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60-591: San Ildefonso Pueblo ( Tewa : Pʼohwhogeh Ówîngeh [p’òhxʷógè ʔówîŋgè] "where the water cuts through"), also known as the Turquoise Clan , is a census-designated place (CDP) in Santa Fe County , New Mexico , United States, and a federally recognized tribe, established c. 1300 AD. The Pueblo is self-governing and is part of the Santa Fe, New Mexico Metropolitan Statistical Area . The population

120-665: A family was $ 30,972. Males had a median income of $ 19,792 versus $ 19,250 for females. The per capita income for the pueblo was $ 11,039. About 19.1% of families and 14.9% of the population were below the poverty line , including 50.0% of those age 65 or over. The Pueblo was established around 1300 AD and founded by people who had migrated from the Mesa Verde complex in Southern Colorado , by way of Bandelier (elevation about 7000 feet), just south of present-day Los Alamos, New Mexico . People thrived at Bandelier due to

180-512: A grant of 17,292 acres of land to the pueblo, and the grant was patented in 1864. By the time the land was patented under the laws of the United States in 1864, there were only 161 pueblo members left. A smallpox outbreak in 1918 took the population below 100. The people of San Ildefonso continued to lead an agricultural based economy until the early 20th century when Maria Martinez and her husband Julian Martinez rediscovered how to make

240-584: A healthy speaker base; however, because of efforts to preserve the language starting in the 1980s—both by native speakers and linguists—this problem is not as dire as it for some other indigenous languages. Tewa has a fairly large phoneme inventory with 45 distinct individual sounds. Twelve of these are vowels, which can be either long or short. Tewa, like other Tanoan languages, also makes use of tones, of which it has four. The 1980 census counted 1,298 speakers, almost all of whom are bilingual in English. Today,

300-518: A legislative branch (the tribal council). The pueblo has experienced political controversy in recent years with significant appeals to the Bureau of Indian Affairs . In 2011, former pueblo Lt. Governor Paul D. Rainbird was sentenced to 33 months on federal charges of illegal trafficking in contraband cigarettes. In 2012, the Interior Board of Indian Appeals vacated BIA decisions to acknowledge

360-572: A matte background and a polished Avanyu design. Many of Julian's decorations were patterns adopted from ancient vessels of the Pueblos. These patterns included birds, road runner tracks, rain, feathers, clouds, mountains, and zigzags or kiva steps. Maria Martinez used variations of her signature on her pots throughout her lifetime. These signatures help date the pieces of art. Maria and Julian's oldest works were all unsigned. The two had no idea that their art would become popular and did not feel it

420-685: A mountain at eight. Her given name Po've'ka in the Tewa language means pond lily or water lily . During an excavation in 1908 led by Edgar Lee Hewett , a professor of archaeology and the founder and director of the Museum of New Mexico in Santa Fe, examples of black-on-white biscuit ware pottery were discovered. While searching through the sandy dirt and red clay of the New Mexico desert terrain, broken pieces of biscuit ware were uncovered. It

480-483: A museum were fired around 1913. These pots were undecorated, unsigned, and of a generally rough quality. The earliest record of this pottery was in a July 1920 exhibition held at the New Mexico Museum of Art . Embarrassed that she could not create high quality black pots in the style of the ancient Pueblo peoples, Martinez hid her pots away from the world. A few years later, Hewett and his guests visited

540-478: A slightly flattened rim and a marked angle at the shoulder. The one created by Maria and Julian Martinez is characteristic of this type, which is "decorated on the rims only, i.e. above the angle of the shoulder." Light is reflected off of the shiny, smooth surface. The jet black ceramic product's finish appears unblemished in any way. A band of a lighter black decoration stands out against a solid black matte background. This type of pot "depends for decorative effect on

