromise, the school board and the San Francisco Arts Commission hired Dewey Crumpler to paint

819-479: A dramatic increase in the number of high schools operating both in Michigan and other states, which led to an increase in the number of superintendents. Early superintendents tended to focus on instruction, with "overall fiscal affairs, school building construction, and maintenance" remaining under school district control, becoming normal responsibilities of superintendents only in the early twentieth century. By

936-649: A first grade teacher and activist Jeremiah Jeffries, was assembled in 2020 and recommended 44 names that met the criteria of being associated with the European colonization of the Americas , slavery in the United States , exploitation, racism , or abuse for renaming. Early estimates priced the entire process to at least US$ 1,000,000. By a 6 to 1 vote on January 26, 2021, the board approved the entire list, which included all schools named after U.S. presidents with

1053-520: A group of Lowell community members and threatened to sue the board, calling the end of the testing-based admission system "an unconstitutional and illegal program designed to disenfranchise hardworking students". On April 23, 2021, a separate lawsuit was filed against the board, claiming that the board had violated California's Brown Act when it changed the school's admission policy without allowing enough time for public outreach and comment. On November 18, 2021, Superior Court Judge Ethan Schulman agreed with

1170-435: A hearing. Some even committed suicide as they feared being denied access to the country. Once they were approved and allowed into the country, Chinese women migrants faced additional challenges. Many were coerced into prostitution, with over 60% of the adult Chinese women living in California in 1870 working in the trade. Some women were lured to the U.S. with the promise of marriage only to become sex slaves, while others went to

1287-551: A lottery based system for the 2020–2021 school year due to the district moving to a pass/fail system during the coronavirus pandemic. After a racist incident at Lowell, the board voted 5-2, with Kevine Boggess and Jenny Lam dissenting, in February 2021 to make the switch permanent. They cite the lack of diversity and "pervasive systemic racism" as driving factors for the change, in addition to state law preventing comprehensive high schools from using selective enrollment. The decision

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1404-566: A mild level of depression which was higher than other ethnic groups. Further, the study reported that these depressive symptoms among older Chinese adults "tend to remain untreated." According to the United States Census Bureau , the various varieties of Chinese make up the third-most spoken language in the United States. It is almost completely spoken within Chinese American populations and by immigrants or

1521-433: A number of public schools or a school district , a local government body overseeing public schools. All school principals in a respective school district report to the superintendent. The role and powers of the superintendent vary among areas According to Sharp and Walter, a popularly held opinion is that "the most important role of the board of education is to hire its superintendent." The first education laws in

1638-489: A paper citing severe stigma of mental illness in the Chinese American community as a barrier to diagnosis and treatment. In a 1998 study of 29 diagnosed depressive Chinese American immigrants, more than half of respondents avoided labeling their symptoms as depression. While patients were able to accurately identify and report depressive symptoms such as "irritability" and "rumination," patients were more likely to attribute their depression to somatic and physical symptoms than as

1755-596: A plan to reopen the schools during the COVID-19 pandemic , during which the district's deficit roughly doubled from 2019's $ 22 million. Public comments, including from the president of the teachers' union, expressed concern about the chosen consulting group's previous relationship with charter schools . The board voted 4 to 2 (with 1 absence) to not hire the consultant, partly due to that connection and partly due to cost. On February 3, 2021, San Francisco City Attorney Dennis Herrera announced that, on February 11, he will sue

1872-496: A political party. Chinese Americans tend to be clustered in majority- Democratic states and have increasingly voted Democratic in recent presidential elections, following the trend for Asian Americans in general, excluding the Vietnamese Americans . Polling just before the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election found John Kerry was favored by 58% of Chinese Americans and George W. Bush by only 23%, as compared with

1989-603: A psychological state. Among Asian-American youth in 1980, suicide accounted for 20.8% of Chinese American female deaths. Among males, it constituted 15.1% of deaths. The study also reported that suicide rates among Chinese American elderly were higher than that of the national suicide rate for African-American, Hispanic, and Native-American. A study published in the Journal of Aging and Health, stated that 18% to 29.4% of older Chinese adults in North America had at least

2106-641: A small city with a large number of colleges. Income and social status of these Chinese American locations vary widely. As of 2012 about 333,333 people living in the United States with a Chinese background are not United States citizens. Although many Chinese Americans in Chinatowns of large cities are often members of an impoverished working class, others are well-educated upper-class people living in affluent suburbs. The upper and lower-class Chinese are also widely separated by social status and class discrimination. In California's San Gabriel Valley , for example,

2223-485: A subgroup of East Asian Americans which also constitute a subgroup of Asian Americans . Many Chinese Americans have ancestors from mainland China , Hong Kong , Macau , Malaysia , Singapore , Taiwan , as well as other regions that are inhabited by large populations of the Chinese diaspora , especially Southeast Asia and some other countries such as Australia , Canada , France , South Africa , New Zealand , and

2340-634: Is also another population center for Chinese Americans, as it contains the highest percentage of Chinese Americans in the Southern United States. In addition to the big cities, smaller pockets of Chinese Americans are also dispersed in rural towns, often university-college towns, throughout the United States. For example, the number of Chinese Americans, including college professors, doctors, professionals, and students, has increased over 200% from 2005 to 2010 in Providence, Rhode Island ,

2457-521: Is home to the largest Chinese American population of any metropolitan area within the United States, enumerating an estimated 893,697 in 2017 and including at least 12 Chinatowns . Continuing significant immigration from mainland China is fueled by New York's status as an alpha global city, its high population density, its extensive mass transit system, and the New York metropolitan area's enormous economic marketplace. The Manhattan Chinatown contains

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2574-480: Is in China, as Chinese Christians flee to the United States from Chinese Communist persecution. Chinese Americans are divided among many subgroups based on factors such as language, religion, generational status, age and socioeconomic status . Sometimes, these subgroups have conflicting political priorities and goals. As of 2013, Chinese Americans were the least likely Asian-American ethnicity to be affiliated with

2691-493: Is used as a secondary dialect to English. In addition, the immigration from Fuzhou , Fujian brings in a significant populace of Fuzhou people ( Eastern Min ), particularly Changle dialect speakers to major cities like New York City, San Francisco, and Boston. People from Fujian ( Minnan region ), Chaoshan , Taiwan and Southeast Asia mainly use Southern Min dialect ( Hokkien and Teochew ) as their mother tongue. Varieties of Wu Chinese , particularly Shanghainese and

2808-448: The Life of Washington mural . State officials stated that the school board had taken no action for a year to address budget deficits. Former school board member Rachel Norton said, "…your responsibility as a board member, first and foremost, is the financial condition of the district. That is your job… It doesn't appear that this board has made the hard decisions." With two weeks left until

2925-628: The COVID-19 pandemic in the San Francisco Bay Area rather than the renaming effort. The San Francisco Chronicle editorialized, "While most of the country is rightly engaged in removing racist monuments to the Confederacy , only in San Francisco must the heroes of the Union be toppled: The board's list includes Lincoln , Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman , and the abolitionist poet and editor James Russell Lowell ." Proponents of

3042-657: The Empire of Japan and forced Theodore Roosevelt to intervene, who was wary of Japan's recent victory in the Russo-Japanese War . After Roosevelt realized that this was a matter of immigration and that the ordinance affected only 93 students, he brokered the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 , whereby the students would be allowed into the schools and the Japanese government would stop issuing passports for laborers to

3159-726: The Geary Act was passed to extend the Chinese Exclusion Act, and in 1902, the prohibition was expanded to cover Hawaii and the Philippines, despite the strong objections from the Chinese government and people. Only in 1898, as a result of the United States v. Wong Kim Ark Supreme Court decision, ethnic Chinese born in the United States become American citizens . The Chinese Exclusion Acts remained part of

3276-544: The Michigan Legislature enacted legislature authorizing the election of school districts and the establishment of high schools funded by local taxes. In January 1873, three Kalamazoo property owners filed a lawsuit challenging the law. In a unanimous decision of the Michigan Supreme Court in 1874 written by the prominent Justice Thomas M. Cooley , the law was upheld. This decision led to

3393-505: The Mid-Autumn Festival . A 2007 analysis indicated that most non-Asian Americans do not differentiate between Chinese Americans and East Asian Americans generally, and perceptions of both groups are nearly identical. A 2001 survey of Americans' attitudes toward Asian Americans and Chinese Americans indicated that one fourth of the respondents had somewhat or very negative attitude toward Chinese Americans in general. However,

3510-640: The Page Law of 1875 banned all female Chinese migrants from entering the United States. Upon arrival to the U.S. Chinese men and women were separated from each other as they awaited hearings on their immigration status, which often took weeks. During this time the women were subjected to lengthy questioning that focused on their family life and origins. Their responses were then cross examined with others from their village, and any discrepancies were used to justify denial of entry. The stress of being separated from family caused many women to fall ill while they waited for

3627-534: The Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province. The eight districts consist of three subgroups—the four districts of Sze Yup , the district of Chung Shan , and the three districts of Sam Yup —each subgroup speaking a distinct dialect of Cantonese . In the U.S., people from Sze Yup generally worked as laborers; Chung Shan people specialized in agriculture; and Sam Yup people worked as entrepreneurs. In

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3744-732: The San Francisco riot of 1877 , the Issaquah and Tacoma riot of 1885 , the attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers in 1885, the Seattle riot of 1886 , and the Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 . With the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic , which is believed to have started in the city of Wuhan, China, numerous incidents of xenophobia and racism against Chinese people and people who are perceived to be Chinese have been reported. In 2008, researchers Georg Hsu and Yu Mui Wan published

3861-588: The Transcontinental Railroad . Chinese laborers built the majority of the difficult route through the Sierra Nevada mountains and across Nevada . By 1869, there were at least 100,000 ethnic Chinese in the United States. By 1887, less than four hundred thousand Chinese entered the United States, concentrated in California. The Burlingame-Seward Treaty of 1868 between the United States and Qing China supported Chinese migration, but

3978-632: The United Kingdom . Chinese Americans include Chinese from the China circle and around the world who became naturalized U.S. citizens as well as their natural-born descendants in the United States. The Chinese American community is the largest overseas Chinese community outside Asia . It is also the third-largest community in the Chinese diaspora , behind the Chinese communities in Thailand and Malaysia . The 2022 American Community Survey of