600-729: A subject and a predicate. There are also many ways to say what would be translated as the same thing in English in Tewa. For example, there are three ways to say the sentence "The man and the woman are entering": sen-ná-dí man- EMPH - ASSOC kwiyó woman da-cu:de-ʔeʔe 3 : DU : STAT -enter:come sen-ná-dí kwiyó da-cu:de-ʔeʔe man-EMPH-ASSOC woman 3:DU:STAT-enter:come sen-ná-dí man- EMPH - ASSOC kwiyo-wá-dí woman- EMPH - ASSOC da-cu:de-ʔeʔe 3 : DU : STAT -enter:come sen-ná-dí kwiyo-wá-dí da-cu:de-ʔeʔe Maria Martinez Maria Poveka Montoya Martinez ( c.  1887 – July 20, 1980)

660-414: A towel to prevent moisture from escaping. The clay is allowed a day or two to dry slightly and stabilize. The pukis or "supporting mold, a dry or fired clay shape where a round bottom of a new piece may be formed" allows the potter to build the base of the pot into a pancake-like form. After squeezing the clay together with one's fingers, a 1" high wall is pinched up from the pancake-like base. A gourd rib

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720-400: A word, sometimes be the addition of a word superfix. Within free roots, there are two additional types, isolated and non-isolated free roots. There is a very small number of isolated free roots, as these are roots that are neither combinable with other roots nor affixable. Non-isolated free roots are roots that are combinable with other roots and/or are affixable. A limited non-isolated free root

780-456: Is a common misconception that "during the end of the 18th century, the use of plant pigments and finely powdered mineral substances became the preferred technique of painting and slowly caused the extinction of glazed pottery". In reality, the nearby inhabitants of Santa Clara Pueblo , had produced the highly burnished black pottery, since the 17th century. Hewett sought a skilled pueblo potter who could re-create biscuit ware. His intention

840-401: Is affixed with set marker /-n/, and class non-N, which does not have this affix. Class non-N is the larger of the two, containing almost all nouns in Tewa, which are, for the most part, mono- or di-syllabic. Class N nouns are mostly designations for age-sex differentiation, kinship terms, and forms which translate as pronouns. All known noun affixes are included in the chart below. /-n2/

900-402: Is brought into the house from the storage structure. The clay is placed on a table covered with a cloth. A fist-sized hole is made in the clay and equal amounts of gray-pink and blue sand are placed in the depression. A smaller hole is made in the blue sand and water is poured into the hole. The substances are then kneaded together. The mixture is then wrapped in the cloth, washed, and covered with

960-538: Is defined as "severely endangered" in New Mexico by UNESCO. In the names "Pojoaque" and "Tesuque", the element spelled "que" (pronounced something like [ɡe] in Tewa, or /ki/ in English) is Tewa for "place". Tewa can be written with the Latin script ; this is occasionally used for such purposes as signs ( Be-pu-wa-ve ' Welcome ' , or sen-ge-de-ho ' Bye ' ). Because alphabet systems have been developed in

1020-730: Is different from /-n/ because of the occurrence of /-n2/ with singular, dual, and plural situations involving the same root, which is never the case for /-n/. Class Z words are neither particles, verbs, or nouns. They are affixable with suffixes like /-á/, /-ân/, /-bo/, and /-ho'/, /-reʔ/, /-an/, /-we/, and /-ge/, but unlike nouns and verbs they do not occur with the specific affixes which delineate those classes (/wé:-/ or /pi-/ and /-ví/ respectively). These compromise words whose English equivalents involve time, location, manner, interrogation, etc. Tewa sentences follow subject-object-verb order, however there are simple sentences in Tewa such as " handiriho gi-c'u " (that's how we got in) which are simply

1080-468: Is no publicly available copy of the newly adopted constitution. The 1996 San Ildefonso Code is the most recent available copy of local laws governing the pueblo. The San Ildefonso Pueblo Enterprise Corporation (SIPEC) is a federally chartered Section 17 Corporation which is wholly owned by the Pueblo de San Ildefonso. SIPEC is charged with working with companies and individuals who share a vision of utilizing