4095-493: The United States , after initially failing to persuade the board to rescind their decision. In the 1920s, the school was renamed Commodore Stockton School and students were allowed to attend nearby schools as the student population became too large. The board officially rescinded the policy in 2017 as a symbolic gesture. For decades up to 1971, the mayor appointed school board members, who were then confirmed by voters in

4212-477: The University of Wisconsin . In 1911, the idea of the superintendent as a separate professional emerged. The emergence of the superintendency was linked to the adoption of a business organizational model in education. Beginning in 1914, Columbia and other universities began to teach courses on educational administration, including school finance, business methods, budgeting, and organization. Cubberley wrote

4329-580: The Washington metropolitan area , with Montgomery County , Maryland and Fairfax County , Virginia , being 3.9% and 2.4% Chinese American, respectively. Boston's Chinatown is the only historical Chinese neighborhood within New England . The Boston suburb of Quincy also has a prominent Chinese American population, especially within the North Quincy area. San Francisco , California has

4446-536: The eight districts in Guangdong Province . The Guangdong province, especially Toisan , experienced extreme floods and famine in the mid-nineteenth century, as well as mass political unrest such as the Red Turban unrest . This prompted many people to migrate to America. The vast majority of the 19th century Chinese immigrants to the U.S. came from a small area of eight districts on the west side of

4563-412: The vote of no-confidence resolution (1) stated that Collins failed to accept responsibility for her words, (2) called for Collins to resign, and (3) called to remove Collins as vice president and from all board committees effective immediately if she did not resign. Up to the time of the meeting the board called for a vote to the resolution, in addition to not resigning, Collins still had not apologized to

4680-608: The "compatibility clause" in Ackerman's contract in September 2005, mutually agreeing to Ackerman's resignation within the next year. Ackerman officially quit in June 2006. Commissioner Daniel P. Kelly, an ally of Ackerman's, said that she was "being forced out" due to the "intolerable" infighting. Her opponents, Lipson and Mar, expressed relief over her resignation. Gwen Chan was appointed interim superintendent in February 2006, becoming

4797-421: The 1830s, however, the increasing numbers of students, as well as the consolidation of one-room schoolhouses into larger districts, led districts to begin appointing the first superintendents. Buffalo, New York , became the first location to appoint a superintendent, on June 9, 1837, with Louisville, Kentucky , following on July 31 of the same year. Large cities, which had the greatest administrative needs, were

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4914-655: The 1850s, Chinese workers migrated to work in the California Gold Rush , and also to do agricultural jobs and factory work, especially the garment industry. Some became entrepreneurs. Chinese often settled in ethnic neighborhoods called Chinatowns . In 1852, there were 25,000 Chinese migrants in America. From 1860 until 1869, the Central Pacific Railroad recruited large labor gangs, with many laborers on five-year contracts, to build on

5031-502: The 1960s placed increasing value on family unification, allowing relatives of U.S. citizens to receive preference in immigration. As of 2023, illegal Chinese immigration to New York City has accelerated. The Chinese American Planning Council has subsequently been established with headquarters on the Lower East Side of Manhattan . There are a number of museums in the United States specifically focusing on and documenting

5148-453: The 2012 Pew Research Center Asian-American Survey, 52% of Chinese Americans aged 15 and over said that they did not have any religious affiliation. This is also compared with the religious affiliation of Asian-American average of 26% and a national average of 19%. Of the survey respondents, 15% were Buddhist , 8% were Catholic, and 22% belonged to a Protestant denomination. About half of Chinese Americans (52%)—including 55% of those born in

5265-441: The 51,325 signatures needed to trigger the recall. Several elected Democrats from San Francisco—including London Breed , Scott Wiener , Matt Haney , and Rafael Mandelman —endorsed the recall of at least one of the commissioners. On February 15, 2022, San Francisco voters voted to remove all three commissioners with landslide results. Ann Hsu, Lainie Motamedi, and Lisa Weissman-Ward were appointed by Mayor London Breed to replace

5382-541: The Asian-American community, had not apologized for the tweets themselves, and had not admitted the tweets were racist. As a result, the board voted in favor of the resolution by a 5-to-2 vote, with only board vice president Collins and board president López dissenting. Collins was removed as vice-president of the Board of Education effective immediately after the board approved the vote on March 25, 2021. Faauuga Moliga

5499-465: The Board of Education, SFUSD, and Superintendent Matthews for violating state law by not having a plan to "offer classroom-based instruction whenever possible". The lawsuit was the first of its kind, wherein a civil action is filed by a city against its school district over COVID-19 school closures , within the state of California. The suit is supported by Mayor London Breed, who has called on the board to focus on reopening rather than other matters, such as

5616-786: The Chinese American experience, the most prominent being the Museum of Chinese in America in Manhattan's Chinatown , established in 1980; as well as others, including the Chinese American Museum in Los Angeles, the Chinese American Museum of Chicago , the Chinese Historical Society of America in San Francisco, and the Chinese American Museum in Washington, D.C. The chart on the right shows

5733-477: The Chinese ethnic people in the U.S. in the 1980s had roots in Taishan, Guangdong , a city in southern China near the major city of Guangzhou. In general, much of the Chinese population before the 1990s consisted of Cantonese or Taishanese -speaking people from southern China, predominately from Guangdong province. During the 1980s, more Mandarin -speaking immigrants from Northern China and Taiwan immigrated to