1140-439: Is one which can combine only with affixes, but not with other roots. A universal non-isolated free root is one which can combine both with other roots and affixes. Bound roots are defined as those roots which cannot be converted directly into a word. Tewa has 15 types of verbs, and a few example verbs and their conjugations are shown below. Verbs can be divided into two classes, S and A, standing for stative and active, based of

1200-544: Is open to the public every January 23. Other dances open to the public include Corn Dance, which occurs in the early to mid-part of September, and dances at Easter. There was an art movement called the San Ildefonso Self-Taught Group , which included such noted artists as Alfonso Roybal , Tonita Peña , Julian Martinez , Abel Sanchez , Crecencio Martinez, and Jose Encarnacion Peña . Tewa language The language has struggled to maintain

1260-415: Is used in criss-cross motions to smooth out the wall, making it thick and even. Long coils of clay are laid on the top of the clay wall. These are then smoothed out with the gourd, allowing the potter to increase the height of the pot. Any air holes are patched with clay and sealed with the gourd rib. After drying, the pot is scraped, sanded, and polished with stones. This is the most time-consuming part of

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1320-559: The Endangered Languages Project estimates a total of 1,500 speakers worldwide, with 1,200 of them in the New Mexico pueblos and 300 in the Arizona village of Hano. Of these speakers, few are fluent with the vast majority being semi-speakers, and only in a few places, like Hano, are children acquiring Tewa. The largest New Mexico pueblo, San Juan, there are only 30 fluent speakers left as of 2008. As of 2012, Tewa

1380-453: The 1760s some native families reported that they had no agricultural lands to support themselves. Part of their lands were restored to San Ildefonso by a 1786 decision of Governor Juan Bautista de Anza . Mexico took control of the area in 1821, and later the United States gained control in 1848 following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Congress created the modern reservation in 1858 confirming

1440-489: The 1890s. During this time, Spanish tinware and Anglo enamelware had become readily available in the Southwestern United States , making the creation of traditional cooking and serving pots less necessary. Traditional pottery-making techniques were becoming less common, but Martinez and her family experimented with different techniques and helped preserve the cultural art. Maria Poveka Montoya

1500-618: The Black-on-Black pottery for which San Ildefonso Pueblo would soon become famous. From that time the Pueblo has become more tourist-oriented, with numerous tourist shops. Because of close proximity to the state capital, Santa Fe, and the presence of the Los Alamos National Laboratory , many of those employed in the pueblo have state or federal government jobs. San Ildefonso is governed by a civil government consisting of an executive branch (the governor) and

1560-642: The Pueblo's strategic location for fostering economic and job growth for the Pueblo de San Ildefonso. It is zoned to Pojoaque Valley Public Schools . Pojoaque Valley High School is the zoned comprehensive high school. The Bureau of Indian Education operates the San Ildefonso Day School, an elementary school, in the pueblo. The people of San Ildefonso have a strong sense of identity and retain ancient ceremonies and rituals tenaciously, as well as tribal dances. While many of these ceremonies and rituals are closely guarded, San Ildefonso Feast Day

1620-530: The San Ildefonso style of traditional pottery, she learned much from Sarafina Tafoya, the pottery matriarch of neighboring Santa Clara Pueblo. When in 1932 she was asked to teach by the government Indian school in Santa Fe, Martinez refused to do so: "I come and I work and they can watch," she stated. Her family members had not taught her, and she would not do it herself either - "nobody teaches." Martinez received honorary doctorates during her lifetime from

1680-459: The Tafoya family of Santa Clara Pueblo , who still practiced traditional pottery techniques, that smothering the fire surrounding the pottery during the outdoor firing process caused the smoke to be trapped and is deposited into the clay, creating various shades of black to gunmetal color." She experimented with the idea that an "unfired polished red vessel which was painted with a red slip on top of

1740-580: The Tewa Pueblo. These guests asked to purchase black ware pottery, similar to Martinez's pots housed in a museum. She was greatly encouraged by this interest and resolutely began trying to perfect the art of black ware pottery. Her skill advanced with each pot, and her art began to cause quite a stir among collectors and developed into a business for the black ware pottery. In addition, Martinez began experimenting with various techniques to produce other shapes and colorful forms of pottery. An olla jar has

1800-419: The air surrounding the pots does not contain enough oxygen to feed the flames. This causes a chemical reaction that darkens the clay body. The firing process would take many hours in addition to the weeks of preparation beforehand. She often was assisted by her husband or children. The firing occurred early in the morning on a clear, calm day when wind would not hinder the process. First, the pots were placed in

1860-428: The already burnished, but yet unfired surface. You cannot polish a design into a matte background, as the stone is not as precise as a brush is." He discovered that painting designs with a guaco juice and clay mixture provided a matte-on-shiny decorative effect. The process involved polishing the background, then matte-painting the designs before firing. In 1918, Julian finished the first of Maria's blackware pots with

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1920-924: The collections of many museums, including the Smithsonian , the Metropolitan Museum of Art , the Denver Art Museum , and more. The Penn Museum in Philadelphia holds eight vessels – three plates and five jars – signed either "Marie" or "Marie & Julian". Maria Martinez was from the San Ildefonso Pueblo , a community located 20 miles northwest of Santa Fe, New Mexico . At an early age, she learned pottery skills from her aunt and recalls this "learning by seeing" starting at age eleven, as she watched her aunt, grandmother, and father's cousin work on their pottery during

1980-423: The decorations. "Marie + Santana" became the new signature on the pots. For about thirty years Maria signed her name as "Marie." Once her son, Popovi Da , began working alongside his mother, Maria began referring to herself as "Maria" on the pottery. They began co-signing their pieces around 1956 as "Maria+Poveka" and "Maria/Popovi." She won many awards and presented her pottery at several world fairs and received

2040-518: The different pueblos, Tewa has a variety of orthographies rather than a single standardized alphabet. One of the main dialectical delineations of the Santa Clara dialect is the use of /j/ in words where only /y/ is heard in other pueblos, although some Santa Clara speakers use /y/ and /j/ sporadically. Another important dialectical difference aligns Santa Clara, Tesuque, and San Ildefonso Tewa against San Juan and Nambe Tewa. The former use /d/ in

2100-672: The early 17th century, which led to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. The people withstood the Spaniards by climbing to the top of the Black Mesa. The siege ended with the surrender of the native people, but the Spanish gave the native people some freedom of religion and other self-governing rights. Both the people and the lands of the Pueblo of San Ildefonso were affected by intrusion of Spanish colonists. Due to these encroachments, by

2160-412: The fire and bury the pots so they could cool slowly. After the pit kiln was cool enough to unload, they carefully removed the pots using a stick if the pots were still hot, or by hand if the pots were cool enough to touch. Julian Martinez, Maria's husband, began decorating Maria's pots after many trials and errors. "To create his designs, a slurry of clay and water known as slip is created and applied to

2220-404: The firing pit, and carefully covered with broken pieces of pottery and aluminum sheets or scrap metal. In order to allow ventilation to keep the fire burning, small spaces were left uncovered. The pit-kiln assembly was then surrounded with cow chips - very dry cow dung - as fuel. The chips were placed carefully in order to leave the vents free. The goal was to prevent any flame from actually touching

2280-531: The initial grant for the National Endowment for the Arts to fund a Martinez pottery workshop in 1973. Martinez passed on her knowledge and skill to many others including her family, other women in the pueblo, and students in the outside world. When she was a young girl she had learned how to become a potter by watching her aunt Nicolasa make pottery. During the time that she developed what we now know as

2340-465: The iron-bearing slip and burnishing it to a high sheen with a smooth stone, decorating the pot with another slip, and firing the pot." The first step is to gather the clay, which is done once a year, usually in October when it is dry. The clay is then stored in an adobe structure where the temperature remains constant. The next step is to begin molding the clay to form a pot; the right amount of clay