5850-490: The December 15, 2021 deadline to approve budget cuts. Commissioners Mark Sanchez and Matt Alexander proposed a new plan different from Superintendent Vincent Matthews's proposal. The new plan would cut services, operations, and administration, and not cut classroom programs and staff. Commissioners Sanchez and Alexander claimed that SFUSD's central office was much bigger than other large school districts in California. The CEO of

5967-568: The Mayor Edwin Lee Democratic Club stated, "Commissioner Collins' apology doesn't go far enough, frankly. It seeks to divide us further." A small number of people had come to Collins' defense, saying she has worked to implement policies on behalf of Asian and Pacific Islander communities. On March 25, 2021, the board held a special meeting to discuss additional agenda items including a no-confidence vote for Collins. Authored by Commissioners Jenny Lam and Faauuga Moliga,

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6084-483: The SFUSD Asian American population. Collins concluded the tweets by saying "Being a house n****r is still being a n****r [ sic ]. You're still considered 'the help. ' " On March 19, 2021, supporters of an effort to recall Collins resurfaced the tweets by republicizing them. On March 20, 2021, Collins responded to the publicized tweets by writing an article on medium.com and commenting on

6201-511: The San Francisco Bay Area (including UC Berkeley Law Dean Erwin Chemerinsky and Harvard Law Professor Laurence Tribe ) expressed skepticism regarding the viability of the suit. On August 16, 2021, Federal Judge Haywood Gilliam, Jr. said that the lawsuit had no merit and dismissed the case. On February 20, 2021, parents Autumn Looijen and Siva Raj launched a recall campaign against Gabriela López, Alison Collins , and Faauuga Moliga over

6318-575: The U.S. In the 1990s, a large wave of Fujianese immigrants arrived in the US, many illegally, particularly in the NYC area. The Chinese population in much of the 1800s and 1890s was almost entirely contained to the Western U.S., especially California and Nevada, as well as New York City. There are three major waves of recent Chinese immigration into America: Nearly all of the early Chinese migrants were young men from rural villages of Toisan , as well as

6435-462: The U.S. Census estimated the population of Chinese Americans alone or in combination to be 5,465,428, including 4,258,198 who were Chinese alone, and 1,207,230 who were part Chinese. According to the 2010 census, the Chinese American population numbered about 3.8 million. In 2010, half of the Chinese-born people in the United States lived in California and New York . About half or more of

6552-470: The U.S. and 51% of those born overseas—describe themselves as religiously unaffiliated. There are also many Chinese people in New York City who identify as Jewish due to intermarriage with Jews. Some posit that Judaism has similar habits to Confucianism such as the emphasis on scholarship. There is a significantly higher percentage of Chinese Christians in the United States than there

6669-417: The U.S. in order to reunite with their families. Ninety percent of the Chinese women who immigrated to the U.S. between 1898 and 1908 did so to join a husband or father. By 1900, only 4,522 of the 89,837 (5%) Chinese migrants were women. In 1880, the diplomat James B. Angell was appointed to negotiate a new treaty with Qing China. The resulting Angell Treaty of 1880 restricted Chinese immigration and banned

6786-870: The United States , and it took place after the accidental killing of Robert Thompson, a local rancher . The Rock Springs massacre occurred in 1885, in which at least 28 Chinese immigrants were killed and 15 other Chinese were injured. Many enraged white miners in Sweetwater County felt threatened by the Chinese and they also blamed them for their unemployment. As a result of competition for jobs, white miners expressed their frustration by committing acts of physical violence in which they robbed, shot, and stabbed Chinese in Chinatown. The Chinese quickly tried to flee, but in doing so, many of them ended up being burned alive in their homes, starving to death in hiding places, or being exposed to animal predators which lived in

6903-558: The United States were enacted in the colonial era , when various New England colonies passed ordinances directing towns "to choose men to manage the important affairs of learning, such as deciding local taxes, hiring teachers, setting wages, and determining the length of the school year." The persons responsible were frequently selectmen who had additional government responsibilities. Boston established America's first permanent school committee in 1721; this became America's first school board. Massachusetts and some other regions retain

7020-536: The article on Twitter. She wrote that the words were taken out of context and apologized for the pain caused by her words. By March 21, 2021, all of SFUSD's top 19 administrators, in addition to the Mayor of San Francisco London Breed , ten of the eleven San Francisco Board of Supervisors including Board of Supervisors President Shamann Walton , state legislators Scott Wiener , David Chiu , and Phil Ting , and Collins' fellow Commissioners Moliga and Lam, had condemned

7137-548: The board faced a potential lawsuit from various attorneys, including Laurence Tribe , an alumnus of Lincoln High School. They alleged the board failed to adequately inform the public of the renaming decision, in accordance to the Brown Act , and asked the board to rescind the decision. The San Francisco superior court judge Ethan Schulman ruled that the board should do what the lawsuit requests or show why it should not be compelled to do so. The board unanimously voted to reverse

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7254-466: The board to approve the staff plan, balancing cuts across school sites and the central office. On December 14, one day before the deadline, the Board of Education approved the staff plan 6-1, with Commissioner Gabriela López in dissent. Superintendent (education) In the American education system , a superintendent or superintendent of schools is an administrator or manager in charge of

7371-597: The board voted 4-2 to eliminate the JROTC program altogether in the entire city within two years, stating that "armed forces should have no place in public schools, and the military's discriminatory stance on gays makes the presence of JROTC unacceptable." In December 2007, the board decided to continue JROTC for one more year so the JROTC task force could continue its search for a replacement program without punishing current JROTC students. A non-binding measure called Proposition V

7488-609: The board's inability to reopen schools. In February 2021 a market research firm found that 69% of public school parents polled were in favor of the recall campaign. The other four commissioners were ineligible for recall as they had just won their election in November 2020. The campaign began collecting signatures in April 2021. By the end of August 2021, the campaign had gathered more than 70,000 signatures to recall López and Collins, and more than 67,000 signatures to recall Moliga, exceeding

7605-539: The cities of Monterey Park and San Marino are both Chinese American communities lying geographically close to each other but they are separated by a large socioeconomic gap. Some noteworthy historical Chinese contributions to America include building the western half of the Transcontinental Railroad , the levees in the Sacramento River Delta , Chinese American food , deep oil extraction in Texas, and

7722-410: The commissioners to certain behavior—requiring them to adhere to the already written rules of conduct for board meetings (which includes acting with civility), to be prepared for public meetings, to introduce resolutions one week prior to a meeting, and to refrain from creating new programs or mandates unrelated to school reopening until the school district is fully back to in-person learning. Furthermore,

7839-452: The descendants of immigrants, especially in California . In 2002, over 2 million Americans speak some variety or dialect of Chinese, with Standard Chinese (Mandarin) becoming increasingly common due to new immigration from China and supplanting the previous widespread Cantonese and Taishanese . In New York City , although Standard Chinese (Mandarin) was spoken as a native language among only 10% of American-born Chinese speakers, it

7956-485: The district did not follow state environmental regulations, including the study of alternatives prior to a decision. In her order blocking the board from covering the mural, she emphasized the adherence to the rule of law over any "parochial political agendas". In 2018, the board created a task force to study the names of schools within the SFUSD in the wake of Charlottesville car attack . The 12-person committee, chaired by

8073-411: The district's first Chinese American superintendent. The board voted 6-1 in June 2007 to hire Carlos Garcia as the new superintendent, signing a contract that was less costly than Ackerman's. Commissioner Kim-Shree Maufas dissenting, citing a need for more time to consider his appointment. The board voted unanimously to hire Vincent Matthews as the new superintendent in April 2017. In November 2006,

8190-556: The early twentieth century, superintendents emphasized business affairs. Important leaders in American education at the time were George D. Strayer, Ellwood P. Cubberley , and Edward C. Elliott , who all wrote doctoral dissertations on education finance at Columbia University in the first decade of the 20th century. Cubberley served as superintendent in San Diego and later taught at Stanford University , Strayer taught at Teachers College, Columbia University , and Elliott taught at

8307-1477: The exception of Grover Cleveland , and asked schools to submit replacement names up until April 2021. Commissioner Mark Sanchez , stated that although he did not anticipate all 44 schools to be renamed, those on the list "should be prepared." The decision drew criticism in the national press and was covered internationally. The schools selected for renaming were more than a third of the city's 125 schools: Abraham Lincoln High School, Alamo Elementary, Alvarado Elementary, Balboa High School, Bryant Elementary, Clarendon Elementary, Claire Lilienthal (both campuses), Commodore Sloat Elementary, Daniel Webster Elementary, Dianne Feinstein Elementary, El Dorado Elementary, Everett Middle school, Francis Scott Key Elementary, Frank McCoppin Elementary, Garfield Elementary, George Washington High School, Grattan Elementary, Herbert Hoover Middle School, James Denman Middle School, James Lick Middle School, Jefferson Elementary, Jose Ortega Elementary, John Muir Elementary, Junipero Serra Elementary, Lawton Alternative K-8, Lowell High School, Marshal Elementary, McKinley Elementary, Mission High School, Monroe Elementary, Noriega EES, Presidio EES, Presidio Middle School, Sanchez Elementary, Sherman Elementary, Paul Revere K-8, Robert Louis Stevenson Elementary, Roosevelt Middle School, Sheridan Elementary, Stockton EES, Sutro Elementary, and Ulloa Elementary. Critics called

8424-455: The first to appoint superintendents, but as schools consolidated into districts, the practice of appointing a superintendent became more popular. A major event in the history of education in the United States was the "Kalamazoo school case" ( Stuart v. School District No. 1 of the Village of Kalamazoo ). In 1858, Kalamazoo, Michigan established its first high school, and the following year,

8541-565: The flag during his own administration, was not included. The most controversial school on the list was Abraham Lincoln High School , with members of the committee noting Lincoln 's confirmation of the sentencing of 38 indigenous warriors condemned to death in Minnesota after the Dakota War of 1862 as a point of contention. Opponents have countered by stating that at the same time Lincoln pardoned 265 warriors, despite mounted pressure from

8658-498: The ground that these names were associated with colonization by Spain. Columnist Carl Nolte of the San Francisco Chronicle opined that by that logic, the city itself should be renamed, since it was christened by Spanish missionaries for a Roman Catholic priest, which "clearly fits the guidelines for a new name." In an interview with The New Yorker , published on February 6, 2021, board president Gabriela López