2400-455: The manipulation of surface finish alone" to appear as though the decorations are scratched into the pot's surface. The band wraps directly below the narrow neck of the pot. A wide-eyed avanyu , or horned serpent , encircles the pot and slithers inside the band. The serpent's tongue almost touches the tip of his tail. The snake's body movements seem alive; a tribute to the appreciation the Pueblo peoples have for nature and life. The decorations on

2460-451: The only consonants available are :, h, or nasals, and as such these have been specified in order to create maximum specificity, instead of just referring to these constructions with just the C for consonant. Tewa has three tones, high, low, and glide. Within two-syllable words, the only combinations found are high-high, low-low, low-high, and high-low. The use of stress in Tewa is still relatively unknown. In two-syllable nouns with

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2520-539: The pattern CVCV and the tone pattern high-high or low-low, there is heavier stress placed on the first syllable. Roots also tend to show heavier stress than affixes if each is the same syllable and tone type. A stronger stress is associated with a higher tone and greater vowel length. However, because of the complex use of tone, syllable type, and contour segments more research does need to be done. Tewa has what are called both "free" and "bound" roots. Free roots are defined as those roots which can be converted directly into

2580-418: The polish and then fired in a smudging fire at a relatively cool temperature would result in a deep glossy black background with dull black decoration." Shards and sheep and horse manure placed around the outside and inside of the outdoor kiva -style adobe oven would give the pot a slicker matte finished appearance. After much trial and error, Maria successfully produced a black ware pot. The first pots for

2640-403: The population. There were 212 households, out of which 29.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them. As of 2010, the population was distributed with 26.3% under the age of 18, 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older, females comprised 51.7%, and males comprised 48.3% of the population. As of 2000, the median income for a household in San Ildefonso was $ 30,000, and the median income for

2700-515: The pot give the pot a personality and unique individualized look. Creating black ware pottery is a long process that consists of many steps requiring patience and skill. Six distinct processes occur before the pot is finished. According to Susan Peterson in The Living Tradition of Maria Martinez , these steps include, "finding and collecting the clay, forming a pot, scraping and sanding the pot to remove surface irregularities, applying

2760-402: The pots, hence the protective metal sheets. After covering the kiln with more cow chips, they lit the kindling on all sides to ensure an even distribution of heat. They continued to feed the fire with dry cedar wood until it reached the desired temperature of around 1,200 to 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on the desired look they intended for the batch of pots. If the fire continued to burn,

2820-578: The pots, only Maria claimed the work since pottery was still considered a woman's job in the Pueblo. Maria left Julian's signature off the pieces to respect the Pueblo culture until 1925. After that, "Marie + Julian" remained the official signature on all of the pottery until Julian's death in 1943. Maria's family began helping with the pottery business after Julian's death. From 1943 to 1954 Maria's son, Adam, and his wife Santana, collected clay, coiled, polished, decorated, and fired pottery with Maria. Adam took over his father's job of collecting clay and painting

2880-399: The pottery would achieve a red-brown color. But in order to make the blackware pottery that Maria was famous for, the fire was smothered with dry, powdered horse dung. By doing this, the amount of oxygen within the kiln was greatly reduced, therefore creating a reduction atmosphere that caused the color of the pots to turn black. After several hours, Martinez shifted the horse dung to extinguish

2940-477: The process. A small round stone is applied to the side of the pot in consistent, horizontal, rhythmic motions. The pot is burnished by rubbing the stone parallel with the side of the pot to produce a shiny, evenly-polished surface. The pot is then ready to fire after a secondary slip is applied. The slip is painted onto the burnished surface in various traditional designs. Martinez used a firing technique called "reduction firing". A reducing atmosphere occurs when

3000-439: The pronomial prefixes which they contain. In general, S verbs deal with identity, quality, feeling, condition, position, and motion. Class A verbs are, in general, transitive verbs. All known verb affixes are included in the chart below, showing where the affixes fall in particular constructions of words. This affixes are used to delineate tense, subject, negation, and emphasis. Nouns are divided into two classes: class N, which