8775-711: The highest per capita concentration of Chinese Americans of any major city in the United States, at an estimated 21.4%, or 172,181 people, and contains the second-largest total number of Chinese Americans of any U.S. city. San Francisco's Chinatown was established in the 1840s, making it the oldest Chinatown in North America and one of the largest neighborhoods of Chinese people outside of Asia, composed in large part by immigrants hailing from Guangdong province and also many from Hong Kong . The San Francisco neighborhoods of Sunset District and Richmond District also contain significant Chinese populations. Houston, Texas

8892-779: The highest concentration of Chinese Americans at 4.0%, or 55,000 people. According to the 2012 Census estimates, the three metropolitan areas with the largest Chinese American populations were the Greater New York Combined Statistical Area at 735,019 people, the San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland Combined Statistical Area at 629,243 people, and the Los Angeles Area Combined Statistical Area at about 566,968 people. New York City contains by far

9009-452: The highest ethnic Chinese population of any individual city outside Asia, estimated at 628,763 as of 2017. The Los Angeles County city of Monterey Park has the highest percentage of Chinese Americans of any municipality, at 43.7% of its population, or 24,758 people. The New York metropolitan area , which includes New York City , Long Island , and nearby areas within the states of New York , New Jersey , Connecticut , and Pennsylvania ,

9126-536: The introduction of Chinese and East Asian culture to America, such as Buddhism , Taoism , and Kung fu . Chinese immigrants to the United States brought many of their ideas, values, and culture with them. Some of these have continued to influence later generations, such as the Confucian respect for elders . Similarly, education and the civil service were the most important path for upward social mobility in China. The first Broadway show about Asian Americans

9243-968: The largest concentration of ethnic Chinese in the Western hemisphere ; while the Flushing Chinatown in Queens has become the world's largest Chinatown. As of 2023, illegal Chinese immigration to New York City , and especially to the Flushing, Queens Chinatown, has accelerated. Also on the East Coast , Greater Boston and the Philadelphia metropolitan area are home to significant Chinese American communities, with Chinatowns in Boston and Philadelphia hosting important and diverse cultural centers. Significant populations can also be found in

9360-492: The law until 1943. With relations already complicated by the Treaties of Wangxia and Tianjian, the increasingly harsh restrictions on Chinese immigration combined with the rising discrimination against Chinese living in the United States in the 1870s-early 1900s. During and after World War II , severe immigration restrictions were eased as the United States allied with China against Japanese expansionism . Later reforms in

9477-556: The local philanthropist James Lick responsible for an objectionable monument, the Early Days statue , commissioned more than a decade after his death; mistaking the name of the Sanchez school with that of a conquistador instead of an early mayor of San Francisco. Many other examples were cited as lacking in nuance or proper historical context, such as questioning whether the abolitionist poet James Russell Lowell believed firmly in

9594-513: The mountains; some of them were successfully rescued by a passing train. A total of 78 homes were burned. During the Hells Canyon massacre of 1887, at least 34 Chinese miners were killed. An accurate account of the event is still unavailable, but it is speculated that the Chinese miners were killed by gunshot during a robbery by a gang of seven armed horse thieves. Other acts of violence which were committed against Chinese immigrants include

9711-540: The mural. Supporters of the removal say that the mural's imagery creates a hostile environment. Opponents argue that the imagery is subversive as Arnautoff, a communist, was critiquing the country's colonial past. The high school's alumni association sued the school district in October 2019, contending that it violated California Environmental Quality Act by not conducting an environmental impact report. In July 2021, superior court judge Anne-Christine Massullo agreed that

9828-468: The mutually unintelligible Wenzhounese , are spoken by a minority of recent Chinese immigrants hailing from Jiangsu , Zhejiang , and Shanghai . Although many Chinese Americans grow up learning English , some teach their children to speak Chinese for a variety of reasons: preservation of an ancient civilization, preservation of a group identity, preservation of their cultural ancestry, desire for easy communication with each other and their relatives, and

9945-560: The naturalization of Chinese migrants. Two years later, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 prohibited all Chinese from immigrating for 10 years, and required all Chinese people to carry identification. This was the first act to restrict immigration in American history. Then, six years later, the Scott Act of 1888 illegalized reentry to the United States after a visit to China, even for long-term legal residents. In 1892,

10062-652: The new liberal majority on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . Ackerman was supported by the San Francisco Parent Teacher Association. The San Francisco Chronicle editorialized in support of Ackerman and opined that the "Three board members in particular—Eric Mar, Sarah Lipson and Mark Sanchez—need to start working with Ackerman, not fighting with her virtually on a daily basis." Commissioners Eddie Chin, Dan Kelly, and Jill Wynns supported Ackerman. Norman Yee , who

10179-440: The next election. In November 1971, voters approved Proposition S, which made Board of Education members elected directly by voters. The push came as backlash against the school board's efforts to use busing desegregate schools . Arlene Ackerman began her tenure as the superintendent of SFUSD on August 1, 2000, succeeding Superintendent Bill Rojas . Under her tenure, Ackerman overhauled the district's facilities department, which

10296-490: The other hand, schools named after the mythical El Dorado and U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein were included. The latter was included because a stolen Confederate flag from a historic exhibit outside City Hall was initially replaced by the Parks Department in 1984, while Feinstein was mayor of San Francisco, before she ordered the flag to be removed permanently. Feinstein's predecessor, George Moscone , who had kept

10413-408: The perception that Chinese is a very useful language. The official standard for United States public notices and signage is Traditional Chinese . Religions of Chinese Americans (2012) The majority of Chinese Americans do not report a religious affiliation . 43% of Chinese Americans switched to a different religion and 54% stayed within their childhood religion within their lifetime. According to

10530-526: The pilot program at Buena Vista Horace Mann K-8 Community School that housed that school's homeless families to include eligibility across the school district. The program up until that point suffered from lack of use, with the shelter averaging less than two families per night out of a 20 family capacity. In September 2016, board president Matt Haney began the effort to remove the Life of Washingto n mural by Victor Arnautoff at George Washington High School , citing objections to its depictions of slaves and

10647-417: The plaintiffs and nullified the board's February 2021 decision to change the admission policy. The judge, however, "stopped short of requiring the district to reinstate competitive admission, leaving open the possibility the school board could take the same action after giving adequate notice to the public". In June 2020, Superintendent Vincent Matthews brought forth a proposition to hire a consultant to devise

10764-429: The process as an opportunity to highlight individuals who are often not acknowledged within the school curriculum. Commentators have expressed puzzlement over how the committee compiled the list. The San Francisco Chronicle noted that schools named after Cesar Chavez , who called illegal immigrant workers " wetbacks " and other pejoratives , and Malcolm X , who had worked as a pimp , were excluded from renaming. On

10881-415: The publicized tweets and called for Collins's resignation. On March 22, 2021, the district's Superintendent Leadership team condemned Collins' "racist and hurtful language". On March 23, 2021, at the regular board meeting, Collins apologized for the pain she may have caused people, but did not apologize to the Asian-American community. The response to the apology had not been good, as Selina Sun, President of

10998-422: The raise was illegal as she had not given the public at least 24-hour prior to the raise in accordance with state law. SFUSD counsel David Campos argued that Ackerman was exempt as she serves as a district superintendent and perform duties as a county superintendent. Ackerman stated that the cost of her legal defense would have cost the SFUSD more than her severance package was worth. The board unanimously invoked

11115-441: The renaming 44 SFUSD schools, during the pandemic. Both the board and Matthews have criticized the suit, calling it wasteful and inaccurate. A plan to allow certain groups of students, primarily elementary school, to attend in-person teaching for a reduced amount of days per week at certain schools was unanimously signed on March 11, 2021. A San Francisco superior judge denied the request on March 25, 2021, citing developments between

11232-415: The renaming argued that it was necessary "given the country's reckoning with a racist past" and that students shouldn't attend schools named after slaveholders such as George Washington , racists like Adolph Sutro , or colonizers like Junípero Serra . Board President Gabriela López affirmed that the board can focus to "dismantle racist symbols and white supremacy culture...and other pressing matters" and saw

11349-457: The renaming effort ill-timed, amateurish and wasteful—citing factual errors, the absence of historians on the committee, inadequate amount of public input, and the US$ 1,000,000 price tag during a budget deficit estimated to be at around US$ 75,000,000 as primary issues. Mayor London Breed , State Senator Scott Wiener , and Supervisor Hillary Ronen called for a refocusing on school re-openings during

11466-458: The renaming process," adding that the board would pursue a "more deliberative process moving forward, which includes engaging historians at nearby universities to help." Lopez added that the renaming committee had been indefinitely suspended, and said that the school board would devote its energy to getting students back to in-person learning. The renaming effort was shelved by the board in February 2021 to prioritize reopening schools. In March 2021,

11583-432: The right of black people to vote. Another controversial choice was the literary figure Robert Louis Stevenson for a 19th century poem, from his book A Child's Garden of Verses , where he used the word "eskimo", and rhymed the word "me" with "Japanee". In addition to those named after historical figures, the renaming list included schools named after their own historical neighborhoods, such as Presidio and Mission , on

11700-442: The ruling and the filing wherein the district approved of a plan to bring certain students back by April 12, therefore rendering the suit redundant. In March 2021, Superintendent Matthews announced his intent to retire in June 2021. He agreed to delay his retirement to the end of 2022 upon a deal with the board. The board voted 6 to 1 on April 20, 2021 to approve Superintendent Matthews's new contract. The contract's addendum obligated

11817-487: The school was reorganized under an ordinance providing for a San Francisco Board of Education and a superintendent . With Japanese immigration to the United States increasing in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the board ordered Japanese American and Korean American students attending public schools to transfer to the Oriental Public School , which serviced Chinese students, in 1905. This drew ire from

11934-474: The state Fiscal Crisis & Management Assistance Team (which works with the state's school districts on financial stability) questioned the plan, saying: "Individual board members, unless they have a lot of district experience in budgeting, frankly don't know what they're doing." The state's appointed overseer also cautioned against making direct comparisons because of SFUSD's unique governance structure. The state-appointed overseer and Superintendent Matthews urged

12051-543: The study did also find several positive perceptions of Chinese Americans: strong family values (91%); honesty as entrepreneurs (77%); high value on education (67%). Early Chinese Americans struggled to survive in the United States because of prejudice, discrimination, and violence. In 1880, motivated by yellow peril and sensationalism surrounding the upcoming presidential election, a mob numbering 3,000 instigated an anti-Chinese riot in Denver, Colorado. A man named Look Young