3060-549: The pueblo has a total area of 4.2 square miles (11 km), of which 3.9 square miles (10 km) is land and 0.2 square miles (0.52 km) (5.54%) is water. San Ildefonso Pueblo is located at the foot of Black Mesa. As of the census of 2010, there were 524 people residing in the San Ildefonso CDP. The racial makeup was 62.2% Native American , 11.3% White , 21.2% from other races , and 5.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 31.9% of

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3120-468: The rainfall and the ease of constructing living structures from the surrounding soft volcanic rock. But after a prolonged drought, the people moved down into the valleys of the Rio Grande around 1300 AD ( Pueblo IV Era ). The Rio Grande and other arroyos provided the water for irrigation. The Spanish conquistadors tried to subdue the native people and force Catholicism on the native people during

3180-513: The results of an election for Governor of the Pueblo of San Ildefonso for the 2008/09 term which had resulted in the governorship of Leon Roybal . In 2012, the Pueblo adopted a new constitution through general election overseen by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. One of the results of the new constitution is that, for the first time, women are allowed to run for tribal council positions. To date, there

3240-579: The same environments where the latter use a nasal plus /d/. In two-syllable word bases, words that have a short /u/ in the initial syllable have a long /u/ in the Santa Clara dialect. In the Santa Clara dialect, where other pueblos have a high tone on this syllable, there will instead be a glide tone. The phonemes of Rio Grande Tewa are as follows: There are 9 types of syllables in Tewa: CV, CV:, CVN, CVh, CVʔ, CV', CVʔN, V, and VN. N here stands for nasal, and as seen, there are some constructions where

3300-743: Was 524 as of the 2010 census , reported by the State of New Mexico as 1,524 in 2012, and there were 628 enrolled tribal members reported as of 2012 according to the Department of the Interior. San Ildefonso Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos , and the pueblo people are from the Tewa ethnic group of Native Americans , who speak the Tewa language . According to the United States Census Bureau ,

3360-412: Was a Puebloan artist who created internationally known pottery . Martinez (born Maria Poveka Montoya ), her husband Julian , and other family members, including her son Popovi Da , examined traditional Pueblo pottery styles and techniques to create pieces which reflect the Pueblo people's legacy of fine artwork and crafts. The works of Maria Martinez, and especially her black ware pottery, are in

3420-421: Was born c.  1886 or 1887. Born in San Ildefonso Pueblo , New Mexico to Tomas and Reyes Pena Montoya, Maria had four sisters: Maximiliana (Ana), Juanita, Desideria, and Clara. Maria was the middle child. Her aunt, Nicolasa, taught her clay work. Martinez and all four of her sisters made pottery, and some examples of her sisters' pottery can be seen in exhibits. She told people that she saw an alien on

3480-444: Was necessary to claim authorship of their work. The unsigned pieces were most likely made between the years of 1918 and 1923. Once Maria gained success with her pottery she began signing her work as "Marie." She thought that the name "Marie" was more popular among the non-Indian public than the name "Maria" and would influence the purchasers more. The pieces signed as "Marie" were made between 1923 and 1925. Even though Julian decorated

3540-405: Was no prior precedent, contrary to popular myth. A long process of experimentation and overcoming challenges was required to successfully recreate the black-on-black ware pottery style to meet Maria's exacting standards. "As almost all clay found in the hills is not jet black, one specific challenge was to figure out a way to make the clay turn the desired color. Maria discovered, from observing

3600-482: Was to place recreated pots in museums and thus preserve the ancient art form. Maria Martinez was known in the Tewa pueblo of San Ildefonso, New Mexico for making thin pots quickly; therefore, Hewett saw her as the perfect Pueblo potter to bring his idea to life. This work was distinct from, but invariably confused with (in the popular narrative) the matte black on polished blackware that Maria and her husband experimented with and perfected on their own and for which there

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