12168-512: The superintended received more power over the hiring and firing of senior staff and the determination of whether or not the board's resolutions are under their jurisdiction. Commissioner Kevine Boggess dissented, saying that the demands were unnecessary. On December 4, 2016, prior to her assumption of office to the Board of Education in 2019, Alison Collins posted a series of derogatory and racially stereotyping tweets against Asian Americans. while alleging anti-Blackness and political inaction in

12285-413: The term school committee , but school board and board of education are the more common terms nationwide, and a variety of other labels have been used. In 1986, about 95 percent of school board members were elected, with the rest appointed by town boards, mayors, or others. In early America, school board members handled the day-to-day administration of schools without the need for a superintendent. By

12402-619: The three removed commissioners for the rest of their terms. On September 15, 2021, the California Department of Education gave the SFUSD three months to approve a fiscal stabilization plan and address a $ 125 million deficit, about 10% of the budget. If the Board of Education failed to approve a plan, the state would partially take over the district. Even facing a deficit, the school board spent more money: it created new programs and incurred staff and legal costs around its decision to rename schools, change Lowell admissions, and cover

12519-519: The total number of ethnic Chinese in the United States since 1850. The states with the largest estimated Chinese American populations, according to the 2010 Census , were California (1,253,100; 3.4%), New York (577,000; 3.0%), Texas (157,000; 0.6%), New Jersey (134,500; 1.5%), Massachusetts (123,000; 1.9%), Illinois (104,200; 0.8%), Washington (94,200; 1.4%), Pennsylvania (85,000; 0.7%), Maryland (69,400; 1.2%), Virginia (59,800; 0.7%), and Ohio (51,033; 0.5%). The state of Hawaii has

12636-464: The vote to rename schools on April 6, 2021, citing the potentially high cost of litigation against the suit. In this second amended resolution no. 214-6A1, the board stated that the anticipated litigation would be "frivolous", and that the board wants to "avoid distraction and wasteful expenditure of public funds in frivolous litigation." The board unanimously voted in October 2020 to switch Lowell High School 's selective test-based admissions policy to

12753-621: Was Flower Drum Song which premiered on Broadway in 1958; the hit Chinglish premiered on Broadway in 2011. In most American cities with significant Chinese populations, the Spring Festival (Chinese New Year) is celebrated with cultural festivals and other celebrations. In Seattle , the Chinese Culture and Arts Festival is held every year. Other important festivals include the Dragon Boat Festival and

12870-461: Was asked if factual errors during the renaming process had made her "worried that maybe this was done in a slightly haphazard way?" López replied, "No". She stated that those involved in the process were "contributing through diverse perspectives and experiences that are often not included, and that we need to acknowledge." On Twitter February 21, 2021, board president Gabriela Lopez said "I acknowledge and take responsibility that mistakes were made in

12987-455: Was considered divisive. Reverend Amos C. Brown supported the switch, opining in the San Francisco Chronicle that "school leaders are failing to face up to and dismantle the elitist culture at Lowell, a public school." Commissioner Alison Collins stated that, "merit, meritocracy and especially meritocracy based on standardized testing ...those are racist systems" and are the "antithesis of fair". In March 2021, Harmeet Dhillon represented

13104-420: Was elected as vice-president of the board for the remainder of the 2021 term at the regular board meeting on April 20, 2021. On March 31, 2021, Collins sued SFUSD and the five Board of Education members who voted against her for $ 87 million, citing distress and significant loss in reputation and income. She also sought an injunction to restore her vice president role and committee seats. Various legal experts from

13221-403: Was elected in 2004, was considered the swing vote. Toward the end of her tenure, Ackerman was approved a raise, which included a salary of $ 250,000 and a $ 375,000 severance package among other benefits, by a 4 to 3 vote during a projected budget shortfall of $ 22 million which closed four schools. In June 2005, Supervisor Matt Gonzalez sued Ackerman with law partner Whitney Leigh, claiming that

13338-418: Was lynched, and nearly all of Chinatown was destroyed. 185 Chinese men were held in jail for three days for their own safety. Most of the rioters arrested were dismissed, and the alleged murderers of Look Young were tried and found not guilty. In 1871, 17–20 Chinese immigrants were murdered in Los Angeles by a mob of around 500 men. This racially motivated massacre was one of the largest mass- lynchings in

13455-518: Was misappropriating city funds. Further investigations led to financial settlements for the district by companies who were defrauding them and the federal government, garnering the district more than $ 45 million dollars. Her fiscal management garnered praise from even her critics. Ackerman faced opposition from the board's liberal members. Mark Sanchez and Sarah Lipson were both members of the Green Party and, along with Eric Mar , were allied with

13572-537: Was placed on the November 4, 2008 general ballot in San Francisco that supported the reinstatement of the JROTC program in the City. The proposition passed. In May 2009, the school board voted to reinstate the program. In June 2009, the San Francisco School board voted 4 to 3 in favor of reinstating physical education credit for students enrolled in JROTC. In March 2019, the board unanimously voted to expand

13689-647: Was refuted in Smithsonian magazine by pointing to Emancipation Proclamation , and numerous other historical documents. Factual historical errors endorsed by the board included: confusing the name of the Alamo elementary school with the battle in Texas rather than the Spanish word for poplar tree; mistaking a revolutionary war battle Paul Revere participated in with a raid against the Penobscot tribe; holding

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